REINO DE MUNSTER

Kingdom of Munster (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry

King's Fianna
In Celtic Ireland, ‘fianna’ were independent bands of men and women, often aristocratic but yet to inherit,
who proved their mettle in service of a local lord. As such, they were supplied with food and shelter during
the winter months in return for keeping the peace. In the summer, the members of the fianna – known as
‘fian’ – had to hunt for their own food, making additional income from selling the pelts of animals they had
eaten. Fianna and their exploits are featured heavily in Irish folklore, particularly the Ulster Cycle - in which
a band of twenty-seven fian are led by the druid Cathbad - and the Fenian Cycle – in which the mythical
warrior Fionn mac Cumhaill leads them to victory against the enemies of the High King.

Kingdom of Munster (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry

Axemen
Celtic warriors were ideally equipped to hack through even heavily-armoured foes. Their axes took one of
two forms: one-handed axes were typical, and the most practical, but two-handed axes were also used. In
comparison to swords, axes were cheap to make, and were effective against chainmail, as a blow could still
shatter bone and crush the organs beneath the armour. They could also be used to pull aside shields, or
hack them apart. Like other Celtic troops, the lightly-armoured axemen relied on their own shields for
defence. There was a long tradition, perhaps dating as far back as the Stone Age, of veneration for axes and
hammers in Celtic cultures. Although both were associated with strength, axes in particular were used as
grave goods and even depicted on coins celebrating victories.

Fianna
In Celtic Ireland, ‘fianna’ were independent bands of men and women, often aristocratic but yet to inherit,
who proved their mettle in service of a local lord. As such, they were supplied with food and shelter during
the winter months in return for keeping the peace. In the summer, the members of the fianna – known as
‘fian’ – had to hunt for their own food, making additional income from selling the pelts of animals they had
eaten. Fianna and their exploits are featured heavily in Irish folklore, particularly the Ulster Cycle - in which
a band of twenty-seven fian are led by the druid Cathbad - and the Fenian Cycle – in which the mythical
warrior Fionn mac Cumhaill leads them to victory against the enemies of the High King.

Gazehounds
Dogs have always been useful for guard, patrol and scout work. With skilled handlers they can also be used
effectively on the battlefield. Attack dogs were specifically bred and trained to ignore the noise and chaos
of combat. Taught to attack on command, they were starved a little to ensure aggression before being
unleashed upon enemy formations as a savage wave. Faced with a pack of foaming, hungry dogs many men
naturally broke or faltered, opening gaps in a battle line that could then be exploited by melee troops.
 King's Warband
In Celtic Ireland, ‘fianna’ were independent bands of men and women, often aristocratic but yet to inherit,
who proved their mettle in service of a local lord. As such, they were supplied with food and shelter during
the winter months in return for keeping the peace. In the summer, the members of the fianna – known as
‘fian’ – had to hunt for their own food, making additional income from selling the pelts of animals they had
eaten. Fianna and their exploits are featured heavily in Irish folklore, particularly the Ulster Cycle - in which
a band of twenty-seven fian are led by the druid Cathbad - and the Fenian Cycle – in which the mythical
warrior Fionn mac Cumhaill leads them to victory against the enemies of the High King.

Swordsmen
Originally a rare weapon of quite some prestige, the sword became more common in the early Middle
Ages, with blades produced on a larger scale to more standardised specifications. The spatha of the Roman
period became the basis of Viking and Carolingian longswords. These single-handed blades, with triangular
pommels and short grips, were widely used, not only by the Viking Danes but right across Europe. Swords
during the era were chiefly produced by the Franks and obtained by the Danes through either trade or, as is
more likely, raiding, pillaging and looting of Frankish possessions. Although they were all of a roughly
similar length, there were variances of several inches as, although they were more speedily produced,
mass-production of arms and armour, and the standardisation and quality control that went with it, was
still a rarity at that time.

Kingdom of Munster (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Infantry

Javelinmen
As far as the Celts were concerned, the best way to kill a man was in hand-to-hand combat. They thought
there was great value in personal bravery and there was no honour in killing from a distance. Even so,
slingers, javelinmen and archers still had their place on the battlefield. It was often the only way that some
Celts could go to war; warriors paid for their own equipment, so only the wealthy could afford, or had the
right to carry, fine armour and weapons. Skirmishers were usually the poor - freemen who served as clients
to the noble class. While they could never hope to achieve the same status as their noble masters, they
could still prove their worth in the cut and thrust of battle.

Kerns
Although the word ‘ceithern’ - pronounced ‘kern’ – simply refers to a group of fighters, they were one of
two essential components of later Celtic Irish armies, the other being gallowglasses. Often found fighting as
light infantry and occasionally light cavalry, kerns were very much designed to provide skirmishing support
to their heavy infantry counterparts. However, the training afforded them and the eventual roles kerns
filled very much depended on the needs of their clan. Although their stock-in-trade was the execution of
surprise skirmish attacks, after which they would melt back behind the gallowglasses, kerns occasionally
engaged in melee and could easily run down fleeing routers. On the battlefield kerns wore a light leather
coat, rather than the heavy chainmail favoured by the gallowglasses, which ensured unrestricted
movement. They also carried a variety of missiles, often sporting darts but also slings and javelins on
occasion.

Kingdom of Munster (Age of Charlemagne) Spear Infantry

Levy Spearmen
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from
citizen and subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes
were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for promotion on
merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.

