Magnetism

Definition: Magnetism is defined as an attractive and repulsive

phenomenon produced by a moving electric charge.
• The affected region around a moving charge consists of both an
electric field and a magnetic field. The most familiar example of
magnetism is a bar magnet, which is attracted to a magnetic field
and can attract or repel other magnets.
Magnetic Poles
• The magnetic pole is the region where the external magnetic field
is the strongest at each end of a magnet. Breaking a magnet into
two does not mean its North pole and the South Pole become
isolated. Each half is found to have its own north and south poles.
Charles Coulomb gave the following two laws about the nature and
magnitude of magnetic force between two magnetic poles.
i) Like poles repel each other while unlike piles attract each other.
ii) The force between two magnetic poles is directly proportional to the
product of their pole strengths and inversely proportional to the
square of distance between them.
Consider two poles of magnetic strength m1 and m2 placed at a distance d
apart in a medium. According to Coulomb’s law, the force between them is:
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹∝
𝑑2
𝑚1 𝑚2 1
=𝑘 where 𝑘 =
𝑑2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟

𝜇0 = 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝜇𝑟 = 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚.

For vacuum in air, it is 1.

The value of 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻/𝑚
Example: Two magnetic S poles are located 5 𝑐𝑚 apart in air. If
each pole has a strength of 5 𝑚𝑊𝑏, find the force of repulsion
between them.
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜇0 𝑑 2

5 × 10−3 5 × 10−3
𝐹= −7 2
= 633 𝑁
4𝜋 × 4𝜋 × 10 × 0.05
Magnetic Field
The space (or field) in which a magnetic pole experiences a force
is called a magnetic field.
• The magnetic field around a magnet is represented by imaginary
lines called magnetic lines of force.
Properties of magnetic lines of force
a) Each magnetic line of force forms a closed loop.
b) The direction of magnetic flux density 𝐵 at a point is that of the
tangent to the magnetic field line at that point.
c) No two magnetic lines of force can intersect each other.
d) When the magnetic lines of force are close together, the magnetic
field is strong and where they are well spaced out, the magnetic
field is weak.
e) The larger the number of magnetic field lines crossing per unit
normal area, the larger is the magnetic flux density 𝐵 .
Magnetic Flux
The total number of magnetic lines of force produced by a magnetic
source is called magnetic flux (denoted by 𝜙).
Magnetic Flux Density
The magnetic flux density is defined as the magnetic flux passing
normally per unit area i.e.
𝜙
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐵 = 𝑊𝑏/𝑚2
𝐴
Magnetic Intensity or Magnetising Force (H)
Magnetic intensity (or field strength) at a point in a magnetic field is
the force acting on a unit N-pole placed at that point.
𝑚×1
𝐻ሖ = 2 𝑁/𝑊𝑏
4𝜋𝜇0 𝑑
Note:
1. Magnetic intensity is a vector quantity, possessing both magnitude
and direction.
2. If a pole of 𝑚 Wb is placed in a uniform magnetic field of strength
H newtons/Wb, then force acting on the pole, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝐻 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
Electromagnetic induction
• In 19th century, it was discovered that a magnetic field exists
around a current carrying conductor. This means that magnetism
can be created by means of an electric current.
• Can a magnetic field create an electric current in a conductor?
Well, Michael Faraday showed that this can be done.
• He demonstrated that when the electromagnetic flux linking a
conductor changes, an e.m.f. is induced in the conductor. This
phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction.
Electromagnetic induction
❖The phenomenon of production of e.m.f. and hence current in a
conductor or coil when the magnetic flux linking the conductor or
coil changes is called electromagnetic induction.
 • Consider the coil of several turns
connected to a centre zero
ammeter. If a permanent magnet is
moved towards the coil, it will be
observed that the ammeter shows
deflection in one direction. If a
magnet is moved away from the
coil, the ammeter again shows
deflection but in the opposite
direction.
• In either case, deflection will
persist so long as the magnet is in
motion.

