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is stronger than that of a straight wire. In this case, if the fingers of the
Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism is the branch of physics that studies the
relationship between electricity and magnetism. It is because an
electric current produces a magnetic field, and a changing magnetic
field produces an electric current.
Magnetism from Electricity
While doing a demonstration in physics in 1820, Danish physicist Hans
Christian Oersted discovered that a moving charge or a current-
carrying wire produces a magnetic field around it in addition to its
electric field. The direction of the magnetic field in a straight wire can
be determined by following the "right-hand rule".
To do this, grasp the wire with the right hand in such a way that the
thumb points to the direction of the conventional current. The fingers
curl in the direction of the magnetic field. When a current pass through
a straight wire, the magnetic lines of force form concentric circles with
their centers at the axis of the wire and their planes perpendicular to
the wire (see Figure 1).
Figure 1. The "right-hand" rule visualized
Source: https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/395851/left-or-right-hand-rule
Shortly after Oersted announced his discovery that a current-carrying
wire produces a magnetic field, French physicist André-Marie Ampere
conducted experiments and concluded that electric current passing
through a coil or a solenoid produces a magnetic field. A solenoid is
simply a long coil of several turns of wire. The magnetic field produced
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right hand are curled in the direction of the current, then the thumb
points to the North pole of the field (see Figure 2).
Figure 2. The "right-hand" rule visualized on a solenoid
Source: https://www.miniphysics.com/ss-magnetic-field-due-to-current-in-a-solenoid.html
Ampere later formulated a law for computing the magnetic field for
different conduct configurations. Ampere also designed the prototype
galvanometer to measure current based on the deflection of a
magnetic needle. Not to be outdone, Jean-Baptiste Biot and Felix
Savart formulated the Biot-Savart Law for determining the magnetic
field at a point in space due to an electric current.
In addition. to the discovery that a moving charge creates a magnetic
field, it was also that the magnetic field exerts a force on a moving
charge or on a current-carrying conductor. The magnitude of this force
for a moving charge is given by the formula,
𝑭 = 𝒒𝒗𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽,
where 𝑭 is the force, 𝒒 is the charge, 𝒗 is the magnitude of the velocity
of the moving charge, 𝑩 is magnitude of the magnetic field, and 𝜽 is
the angle between the direction of velocity of the charge the magnetic
field. In case of a current-carrying conductor with a length 𝑳, the force
exerted by the magnetic field is given as,
𝑭 = 𝑰𝑳𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽,
where 𝜽 is the angle between the length of the conductor and the
magnetic field.
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his experiments, Faraday connected a coil of wire to a galvanometer,
One (1) of the applications of this effect of magnetic field is the as shown in Figure 3.
mechanism behind a motor. A motor is a device that converts electrical
energy to mechanical energy. It consists of a coil placed in a magnetic
field. It works on the principle that a magnetic field exerts a force on a
moving charge. This force rotates the attached shaft, and the rotation
does the work.

Ampere showed that two parallel current-carrying wires attract each

other magnetically if the currents are in the same direction; they repel
each other if the currents are in opposite directions. This experiment
led him to formulate a law known as Ampere's force law, which allows
for the determination of the magnitude and direction of the magnetic
forces acting upon two current-carrying wires in proximity to one
another.

The Ampere's law is also the basis for the standard definition of a
current. A current of one ampere is the constant current which, if
maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of
negligible circular cross section, and placed one meter apart in Figure 3. A diagram of a magnet's interaction to a solenoid, producing current moving away from the direction
where the magnet is moving
vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to Source: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/electromagnetism/electromagnetic-induction.html

𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐍 per unit length. Recall that a current of one ampere

constitutes a charge of one coulomb passing a given point in one
second.
Electricity from Magnetism
If electric current produces a magnetic field, then the reverse is also
true - a changing magnetic field can produce electric current in a
process called electromagnetic induction. The current and the
electromotive force (or EMF) produced are called induced current
and induced EMF, respectively. Two (2) major laws govern
electromagnetic induction: Faraday's Law and Lenz's Law.
Faraday's Law states that an induced current (and hence induced
EMF) is produced whenever there is a change in magnetic flux in a
circuit. The induced EMF is proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic flux. Lenz's Law states that the induced current flows in a
direction to oppose the change causing it. These laws are
demonstrated in the following experiments performed by Faraday, to
whom the discovery of electromagnetic induction is credited. In one of
He noticed that the meter registered a brief current when he moved
the bar magnet quickly toward the coil. Pulling the bar magnet away
from the coil also produced a brief current but in opposite direction.
When the magnet was stationary, no current was detected. As the
magnet is moved quickly into the coil, the magnetic field at the coil
becomes stronger. An induced current flow in a direction to produce
some magnetic field lines from right to left, making the near end a
north pole to prevent the magnet from plunging into the coil. Pulling
the bar magnet out weakens the magnetic field. A current is induced
in such a direction as to produce more flux through the coil, making
the near end a south pole to prevent the bar magnet from moving
away.
Unifying Electricity and Magnetism
James Clerk Maxwell realized that the results of independent studies
about electricity and magnetism revealed that they are not distinct
phenomena. Electricity and magnetism are but manifestations of a
single force - electromagnetic force. Maxwell devised a set of four

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(4) mathematical equations that unified electric and magnetic
phenomena into what is now known as electromagnetic theory. His
equations, which form the basis of electromagnetism, are in
differential form but in essence may be stated as follows:
• Like charges repel; unlike charges attract.
• Magnetic monopoles do not exist.
• A changing electric field produces a magnetic field.
• A changing magnetic field produces an electric field.
Figure 4. Light dissected as both electric and magnetic waves
Source: https://www.toppr.com/guides/physics/communication-systems/propagation-of-electromagnetic-waves/
Maxwell demonstrated that changing electric and magnetic fields
travel through space in the form of waves and at the speed of light.
This physical constant is derived by using differential equations, where
the second-order derivatives of the electric and magnetic fields, to
which both electric permittivity (𝜺0 ) and magnetic permeability (𝝁𝟎 )
are derived. After derivations, these two (2) variables are used to
derive the phase speed of light using the formula,
𝟏 Furthermore, Hertz determined that these waves travel at the speed
𝒗= . of light and have frequencies ranging from 50 MHz to 300 MHz. These
√𝜺𝟎 𝝁 𝟎
If 𝝁𝟎 ≈ (𝟒𝝅 × 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟖𝟐) × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐇/𝐦, and 𝜺𝟎 ≈ 𝟏. 𝟓 ×
𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝐅/𝐦, this gives us the speed of light 𝒄 ≈ 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐦/𝐬.
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Discovery of Radio Waves
Heinrich Hertz was credited for having discovered radio waves in the
late 1880s. Hertz's apparatus consisted of two metal balls connected
to two (2) brass plates that served as a transmitter. An induction coil
was used to produce electric sparks between the two brass balls. A
coil of wire with a small spark gap acted as a receiver. As sparks
jumped across the two brass balls in the transmitter, sparks were also
observed in the gap in the receiver.
Figure 5. Heinrich Hertz's setup that let him detect radio waves, a form of electromagnetic wave
Source: http://www.sparkmuseum.com/BOOK_HERTZ.HTM
Hertz reasoned out that the sparks in the transmitter setup changing
magnetic and electric fields that propagated as waves to the receiver.
When these waves reached the receiver, the changing electric field
caused the charges in the loop to oscillate, producing the spark.
waves were formerly called Hertzian waves, which was later changed
to radio waves. The unit of frequency is hertz, in honor of Heinrich
Hertz.
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REFERENCES:
Bauer, W., & Westfall, G. D. (2016). General physics 2 (2nd ed.).
Quezon City: ABIVA Publishing House.
Cacanindin, D.D.A., …, Sharma, M. Ph.D. (2016). General physics 2.
Quezon City, Vibal Publishing House, Inc.
Freedman, R. A., Ford, A. L., & Young, H. D. (2012). Sears and
zemansky's university physics (with Modern physics) (13th
ed.). Addison-Wesley.
Santiago, K. S., & Silverio, A. A. (2016). Exploring life through
science: Senior high school physical science. Quezon City:
Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.

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