Spearmen
The spear has been around almost as long as people have, having been employed for hunting and fishing
long before war. A versatile weapon, it could be held in either one or both hands and used for thrusting in
melee, throwing during skirmishes, or braced in formation to stop cavalry charges. The spear was the most
commonly-used weapon through antiquity and remained so into the Middle Ages; elite warriors had the
time to learn and master the polearm, yet the common man could also be taught the basics of handling one
in battle in short space of time. Unearthed Saxon spears have broad heads with wings along the blade to
stop enemy swords and spears travelling down it, whereas others are thinner and longer to allow for
deeper penetration when stabbing opponents. Naturally, the development of heavy cavalry led to longer,
heavier variants (the lance) and then to pikes – which could be braced to unseat horsemen or massed to
create an almost impenetrable wall. Most spearmen of the period also carried a shield to provide
additional defence and make spear or shield walls, which were virtually impenetrable and particularly effective against
cavalry charges.

Kingdom of Munster (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry

Horsemen
Most armies of the early Middle Ages relied heavily on foot soldiers. This was due to the large number of
low-status soldiers with little equipment of their own – certainly not horses – and little real training to
speak of. In fact, cavalry-heavy forces were not generally part of the military fashion of the time until the
development of the stirrup and the peaked saddle made them more attractive to the western powers. The
stirrup increased the endurance, manoeuvrability and speed of the horse and reduced its rider's fatigue as
the animal was easier to control; this, along with advances in armour technology, meant cavalry – now as
heavy as the eastern cataphracts of antiquity - once again became a fixture on the battlefield.

Kingdom of Munster (Age of Charlemagne) Field Artillery

Bastion Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon
became a staple of siege warfare.
Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
 REINO DE LEINSTER
Kingdom of Leinster (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry
King's Fianna
In Celtic Ireland, ‘fianna’ were independent bands of men and women, often aristocratic but yet to inherit,
who proved their mettle in service of a local lord. As such, they were supplied with food and shelter during
the winter months in return for keeping the peace. In the summer, the members of the fianna – known as
‘fian’ – had to hunt for their own food, making additional income from selling the pelts of animals they had
eaten. Fianna and their exploits are featured heavily in Irish folklore, particularly the Ulster Cycle - in which
a band of twenty-seven fian are led by the druid Cathbad - and the Fenian Cycle – in which the mythical
warrior Fionn mac Cumhaill leads them to victory against the enemies of the High King.

Kingdom of Leinster (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry

Axemen
Celtic warriors were ideally equipped to hack through even heavily-armoured foes. Their axes took one of
two forms: one-handed axes were typical, and the most practical, but two-handed axes were also used. In
comparison to swords, axes were cheap to make, and were effective against chainmail, as a blow could still
shatter bone and crush the organs beneath the armour. They could also be used to pull aside shields, or
hack them apart. Like other Celtic troops, the lightly-armoured axemen relied on their own shields for
defence. There was a long tradition, perhaps dating as far back as the Stone Age, of veneration for axes and
hammers in Celtic cultures. Although both were associated with strength, axes in particular were used as
grave goods and even depicted on coins celebrating victories.
Fianna
In Celtic Ireland, ‘fianna’ were independent bands of men and women, often aristocratic but yet to inherit,
who proved their mettle in service of a local lord. As such, they were supplied with food and shelter during
the winter months in return for keeping the peace. In the summer, the members of the fianna – known as
‘fian’ – had to hunt for their own food, making additional income from selling the pelts of animals they had
eaten. Fianna and their exploits are featured heavily in Irish folklore, particularly the Ulster Cycle - in which
a band of twenty-seven fian are led by the druid Cathbad - and the Fenian Cycle – in which the mythical
warrior Fionn mac Cumhaill leads them to victory against the enemies of the High King.

Gazehounds
Dogs have always been useful for guard, patrol and scout work. With skilled handlers they can also be used
effectively on the battlefield. Attack dogs were specifically bred and trained to ignore the noise and chaos
of combat. Taught to attack on command, they were starved a little to ensure aggression before being
unleashed upon enemy formations as a savage wave. Faced with a pack of foaming, hungry dogs many men
naturally broke or faltered, opening gaps in a battle line that could then be exploited by melee troops.
King's Warband
In Celtic Ireland, ‘fianna’ were independent bands of men and women, often aristocratic but yet to inherit,
who proved their mettle in service of a local lord. As such, they were supplied with food and shelter during
the winter months in return for keeping the peace. In the summer, the members of the fianna – known as
‘fian’ – had to hunt for their own food, making additional income from selling the pelts of animals they had
eaten. Fianna and their exploits are featured heavily in Irish folklore, particularly the Ulster Cycle - in which
a band of twenty-seven fian are led by the druid Cathbad - and the Fenian Cycle – in which the mythical
warrior Fionn mac Cumhaill leads them to victory against the enemies of the High King.

Swordsmen
Originally a rare weapon of quite some prestige, the sword became more common in the early Middle
Ages, with blades produced on a larger scale to more standardised specifications. The spatha of the Roman
period became the basis of Viking and Carolingian longswords. These single-handed blades, with triangular
pommels and short grips, were widely used, not only by the Viking Danes but right across Europe. Swords
during the era were chiefly produced by the Franks and obtained by the Danes through either trade or, as is
more likely, raiding, pillaging and looting of Frankish possessions. Although they were all of a roughly
similar length, there were variances of several inches as, although they were more speedily produced,
mass-production of arms and armour, and the standardisation and quality control that went with it, was
still a rarity at that time.

Kingdom of Leinster (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Infantry

Javelinmen
As far as the Celts were concerned, the best way to kill a man was in hand-to-hand combat. They thought
there was great value in personal bravery and there was no honour in killing from a distance. Even so,
slingers, javelinmen and archers still had their place on the battlefield. It was often the only way that some
Celts could go to war; warriors paid for their own equipment, so only the wealthy could afford, or had the
right to carry, fine armour and weapons. Skirmishers were usually the poor - freemen who served as clients
to the noble class. While they could never hope to achieve the same status as their noble masters, they
could still prove their worth in the cut and thrust of battle.

