UNIT – IV ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION & ALTERNATING CURRENT

Electromagnetic Induction:
It is phenomenon by which induced emf is produced in a circuit due to change of magnetic flux linked with
it. Or it is defined as production of electric field with the help of varying magnetic field.

Magnetic flux:
Number of magnetic field lines passing normally through any area is known as magnetic flux. It is denoted
by ΦB. Mathematically, ΦB = ∫ 𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
𝑆
It is a scalar quantity having dimensions [M1 L2 T-2 A-1]. The SI unit of magnetic flux is tesla-metre2 also
known as weber (Wb). Its CGS unit is maxwell.
1 weber = 108 maxwell

Gauss’s Law for Magnetism:

Since magnetic field lines form closed loops i.e., the magnetic field lines do not begin or end at any point.
Thus for a closed surface the number of magnetic field lines entering a surface equals the number of
magnetic field lines leaving it. Thus magnetic flux associated with a closed surface is always zero.
∴ ∮𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0 i.e., the net magnetic flux through any closed surface is always zero. This is known as
⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
𝑆
Gauss’s law of Magnetism.

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction:

Michael Faraday demonstrated the reverse effect of Orested’s experiment. He explained the fact that,
whenever there is relative motion between a coil and a magnet, emf is established in the coil, known as
induced emf. And if coil is closed, current flows in it known as induced current. This phenomenon is known
as electromagnetic induction.
On the basis of his experiments, he proposed two laws:
Law 1: Whenever magnetic flux linked with a coil changes, induced emf is produced. The induced emf lasts
as long as the change in the magnetic flux takes place.
Law 2: The magnitude of induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linked
with the coil.
𝑑
i.e., 𝜀 = 𝑑𝑡(ΦB)
𝑑
More precisely 𝜀 = − 𝑑𝑡(ΦB)
𝑑
For N turns, 𝜀 = −N 𝑑𝑡(ΦB) ……..(each turn having the same area)

⃗⃗⃗ = − 𝑑 (ΦB) ………This is general form of Faraday’s law of induction.

Note: ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑡

Methods for producing Induced emf:

𝑑
According to Faraday’s law of Induction; 𝜀 = −N 𝑑𝑡(ΦB)
But ΦB = B S Cos𝜃

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 𝑑
Thus 𝜀 = − (B S Cos𝜃 ) …… for N = 1
𝑑𝑡
Hence induced emf can be produced by:
i) Changing the magnitude of magnetic field (B).
ii) Changing the area (S) enclosed by the loop.
iii) ⃗ and normal to the loop).
Changing the orientation of the loop (i.e., by changing angle θ b/w 𝐵

Lenz’s Law:
It is a convenient method or rule to determine the direction of induced current produced in the circuit.
Induced current is in a direction such that the induced magnetic field attempts to maintain the
original flux through the loop. In other words, the induced current is always such as to oppose the change of
flux (or the motion) that generated it.
According to Lenz’s law, if magnetic flux decreases (North Pole is moved away) the induced current in the
circuit will flow in such a way that it will produce magnetic flux in the direction of original flux (face of coil
will become South Pole). On the other hand, if magnetic flux increases (North Pole is moved towards the
coil) the induced current in the circuit will flow in such a way that it will produce magnetic flux in the
direction opposite to the direction of original flux (face of coil will become North Pole).
Lenz only introduced negative sign in Faraday’s law of induction. But introduction of negative sign
was so vital that it was called a law.
𝑑
Thus 𝜀 = − 𝑑𝑡(ΦB) ……….. (Negative sign indicates concept of Lenz’s Law).

Lenz’s law in Accordance with Law of Conservation of Energy:

When North Pole of bar magnet is brought near the coil, its nearer face acquires north polarity. This
opposes the motion of North Pole of the magnet which is the cause of induced current by exerting a force of
repulsion on the magnet. Similarly, when North Pole of magnet is moved away, south polarity gets
developed on the nearer face of coil. Here work has to be done against force of attraction in taking the
magnet away. This work done in overcoming attractive force is the cause of induced current. Hence it is
mechanical work done by the source which gets converted into electrical energy (electric current). For
continuous current, continuous work has to be done.