• The production of e.m.f. and hence current in coil is due to the fact that
when the magnet is in motion (towards or away the coil), the amount of
magnetic flux linking the coil changes – the basic requirement for
inducing e.m.f. in the coil.
• If the movement of the magnet stops, there is no change in magnetic flux
and hence no e.m.f. is induced in the coil. Thus, the deflection in the
ammeter reduces to zero.
 Faraday’s Laws of
Electromagnetic Induction
First law. When the magnetic flux linking a conductor or coil
changes, an e.m.f. is induced in it.
Second law. The magnitude of the e.m.f. induced in a
conductor or coil is directly proportional to the rate of change
of magnetic flux linkages.
• Suppose a coil has N turns and the magnetic flux linking the coil
increases (i.e. changes) from 𝜙1 Wb to 𝜙2 Wb in t seconds. Now,
magnetic flux linkages means the product of magnetic flux and
number of turns of the coil.
Initial magnetic flux linkages = 𝑁𝜙1
Final magnetic flux linkages = 𝑁𝜙2
𝑁𝜙2 −𝑁𝜙1
Induced e.m.f., 𝑒 ∝
𝑡
 𝑁𝜙2 − 𝑁𝜙1
𝑒=𝑘
𝑡
Now, the value of 𝑘 is unity in SI units.
𝑁𝜙2 − 𝑁𝜙1
𝑒=
𝑡
𝑑𝜙
In differential form, 𝑒 = 𝑁
𝑑𝑡
• The direction of induced e.m.f. (by Lenz's law) is always such that
it tends to set up current which produces flux that opposes the
change of flux responsible for inducing the e.m.f.
• Therefore, the magnitude and direction of induced e.m.f. should
be written as:
𝑑𝜙
𝑒 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡
The minus sign represents Lenz’s law mathematically. In SI units, e
is measured in volts, 𝜙 in webers and 𝑡 in seconds.
Direction of Induced e.m.f. And
current
• The direction of induced e.m.f. and hence current (if the
circuit is closed) can be determined by one of the following
methods
i) Lenz's law
ii) Fleming's right hand rule.
Lenz’s law. The induced current will flow in such a direction
so as to oppose the cause that produces it i.e. the induced
current will set up magnetic flux to oppose the change in
magnetic flux.
• Fleming's right-hand rule. This rule
is particularly suitable to find the
direction of induced e.m.f. and hence
current when the conductor moved at
right angles to a stationary magnetic
field.

• It may be stated as:

Stretch out your forefinger, middle finger and thumb of your
right-hand so that they are at right angles to one another. If
the forefinger points in the direction of magnetic field, thumb
in the direction of motion of the conductor, then the middle
finger will point in the direction of induced e.m.f.
Example: A coil of 100 turns is linked by a magnetic flux of 20 mWb. If
this magnetic flux is reversed in a time of 2 ms, calculate the average e.m.f.
induced in the coil.
Change in magnetic flux, 𝑑𝜙 = 20 − −20
= 40 𝑚𝑊𝑏 = 40 × 10−3 𝑊𝑏
Time taken for the change, 𝑑𝑡 = 2 𝑚𝑠 = 2 × 10−3 𝑠
𝑑𝜙 40 × 10−3
𝑒=𝑁 = 100 × = 2000 𝑉
𝑑𝑡 2 × 10−3
Example: A coil of 200 turns of wire is wound on a magnetic circuit of
reluctance 2000 AT/mWb. If a current of 1A flowing in the coil is reversed
in 10 ms, find the average e.m.f. induced in the coil.
𝑚. 𝑚. 𝑓 200 × 1
Magnetic flux in the coil = = = 0.1 𝑚𝑊𝑏
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 2000
When current (i.e. 1A) in the coil is reserved, magnetic flux through the
coil is also reversed. Now,
𝑑𝜙
𝑒=𝑁
𝑑𝑡
Here, 𝑁 = 200; 𝑑𝜙 = 0.1 − −0.1 = 0.2 𝑚𝑊𝑏; 𝑑𝑡 = 10 × 10−3 𝑠
 0.2 × 10−3
𝑒 = 200 × =4𝑉
10 × 10−3
Activity
1. State faraday’s law of magnetic induction.
2. The field winding of 4-pole d.c. generator consists of 4 coils connected in
series, each coil being wound with 1200 turns. When the field is excited, there
is a magnetic flux of 0.04 Wb/pole. If the field switch is opened at such as a
speed that the magnetic flux falls to the residual value of 0.004 Wb/pole in 0.1
second, calculate the average value of e.m.f. induced across the field winding
terminals.
3. The magnetic flux passing perpendicular to the plane of the coil and directed
into paper is varying according to the relation:
𝜙𝐵 = 6𝑡 2 + 7𝑡 + 1 where 𝜙𝐵 is in mWb and t in seconds.
i) What is the magnitude of induced e.m.f. in the loop when 𝑡 = 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠?
ii) What is the direction of current through resistor R?
A.C. Fundamentals
Alternating Voltage and Current

• A voltage which changes its polarity at regular intervals of

time is called an alternating voltage.
• When an alternating voltage is applied in a circuit, the
current flows first in one direction and then in the opposite
direction; the direction of current at any instant depends
upon the polarity of the voltage.
 • 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
Where
𝑣 = 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑉𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝜔 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙

• Sinusoidal voltages always produce sinusoidal currents, unless the

circuit is non-linear. Therefore, a sinusoidal current can be
expressed in the same way as voltage, 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
Alternating current (AC) is an
electric current which
periodically reverses direction
and changes its magnitude
continuously with time, in
contrast to direct current (DC),
which flows only in one
direction.
Generation of Alternating Voltages and Currents
Alternating voltage may be generated:
i) by rotating a coil at constant angular velocity in a uniform
magnetic field.
ii) by rotating a magnetic field at a constant angular velocity
within a stationary coil.
Equation of Alternating Voltage and Current
• According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, the
e.m.f. induced in a coil is equal to the rate of change of flux
linkages of the coil. Hence, the e.m.f. 𝑣 at the considered instant is
given by;
𝑑
𝑣=− 𝑛𝜙𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos 𝜔𝑡 = −𝑛𝜙𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜔 (−sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑛𝜙𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡
where 𝜙𝑚𝑎𝑥 is maximum flux acting vertically downwards.
• The value of 𝑣 will be maximum (call it 𝑉𝑚 ) when sin 𝜔𝑡 = 1 i.e. when
the coil has turned through 90𝑜 in anticlockwise direction from the
reference axis (i.e. x-axis)
∴ 𝑉𝑚 = 𝑛𝜙𝑚 𝜔
𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜃
Where 𝑉𝑚 = 𝑛𝜙𝑚 𝜔
Example: An a.c. generator consists of a coil of 50 turns and area of 2.5 m2
rotating at an angular speed of 60 rad s-1 in a uniform magnetic field B =
0.3 T. The resistance of the circuit including that of the coil is 500 Ω.
i) What is the maximum current drawn from the generator?
ii) What is the flux through the coil when the current is zero? What is the
flux when the current is maximum?
iii) Would the generator work if the coil were stationary and the magnetic
field (i.e., poles) rotated with the same speed as above?
i) The current drawn from the generator will be maximum when induced
e.m.f. is maximum.
Maximum induced e.m.f., 𝑉𝑚 = 𝑛𝐴𝐵𝜔 = 50 × 2.5 × 0.3 × 60 =
2250 𝑉
𝑉𝑚ൗ 2250
∴ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑅 = 500 = 4.5𝐴
ii) When the induced current is zero, the magnetic flux through the
coil is maximum. On the other hand, when the induced current is
maximum, the flux through the coil is zero.
iii) Yes, the generator will work. It is because the basic condition for
inducing an e.m.f. is that there should be relative motion between
the coil and the magnetic field.

Activity
An a.c. generator consists of a coil of 100 turns and cross-
sectional area of 3 m2, rotating at a constant angular speed of
60 rad s-1 in a uniform magnetic field of 0.04 T. The resistance
of the coil is 500 Ω. Calculate maximum power dissipated in
the coil.
Important terms associated with an
alternating quantity:
Phase & Phase Difference of an alternating
quantity:
• Consider the figure shown below

• It is observed the magnitude of alternating voltage is

continuously changes with time. It is important to know the
magnitude of alternating at different time intervals or at
different phases.
• When the two alternating voltages have the same frequency,
and their maximum and minimum point occurs at the same
point, then the quantities are said to have in the same phase.
• Consider the two alternating voltages with same frequency
with different magnitudes Vm1 and Vm2 shown in the Figure.

• Both the voltages attains their maximum and minimum peak

point at the same time. And the zero value of both the
voltages occurs at the same time.
Phase Difference of an alternating quantity:
• If the two alternating quantities with same frequency but
have their zero value at the different instant is said to be
phase difference. The angle between two alternating
quantities is called angle of phase difference.

• Consider the two alternating voltages of magnitudes Vm1 and

Vm2 shown in the Figure above. The maximum value of Vm1
occurs at 𝜋Τ2 and the maximum value of Vm2 occurs at 180◦.
They have phase difference of angle π/2 .
• The quantity Vm1 which attains its +ve maximum value before the
Vm2 is called a leading quantity, whereas the quantity which
reaches its maximum positive value after the other, is known as a
lagging quantity. The voltage Vm1 is leading the voltage on Vm2.
Advantages of AC system over DC system
• AC voltages can be efficiently stepped up/down using transformer.
• AC motors are cheaper and simpler in construction than DC
system.
• Switch gear for AC system is simpler than DC system.
Average Value of an Alternating Current
• The arithmetic average of all the values of an alternating quantity
over one cycle is called its average value

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒
• The average value of symmetrical AC waveforms over one cycle is zero
because the presence of positive negative area. The average value of
symmetrical waveforms is calculated for half cycle.

• Form Factor Kf : The ratio of RMS value to the average value of an

alternating quantity is known as Form Factor.
• Peak Factor KP : The ratio of maximum value to the RMS value of an
alternating quantity is known as the peak factor.

Activities
1. Define RMS value of alternating current, show that its value is
proportional to maximum value.
2. The equation for an AC voltage is given as V = 0.04sin(2000t +
60o)V. Determine the frequency, the angular frequency,
instantaneous voltage when t = 160μs. What is the time
represented by a 60o phase angle.
3. The equation for an alternating current is given by i =
28.28sin(314t + 30o). Find its r.m.s. value, frequency and phase
angle.
4. The equation for an alternating current is given by i =
100sin(396.8t − 30o) A. Find its r.m.s. value, frequency and
phase angle of the current.
Solutions