Kerns
Although the word ‘ceithern’ - pronounced ‘kern’ – simply refers to a group of fighters, they were one of
two essential components of later Celtic Irish armies, the other being gallowglasses. Often found fighting as
light infantry and occasionally light cavalry, kerns were very much designed to provide skirmishing support
to their heavy infantry counterparts. However, the training afforded them and the eventual roles kerns
filled very much depended on the needs of their clan. Although their stock-in-trade was the execution of
surprise skirmish attacks, after which they would melt back behind the gallowglasses, kerns occasionally
engaged in melee and could easily run down fleeing routers. On the battlefield kerns wore a light leather
coat, rather than the heavy chainmail favoured by the gallowglasses, which ensured unrestricted
movement. They also carried a variety of missiles, often sporting darts but also slings and javelins on
occasion.

Kingdom of Leinster (Age of Charlemagne) Spear Infantry

Levy Spearmen
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from citizen and
subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes were formerly levies who
saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for promotion on merit rather than birth,
creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.

Spearmen
The spear has been around almost as long as people have, having been employed for hunting and fishing
long before war. A versatile weapon, it could be held in either one or both hands and used for thrusting in
melee, throwing during skirmishes, or braced in formation to stop cavalry charges. The spear was the most
commonly-used weapon through antiquity and remained so into the Middle Ages; elite warriors had the
time to learn and master the polearm, yet the common man could also be taught the basics of handling one
in battle in short space of time. Unearthed Saxon spears have broad heads with wings along the blade to
stop enemy swords and spears travelling down it, whereas others are thinner and longer to allow for
deeper penetration when stabbing opponents. Naturally, the development of heavy cavalry led to longer,
heavier variants (the lance) and then to pikes – which could be braced to unseat horsemen or massed to
create an almost impenetrable wall. Most spearmen of the period also carried a shield to provide
additional defence and make spear or shield walls, which were virtually impenetrable and particularly effective against
cavalry charges.

Kingdom of Leinster (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry

Horsemen
Most armies of the early Middle Ages relied heavily on foot soldiers. This was due to the large number of
low-status soldiers with little equipment of their own – certainly not horses – and little real training to
speak of. In fact, cavalry-heavy forces were not generally part of the military fashion of the time until the
development of the stirrup and the peaked saddle made them more attractive to the western powers. The
stirrup increased the endurance, manoeuvrability and speed of the horse and reduced its rider's fatigue as
the animal was easier to control; this, along with advances in armour technology, meant cavalry – now as
heavy as the eastern cataphracts of antiquity - once again became a fixture on the battlefield.

Kingdom of Leinster (Age of Charlemagne) Field Artillery

Bastion Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon
became a staple of siege warfare.
Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
 REINO DE NORTUMBRIA
Kingdom of Northumbria (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry
Royal Companions
As retainers of the Anglo-Saxon king, 'thegns' were de-facto noblemen, though in reality they ranked
between freemen and those of actual noble blood. These men were, and had always been, warriors,
rallying to their king's side during wartime to command the army. Some thegns became more powerful still,
being directly involved with the running of the Saxon state in addition to their military duties. Despite this,
thegns still formed the backbone of Anglo-Saxon armies and as such were better trained and equipped than
the common, levied fyrd. In the past, their equivalent - the 'gesith' - were the tribal leader's personal
companions, his stalwart retainers, champions, and defenders on the battlefield. Eventually, following the
emergence of the European kingdoms during the Dark Ages, their services were rewarded with lands and
titles as a precursor to the concept of fealty and vassalage.