Fleming’s Right hand Rule:

If center finger, forefinger and thumb of right hand are stretched mutually perpendicular to each other such
that forefinger points in the direction of magnetic field, thumb points in the direction of motion (current),
then center finger points in the direction of induced current.

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Motional emf and induced emf in a conductor moving in a uniform magnetic field:
The emf induced in a conductor due to its motion in a region in which there exists a magnetic field is called
motional emf.
Consider a conducting bar on horizontal frictionless conducting rails connected to a resistor of resistance
R as shown in figure. As the bar is pulled to the right with velocity 𝑣 under the influence of a force 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 , a
magnetic force on the electrons causing an anti-clockwise induced current to pass in the circuit. At the same
time, a magnetic force 𝐹𝐵 = 𝐵 𝐼 𝑙 will act on the bar opposite to 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 .
If 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 = 𝐹𝐵 , then the bar magnet will move with a constant velocity 𝑣 .
The area of circuit within the magnetic field is 𝑙 𝑥, where x is the position of bar from the resistor.
Magnetic flux through this area is given by:
ΦB = B l x
𝑑
According to Faraday’s law; induced emf 𝜀 = − (ΦB)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑
Or 𝜀 = − (B l x) = − B l (x) = − B l v
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
∴ ε = B l v …………. Where 𝑑𝑡(x) = v is the velocity of the rod.
|𝜀| 𝐵𝑙𝑣
Also induced current I = =
𝑅 𝑅
Hence induced emf is independent of resistance of the coil while induced current depends on resistance.

Self Induction and Coefficient of Self Induction:

The phenomenon of inducing emf in a coil due to change in current in the same coil is known as self
induction. When current in a coil is changing, magnetic flux linked with it is also changing. Thus by
Faraday’s law an induced emf will be produced in the same coil. This emf is known as self induced emf or
back emf and current is known as self induced current. This phenomenon was first observed by Joseph
Henry.
We know that, magnetic flux linked with a coil is proportional to magnetic field 𝐵⃗ , which in turn is
proportional to the current I that produces the magnetic field.
∴ ΦB ∝ I
Or ΦB = L I where L is constant known as Self Inductance or Coefficient of self induction of
the coil that depends on geometric factors of the coil.
𝑑 𝑑 𝒅𝑰
According to Faraday’s law; induced emf 𝜀 = − (ΦB) ⇒ 𝜀 = − (L I ) ⇒ 𝜀 = − L
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑰
If 𝒅𝒕 = 1 A/s then 𝜀 = − L.
Thus self inductance is numerically equal to the opposing emf induced in the coil due to unit rate of change
of current in the same coil.
The SI unit of inductance is henry (H) and 1 henry is equal to 1 volt. second per ampere.
1𝑉
i.e., 1 H =
1 𝐴/𝑠
Thus 1 henry (H) is the inductance of a coil that self induces an emf of 1 volt when the current in it changes
at the rate of 1 ampere/second.
The dimensional formula for Inductance is [M1 L2 T-2 A-2].

Note:
 Inductor or choke is a circuit element having appreciable inductance. It is represented by

𝒅𝑰 𝜀 ∆𝑽
 Since 𝜀 = − L ⇒L= − . If we compare it with R = . we conclude that resistance is
𝒅𝒕 𝑑𝐼/𝑑𝑡 𝑰
opposition to the flow of current while inductance is opposition to the change in current.
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Self Inductance of a Long Solenoid:
Consider a long solenoid of length l units and radius r units. Let N be the total number of turns of the
solenoid. The magnetic field inside the solenoid is given by:
B = 𝜇0 n I …….. where I is the current through the solenoid & n is turns per unit length.
Magnetic flux linked with the total length of solenoid is: ΦB = N B A
Or ΦB = N 𝜇0 n I A
μ0 𝑁 2 𝐼 𝐴 𝑁
⇒ ΦB = ………… because n =
𝑙 𝑙
ΦB μ0 𝑁2 𝐼 𝐴 μ0 𝑁 2 𝐴
We know that; L = ⇒L= ⇒L=
𝐼 𝐼𝑙 𝑙
Hence self inductance of a coil (solenoid) depends on:
i) Area of cross section of the solenoid and hence depends on geometry (shape) of the solenoid.
ii) Number of turns.
iii) Length of the solenoid.