Kingdom of Northumbria (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry

Fyrd Axemen
The 'fyrd' was, in the simplest terms, a levy of ordinary farmers - 'freemen', in the parlance of the times,
meaning those not tied to a lord as vassals. The infrequent but bloody struggles between the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms during the early Middle Ages, and the Viking threat that followed, meant that the process of
levying troops to fight was still necessary. If people are fighting for their very homes and livelihoods - not
just a distant figurehead of a monarch - they tend to have a sense of purpose and urgency. Courage can
come later, bolstered by massed ranks in the mean time, as can proficiency - there was rarely much time
set aside for training amateurs before a battle. Originally, every able man was recruited to fight but this
revealed a flaw in that if a war or struggle became protracted, or if too many people died, then there would
be nobody to work the fields at its conclusion. To this end, the Anglo-Saxons developed what we now call the "select"
system, where only those deemed most able would be chosen to join the fyrd. The remainder would stay at work,
creating a surplus of provisions and equipment for both the marching army and those left behind in order to sustain the
realm and improve the army's chances of victory. In practice, the majority of men were not levied, so many were
expected to service the war machine in other practical ways. The fyrd were called upon on many occasions during the
years of the Viking invasions, most famously to fight the Norwegian king Harold Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford
Bridge in 1066, just weeks before the cataclysmic Saxon defeat at Hastings.
Royal Thegns
As retainers of the Anglo-Saxon king, 'thegns' were de-facto noblemen, though in reality they ranked
between freemen and those of actual noble blood. These men were, and had always been, warriors,
rallying to their king's side during wartime to command the army. Some thegns became more powerful still,
being directly involved with the running of the Saxon state in addition to their military duties. Despite this,
thegns still formed the backbone of Anglo-Saxon armies and as such were better trained and equipped than
the common, levied fyrd. In the past, their equivalent - the 'gesith' - were the tribal leader's personal
companions, his stalwart retainers, champions, and defenders on the battlefield. Eventually, following the
emergence of the European kingdoms during the Dark Ages, their services were rewarded with lands and
titles as a precursor to the concept of fealty and vassalage.
 Select Axemen
The 'fyrd' was, in the simplest terms, a levy of ordinary farmers - 'freemen', in the parlance of the times,
meaning those not tied to a lord as vassals. The infrequent but bloody struggles between the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms during the early Middle Ages, and the Viking threat that followed, meant that the process of
levying troops to fight was still necessary. If people are fighting for their very homes and livelihoods - not
just a distant figurehead of a monarch - they tend to have a sense of purpose and urgency. Courage can
come later, bolstered by massed ranks in the mean time, as can proficiency - there was rarely much time
set aside for training amateurs before a battle. Originally, every able man was recruited to fight but this
revealed a flaw in that if a war or struggle became protracted, or if too many people died, then there would
be nobody to work the fields at its conclusion. To this end, the Anglo-Saxons developed what we now call
the "select" system, where only those deemed most able would be chosen to join the fyrd. The remainder
would stay at work, creating a surplus of provisions and equipment for both the marching army and those left behind in
order to sustain the realm and improve the army's chances of victory. In practice, the majority of men were not levied,
so many were expected to service the war machine in other practical ways. The fyrd were called upon on many
occasions during the years of the Viking invasions, most famously to fight the Norwegian king Harold Hardrada at the
Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066, just weeks before the cataclysmic Saxon defeat at Hastings.
Thegns
As retainers of the Anglo-Saxon king, 'thegns' were de-facto noblemen, though in reality they ranked
between freemen and those of actual noble blood. These men were, and had always been, warriors,
rallying to their king's side during wartime to command the army. Some thegns became more powerful still,
being directly involved with the running of the Saxon state in addition to their military duties. Despite this,
thegns still formed the backbone of Anglo-Saxon armies and as such were better trained and equipped than
the common, levied fyrd. In the past, their equivalent - the 'gesith' - were the tribal leader's personal
companions, his stalwart retainers, champions, and defenders on the battlefield. Eventually, following the
emergence of the European kingdoms during the Dark Ages, their services were rewarded with lands and
titles as a precursor to the concept of fealty and vassalage.

Kingdom of Northumbria (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Infantry

Fyrd Archers
Whilst archers had their place in the battle lines of Anglo-Saxon armies they were never used in large
numbers, as traditional military values placed greater importance on melee infantry and the glory to be
gained through hand-to-hand combat; for instance, only one archer is depicted amongst the English forces
on the Bayeux Tapestry. Whilst a thegn may have been trained in how to use a bow as a hunting weapon,
standard fyrdmen would not have had that advantage. Those who were, however, commonly used the
longbow - which became more common across Europe during the early Middle Ages. Made of yew or ash,
with bowstrings of looped and corded linen, longbows were superior to selfbows. British proponents of the
longbow, mainly the English and Welsh, became renowned for their skill with the weapon in later centuries
- the most famous example being the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, when English archers were key to the defeat of a
supposedly-superior French army.
Fyrd Javelinmen
Until very recently, when mechanisation reduced the amount of close-quarters fighting required,
skirmishers were used to harass, never giving the enemy pause to regroup and distracting them until melee
troops or cavalry could pin them down. In the ancient world, particularly among the 'civilised' states of the
Mediterranean, many skirmishers were considered highly skilled, with places such as Crete and the Balearic
Islands specialising in producing first class archers, slingers and javelineers. In the north and west of Europe,
such weapons were generally thought considered cowardly - only fighting hand-to-hand in melee carried
the required amount of honour and glory with it. As antiquity gave way to the Middle Ages, and tribal
society subsided to the more hierarchical feudal system, good skirmishers were highly valued once again.
Aside from the longbow, the javelin remained their favoured weapon, particularly when fighting from
horseback; a rider could hurl his weapon at the enemy and be far away before they had time to react. If
they were foolish enough to turn and face the threat, they could be blinded to an infantry or cavalry charge bearing
down upon them.
Fyrd Slingers
The sling is one of the oldest ranged weapons in existence, possibly dating back to before the Neolithic
period. Its use throughout history is evidenced by depictions upon Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs, as well as
those of later times, such as Trajan's Column and the Bayeux Tapestry. A sling is essentially a length of
material (usually leather, but sometimes stretched pig bladder) with a cradle in the centre to hold a stone.
The slinger then holds the ends and spins the sling to generate momentum. By extending his arm and
simultaneously increasing the force of the spin, then releasing the stone at the precise moment, the slingshot can be
flung a large distance - far greater than would be possible without it. Many young people grew up throwing stones found
on the river beds of Europe, giving them a natural advantage when applying the skill to combat. Rocks and stones were
in ready supply so, whilst spears may have needed repair after a battle, slingers were always well provisioned. Often
people of low status in society, and therefore in battle, slingers would typically take up position behind veteran warriors,
providing a blanket of slingshots to hamper the enemy when charging. In return, the veterans would use their shields to
safeguard the slingers as they unleashed their missiles. Slingshot could be an effective weapon against close enemy
formations or cavalry.
Select Archers
Whilst archers had their place in the battle lines of Anglo-Saxon armies they were never used in large
numbers, as traditional military values placed greater importance on melee infantry and the glory to be
gained through hand-to-hand combat; for instance, only one archer is depicted amongst the English forces
on the Bayeux Tapestry. Whilst a thegn may have been trained in how to use a bow as a hunting weapon,
standard fyrdmen would not have had that advantage. Those who were, however, commonly used the
longbow - which became more common across Europe during the early Middle Ages. Made of yew or ash,
with bowstrings of looped and corded linen, longbows were superior to selfbows. British proponents of the
longbow, mainly the English and Welsh, became renowned for their skill with the weapon in later centuries
- the most famous example being the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, when English archers were key to the
defeat of a supposedly-superior

Kingdom of Northumbria (Age of Charlemagne) Spear Infantry

Fyrd Spearmen
The 'fyrd' was, in the simplest terms, a levy of ordinary farmers - 'freemen', in the parlance of the times,
meaning those not tied to a lord as vassals. The infrequent but bloody struggles between the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms during the early Middle Ages, and the Viking threat that followed, meant that the process of
levying troops to fight was still necessary. If people are fighting for their very homes and livelihoods - not
just a distant figurehead of a monarch - they tend to have a sense of purpose and urgency. Courage can
come later, bolstered by massed ranks in the mean time, as can proficiency - there was rarely much time
set aside for training amateurs before a battle. Originally, every able man was recruited to fight but this
revealed a flaw in that if a war or struggle became protracted, or if too many people died, then there would
be nobody to work the fields at its conclusion. To this end, the Anglo-Saxons developed what we now call the "select"
system, where only those deemed most able would be chosen to join the fyrd. The remainder would stay at work,
creating a surplus of provisions and equipment for both the marching army and those left behind in order to sustain the
realm and improve the army's chances of victory. In practice, the majority of men were not levied, so many were
expected to service the war machine in other practical ways. The fyrd were called upon on many occasions during the
years of the Viking invasions, most famously to fight the Norwegian king Harold Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford
Bridge in 1066, just weeks before the cataclysmic Saxon defeat at Hastings.
Select Spearmen
The 'fyrd' was, in the simplest terms, a levy of ordinary farmers - 'freemen', in the parlance of the times,
meaning those not tied to a lord as vassals. The infrequent but bloody struggles between the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms during the early Middle Ages, and the Viking threat that followed, meant that the process of
levying troops to fight was still necessary. If people are fighting for their very homes and livelihoods - not
just a distant figurehead of a monarch - they tend to have a sense of purpose and urgency. Courage can
come later, bolstered by massed ranks in the mean time, as can proficiency - there was rarely much time
set aside for training amateurs before a battle. Originally, every able man was recruited to fight but this
revealed a flaw in that if a war or struggle became protracted, or if too many people died, then there would
be nobody to work the fields at its conclusion. To this end, the Anglo-Saxons developed what we now call
the "select" system, where only those deemed most able would be chosen to join the fyrd. The remainder
would stay at work, creating a surplus of provisions and equipment for both the marching army and those left behind in
order to sustain the realm and improve the army's chances of victory. In practice, the majority of men were not levied,
so many were expected to service the war machine in other practical ways. The fyrd were called upon on many
occasions during the years of the Viking invasions, most famously to fight the Norwegian king Harold Hardrada at the
Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066, just weeks before the cataclysmic Saxon defeat at Hastings.
Thegn Spearmen
The spear has been around almost as long as people have, having been employed for hunting and fishing
long before war. A versatile weapon, it could be held in either one or both hands and used for thrusting in
melee, throwing during skirmishes, or braced in formation to stop cavalry charges. The spear was the most
commonly-used weapon through antiquity and remained so into the Middle Ages; elite warriors had the
time to learn and master the polearm, yet the common man could also be taught the basics of handling one
in battle in short space of time. Unearthed Saxon spears have broad heads with wings along the blade to stop enemy
swords and spears travelling down it, whereas others are thinner and longer to allow for deeper penetration when
stabbing opponents. Naturally, the development of heavy cavalry led to longer, heavier variants (the lance) and then to
pikes – which could be braced to unseat horsemen or massed to create an almost impenetrable wall. Most spearmen of
the period also carried a shield to provide additional defence and make spear or shield walls, which were virtually
impenetrable and particularly effective against cavalry charges.

Kingdom of Northumbria (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry

Horsemen
Cavalry was far-less prominent amongst Anglo-Saxon forces than in other nations of the early Middle Ages.
Their ancestors, the forest-dwelling Germanic tribes of the continent, famously had access to very few
horses compared to their Roman or steppe nomad opponents and, other than references to pack animals
pulling transport goods and supplies and messengers, little evidence of their military use has been found.
However, in later centuries, there appears to have been a determined attempt by successive Saxon kings to
breed a stock of hardy warhorses. The Anglo-Saxon thegns were usually seen atop horses, although rarely
did they ride during battle due to the long-held "barbarian" tradition of fighting on foot and in melee as the
preferred, most honourable method of combat. The Church, furthermore, was heavily involved in the
raising of royal cavalry during later centuries – a prime example being in AD875, when the Worcester diocese was made
responsible for the breeding and care of horses for the Mercian king, Ceowulf.
Royal Horsemen
Cavalry was far-less prominent amongst Anglo-Saxon forces than in other nations of the early Middle Ages.
Their ancestors, the forest-dwelling Germanic tribes of the continent, famously had access to very few
horses compared to their Roman or steppe nomad opponents and, other than references to pack animals
pulling transport goods and supplies and messengers, little evidence of their military use has been found.
However, in later centuries, there appears to have been a determined attempt by successive Saxon kings to
breed a stock of hardy warhorses. The Anglo-Saxon thegns were usually seen atop horses, although rarely
did they ride during battle due to the long-held "barbarian" tradition of fighting on foot and in melee as the
preferred, most honourable method of combat. The Church, furthermore, was heavily involved in the
raising of royal cavalry during later centuries – a prime example being in AD875, when the Worcester
diocese was made responsible for the breeding and care of horses for the Mercian king, Ceowulf.