Mutual Induction and Coefficient of Mutual Induction:

The phenomenon of producing induced emf in a coil (secondary coil) due to change in current in the
neighbouring coil (primary coil) is known as mutual induction. The emf is known as mutually induced emf.
Consider two coils which are placed parallel to each other. Let I1 is the current flowing through the
primary coil (coil 1).
We know that, magnetic flux linked with secondary coil is proportional to magnetic field 𝐵⃗ 1 of the
primary coil, which in turn is proportional to the current I1 that produces the magnetic field.
∴ Φ2 ∝ I1
Or Φ2 = M I1 where M is constant known as Mutual Inductance or Coefficient of mutual
induction of the secondary coil w. r. t. primary coil. Mutual inductance depends on geometry of both coil
and on their orientation w. r. t. each other.
𝑑 𝑑 𝒅𝑰
According to Faraday’s law; induced emf 𝜀 2 = − 𝑑𝑡(Φ2) ⇒ 𝜀 2 = − 𝑑𝑡(M I1 ) ⇒ 𝜀 2= − M 𝒅𝒕𝟏
𝒅𝑰
If 𝒅𝒕𝟏 = 1 A/s then 𝜀 2 = − M.
Hence Mutual inductance is numerically equal to the opposing emf induced in the secondary coil due to unit
rate of change of current in the primary coil.
The SI unit of mutual inductance is henry (H) and 1 henry is equal to 1 volt second per ampere.
1𝑉
i.e., 1 H =
1 𝐴/𝑠
Thus mutual inductance between two coils is said to be 1 henry if a current changing at the rate of 1 ampere
per second in primary coil induces an opposing emf of 1 volt in secondary coil.

 The phenomenon of mutual inductance is used in transformers to raise or lower voltages in

alternating current circuits.
 The drawback of mutual inductance is that it can induce unwanted emf in nearby circuits.

Mutual Inductance b/w two long co-axial Solenoids:

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Eddy Currents: According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, an emf and current are induced
in a circuit by changing magnetic flux. Similarly, circulating currents are induced in bulk pieces of metal
moving through a magnetic field. These currents are known as eddy currents or Foucault’s currents.

Applications of eddy currents: Though production of eddy currents is undesirable in some cases, it is
useful in some other cases. A few of them are:

1) Eddy current brake: The braking system on many high speed trains and roller coasters make use of
eddy currents.
2) Induction stove: Induction stove uses eddy currents to cook the food quickly and safely with less
energy consumption.
3) Electromagnetic damping: The moving coil galvanometer uses eddy currents produced in the core to
show steady deflection.
4) Metal detectors: The metal detectors used at airport security checkpoints operate by detecting eddy
currents induced in the metallic object.
5) Induction furnace: In induction furnaces, eddy currents are used to heat materials in completely
sealed containers.
6) Speedometer: In speedometer eddy currents are used to measure the instantaneous speed of the
vehicle.

Drawbacks of eddy currents: Eddy currents are often undesirable as:

 Eddy current produces unwanted heat and hence loss of energy.
 Eddy current decreases efficiency of a transformer.
 Eddy current reduces life of electrical devices.
 Eddy currents oppose relative motion.

Note: To reduce energy loss due to eddy currents, conducting parts are often laminated i.e., they are built
up in thin layers separated by a non-conducting material. This layered structure prevents large current loops
and effectively confines the currents to small loops in individual layers. Such laminated structure is used in
transformer cores and motors to minimize eddy currents and thereby increase the efficiency of these devices.

Phasor: A Phasor is a 2D vector whose length is proportional to the maximum value of the variable it
represents. The Phasor rotates anticlockwise at an angular speed equal to the angular frequency associated
with the variable. The projection of the Phasor onto the vertical axis represents the instantaneous value of the
quantity it represents.
The diagrams containing phasors are called Phasor diagram.

Mean or average value of alternating current:

Mean or average value of a.c. over any half cycle is defined as, that value of steady current which

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