Kingdom of Northumbria (Age of Charlemagne) Field Artillery

Bastion Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon
became a staple of siege warfare.
Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
 REINO DE MERCIA
Kingdom of Mercia (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry
Royal Companions
As retainers of the Anglo-Saxon king, 'thegns' were de-facto noblemen, though in reality they ranked
between freemen and those of actual noble blood. These men were, and had always been, warriors,
rallying to their king's side during wartime to command the army. Some thegns became more powerful still,
being directly involved with the running of the Saxon state in addition to their military duties. Despite this,
thegns still formed the backbone of Anglo-Saxon armies and as such were better trained and equipped than
the common, levied fyrd. In the past, their equivalent - the 'gesith' - were the tribal leader's personal
companions, his stalwart retainers, champions, and defenders on the battlefield. Eventually, following the
emergence of the European kingdoms during the Dark Ages, their services were rewarded with lands and
titles as a precursor to the concept of fealty and vassalage.

Kingdom of Mercia (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry

Fyrd Axemen
The 'fyrd' was, in the simplest terms, a levy of ordinary farmers - 'freemen', in the parlance of the times,
meaning those not tied to a lord as vassals. The infrequent but bloody struggles between the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms during the early Middle Ages, and the Viking threat that followed, meant that the process of
levying troops to fight was still necessary. If people are fighting for their very homes and livelihoods - not
just a distant figurehead of a monarch - they tend to have a sense of purpose and urgency. Courage can
come later, bolstered by massed ranks in the mean time, as can proficiency - there was rarely much time
set aside for training amateurs before a battle. Originally, every able man was recruited to fight but this
revealed a flaw in that if a war or struggle became protracted, or if too many people died, then there would
be nobody to work the fields at its conclusion. To this end, the Anglo-Saxons developed what we now call the "select"
system, where only those deemed most able would be chosen to join the fyrd. The remainder would stay at work,
creating a surplus of provisions and equipment for both the marching army and those left behind in order to sustain the
realm and improve the army's chances of victory. In practice, the majority of men were not levied, so many were
expected to service the war machine in other practical ways. The fyrd were called upon on many occasions during the
years of the Viking invasions, most famously to fight the Norwegian king Harold Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford
Bridge in 1066, just weeks before the cataclysmic Saxon defeat at Hastings.
Royal Thegns
As retainers of the Anglo-Saxon king, 'thegns' were de-facto noblemen, though in reality they ranked
between freemen and those of actual noble blood. These men were, and had always been, warriors,
rallying to their king's side during wartime to command the army. Some thegns became more powerful still,
being directly involved with the running of the Saxon state in addition to their military duties. Despite this,
thegns still formed the backbone of Anglo-Saxon armies and as such were better trained and equipped than
the common, levied fyrd. In the past, their equivalent - the 'gesith' - were the tribal leader's personal
companions, his stalwart retainers, champions, and defenders on the battlefield. Eventually, following the
emergence of the European kingdoms during the Dark Ages, their services were rewarded with lands and
titles as a precursor to the concept of fealty and vassalage.
 Select Axemen
The 'fyrd' was, in the simplest terms, a levy of ordinary farmers - 'freemen', in the parlance of the times,
meaning those not tied to a lord as vassals. The infrequent but bloody struggles between the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms during the early Middle Ages, and the Viking threat that followed, meant that the process of
levying troops to fight was still necessary. If people are fighting for their very homes and livelihoods - not
just a distant figurehead of a monarch - they tend to have a sense of purpose and urgency. Courage can
come later, bolstered by massed ranks in the mean time, as can proficiency - there was rarely much time
set aside for training amateurs before a battle. Originally, every able man was recruited to fight but this
revealed a flaw in that if a war or struggle became protracted, or if too many people died, then there would
be nobody to work the fields at its conclusion. To this end, the Anglo-Saxons developed what we now call
the "select" system, where only those deemed most able would be chosen to join the fyrd. The remainder
would stay at work, creating a surplus of provisions and equipment for both the marching army and those left behind in
order to sustain the realm and improve the army's chances of victory. In practice, the majority of men were not levied,
so many were expected to service the war machine in other practical ways. The fyrd were called upon on many
occasions during the years of the Viking invasions, most famously to fight the Norwegian king Harold Hardrada at the
Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066, just weeks before the cataclysmic Saxon defeat at Hastings.
Thegns
As retainers of the Anglo-Saxon king, 'thegns' were de-facto noblemen, though in reality they ranked
between freemen and those of actual noble blood. These men were, and had always been, warriors,
rallying to their king's side during wartime to command the army. Some thegns became more powerful still,
being directly involved with the running of the Saxon state in addition to their military duties. Despite this,
thegns still formed the backbone of Anglo-Saxon armies and as such were better trained and equipped than
the common, levied fyrd. In the past, their equivalent - the 'gesith' - were the tribal leader's personal
companions, his stalwart retainers, champions, and defenders on the battlefield. Eventually, following the
emergence of the European kingdoms during the Dark Ages, their services were rewarded with lands and
titles as a precursor to the concept of fealty and vassalage.

Kingdom of Mercia (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Infantry

Fyrd Archers
Whilst archers had their place in the battle lines of Anglo-Saxon armies they were never used in large
numbers, as traditional military values placed greater importance on melee infantry and the glory to be
gained through hand-to-hand combat; for instance, only one archer is depicted amongst the English forces
on the Bayeux Tapestry. Whilst a thegn may have been trained in how to use a bow as a hunting weapon,
standard fyrdmen would not have had that advantage. Those who were, however, commonly used the
longbow - which became more common across Europe during the early Middle Ages. Made of yew or ash,
with bowstrings of looped and corded linen, longbows were superior to selfbows. British proponents of the
longbow, mainly the English and Welsh, became renowned for their skill with the weapon in later centuries
- the most famous example being the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, when English archers were key to the defeat of a
supposedly-superior French army.
Fyrd Javelinmen
Until very recently, when mechanisation reduced the amount of close-quarters fighting required,
skirmishers were used to harass, never giving the enemy pause to regroup and distracting them until melee
troops or cavalry could pin them down. In the ancient world, particularly among the 'civilised' states of the
Mediterranean, many skirmishers were considered highly skilled, with places such as Crete and the Balearic
Islands specialising in producing first class archers, slingers and javelineers. In the north and west of Europe,
such weapons were generally thought considered cowardly - only fighting hand-to-hand in melee carried
the required amount of honour and glory with it. As antiquity gave way to the Middle Ages, and tribal
society subsided to the more hierarchical feudal system, good skirmishers were highly valued once again.
Aside from the longbow, the javelin remained their favoured weapon, particularly when fighting from
horseback; a rider could hurl his weapon at the enemy and be far away before they had time to react. If
they were foolish enough to turn and face the threat, they could be blinded to an infantry or cavalry charge bearing
down upon them.
Fyrd Slingers
The sling is one of the oldest ranged weapons in existence, possibly dating back to before the Neolithic
period. Its use throughout history is evidenced by depictions upon Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs, as well as
those of later times, such as Trajan's Column and the Bayeux Tapestry. A sling is essentially a length of
material (usually leather, but sometimes stretched pig bladder) with a cradle in the centre to hold a stone.
The slinger then holds the ends and spins the sling to generate momentum. By extending his arm and
simultaneously increasing the force of the spin, then releasing the stone at the precise moment, the slingshot can be
flung a large distance - far greater than would be possible without it. Many young people grew up throwing stones found
on the river beds of Europe, giving them a natural advantage when applying the skill to combat. Rocks and stones were
in ready supply so, whilst spears may have needed repair after a battle, slingers were always well provisioned. Often
people of low status in society, and therefore in battle, slingers would typically take up position behind veteran warriors,
providing a blanket of slingshots to hamper the enemy when charging. In return, the veterans would use their shields to
safeguard the slingers as they unleashed their missiles. Slingshot could be an effective weapon against close enemy
formations or cavalry.
Select Archers
Whilst archers had their place in the battle lines of Anglo-Saxon armies they were never used in large
numbers, as traditional military values placed greater importance on melee infantry and the glory to be
gained through hand-to-hand combat; for instance, only one archer is depicted amongst the English forces
on the Bayeux Tapestry. Whilst a thegn may have been trained in how to use a bow as a hunting weapon,
standard fyrdmen would not have had that advantage. Those who were, however, commonly used the
longbow - which became more common across Europe during the early Middle Ages. Made of yew or ash,
with bowstrings of looped and corded linen, longbows were superior to selfbows. British proponents of the
longbow, mainly the English and Welsh, became renowned for their skill with the weapon in later centuries
- the most famous example being the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, when English archers were key to the
defeat of a supposedly-superior French army.

Kingdom of Mercia (Age of Charlemagne) Spear Infantry

Fyrd Spearmen
The 'fyrd' was, in the simplest terms, a levy of ordinary farmers - 'freemen', in the parlance of the times,
meaning those not tied to a lord as vassals. The infrequent but bloody struggles between the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms during the early Middle Ages, and the Viking threat that followed, meant that the process of
levying troops to fight was still necessary. If people are fighting for their very homes and livelihoods - not
just a distant figurehead of a monarch - they tend to have a sense of purpose and urgency. Courage can
come later, bolstered by massed ranks in the mean time, as can proficiency - there was rarely much time
set aside for training amateurs before a battle. Originally, every able man was recruited to fight but this
revealed a flaw in that if a war or struggle became protracted, or if too many people died, then there would
be nobody to work the fields at its conclusion. To this end, the Anglo-Saxons developed what we now call the "select"
system, where only those deemed most able would be chosen to join the fyrd. The remainder would stay at work,
creating a surplus of provisions and equipment for both the marching army and those left behind in order to sustain the
realm and improve the army's chances of victory. In practice, the majority of men were not levied, so many were
expected to service the war machine in other practical ways. The fyrd were called upon on many occasions during the
years of the Viking invasions, most famously to fight the Norwegian king Harold Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford
Bridge in 1066, just weeks before the cataclysmic Saxon defeat at Hastings.
Select Spearmen
The 'fyrd' was, in the simplest terms, a levy of ordinary farmers - 'freemen', in the parlance of the times,
meaning those not tied to a lord as vassals. The infrequent but bloody struggles between the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms during the early Middle Ages, and the Viking threat that followed, meant that the process of
levying troops to fight was still necessary. If people are fighting for their very homes and livelihoods - not
just a distant figurehead of a monarch - they tend to have a sense of purpose and urgency. Courage can
come later, bolstered by massed ranks in the mean time, as can proficiency - there was rarely much time
set aside for training amateurs before a battle. Originally, every able man was recruited to fight but this
revealed a flaw in that if a war or struggle became protracted, or if too many people died, then there would
be nobody to work the fields at its conclusion. To this end, the Anglo-Saxons developed what we now call
the "select" system, where only those deemed most able would be chosen to join the fyrd. The remainder
would stay at work, creating a surplus of provisions and equipment for both the marching army and those left behind in
order to sustain the realm and improve the army's chances of victory. In practice, the majority of men were not levied,
so many were expected to service the war machine in other practical ways. The fyrd were called upon on many
occasions during the years of the Viking invasions, most famously to fight the Norwegian king Harold Hardrada at the
Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066, just weeks before the cataclysmic Saxon defeat at Hastings.
Thegn Spearmen
The spear has been around almost as long as people have, having been employed for hunting and fishing
long before war. A versatile weapon, it could be held in either one or both hands and used for thrusting in
melee, throwing during skirmishes, or braced in formation to stop cavalry charges. The spear was the most
commonly-used weapon through antiquity and remained so into the Middle Ages; elite warriors had the
time to learn and master the polearm, yet the common man could also be taught the basics of handling one
in battle in short space of time. Unearthed Saxon spears have broad heads with wings along the blade to stop enemy
swords and spears travelling down it, whereas others are thinner and longer to allow for deeper penetration when
stabbing opponents. Naturally, the development of heavy cavalry led to longer, heavier variants (the lance) and then to
pikes – which could be braced to unseat horsemen or massed to create an almost impenetrable wall. Most spearmen of
the period also carried a shield to provide additional defence and make spear or shield walls, which were virtually
impenetrable and particularly effective against cavalry charges.

Kingdom of Mercia (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry

Horsemen
Cavalry was far-less prominent amongst Anglo-Saxon forces than in other nations of the early Middle Ages.
Their ancestors, the forest-dwelling Germanic tribes of the continent, famously had access to very few
horses compared to their Roman or steppe nomad opponents and, other than references to pack animals
pulling transport goods and supplies and messengers, little evidence of their military use has been found.
However, in later centuries, there appears to have been a determined attempt by successive Saxon kings to
breed a stock of hardy warhorses. The Anglo-Saxon thegns were usually seen atop horses, although rarely
did they ride during battle due to the long-held "barbarian" tradition of fighting on foot and in melee as the
preferred, most honourable method of combat. The Church, furthermore, was heavily involved in the
raising of royal cavalry during later centuries – a prime example being in AD875, when the Worcester diocese was made
responsible for the breeding and care of horses for the Mercian king, Ceowulf.
Royal Horsemen
Cavalry was far-less prominent amongst Anglo-Saxon forces than in other nations of the early Middle Ages.
Their ancestors, the forest-dwelling Germanic tribes of the continent, famously had access to very few
horses compared to their Roman or steppe nomad opponents and, other than references to pack animals
pulling transport goods and supplies and messengers, little evidence of their military use has been found.
However, in later centuries, there appears to have been a determined attempt by successive Saxon kings to
breed a stock of hardy warhorses. The Anglo-Saxon thegns were usually seen atop horses, although rarely
did they ride during battle due to the long-held "barbarian" tradition of fighting on foot and in melee as the
preferred, most honourable method of combat. The Church, furthermore, was heavily involved in the
raising of royal cavalry during later centuries – a prime example being in AD875, when the Worcester
diocese was made responsible for the breeding and care of horses for the Mercian king, Ceowulf.

Kingdom of Mercia (Age of Charlemagne) Field Artillery

Bastion Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon
became a staple of siege warfare.
Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
 REINO DE KENT
Kingdom of Kent (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry
Royal Companions
As retainers of the Anglo-Saxon king, 'thegns' were de-facto noblemen, though in reality they ranked
between freemen and those of actual noble blood. These men were, and had always been, warriors,
rallying to their king's side during wartime to command the army. Some thegns became more powerful still,
being directly involved with the running of the Saxon state in addition to their military duties. Despite this,
thegns still formed the backbone of Anglo-Saxon armies and as such were better trained and equipped than
the common, levied fyrd. In the past, their equivalent - the 'gesith' - were the tribal leader's personal
companions, his stalwart retainers, champions, and defenders on the battlefield. Eventually, following the
emergence of the European kingdoms during the Dark Ages, their services were rewarded with lands and
titles as a precursor to the concept of fealty and vassalage.

Kingdom of Kent (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry

Fyrd Axemen
The 'fyrd' was, in the simplest terms, a levy of ordinary farmers - 'freemen', in the parlance of the times,
meaning those not tied to a lord as vassals. The infrequent but bloody struggles between the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms during the early Middle Ages, and the Viking threat that followed, meant that the process of
levying troops to fight was still necessary. If people are fighting for their very homes and livelihoods - not
just a distant figurehead of a monarch - they tend to have a sense of purpose and urgency. Courage can
come later, bolstered by massed ranks in the mean time, as can proficiency - there was rarely much time
set aside for training amateurs before a battle. Originally, every able man was recruited to fight but this
revealed a flaw in that if a war or struggle became protracted, or if too many people died, then there would
be nobody to work the fields at its conclusion. To this end, the Anglo-Saxons developed what we now call the "select"
system, where only those deemed most able would be chosen to join the fyrd. The remainder would stay at work,
creating a surplus of provisions and equipment for both the marching army and those left behind in order to sustain the
realm and improve the army's chances of victory. In practice, the majority of men were not levied, so many were
expected to service the war machine in other practical ways. The fyrd were called upon on many occasions during the
years of the Viking invasions, most famously to fight the Norwegian king Harold Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford
Bridge in 1066, just weeks before the cataclysmic Saxon defeat at Hastings.

Royal Thegns
As retainers of the Anglo-Saxon king, 'thegns' were de-facto noblemen, though in reality they ranked
between freemen and those of actual noble blood. These men were, and had always been, warriors,
rallying to their king's side during wartime to command the army. Some thegns became more powerful still,
being directly involved with the running of the Saxon state in addition to their military duties. Despite this,
thegns still formed the backbone of Anglo-Saxon armies and as such were better trained and equipped than
the common, levied fyrd. In the past, their equivalent - the 'gesith' - were the tribal leader's personal
companions, his stalwart retainers, champions, and defenders on the battlefield. Eventually, following the
emergence of the European kingdoms during the Dark Ages, their services were rewarded with lands and
titles as a precursor to the concept of fealty and vassalage.
 Select Axemen
The 'fyrd' was, in the simplest terms, a levy of ordinary farmers - 'freemen', in the parlance of the times,
meaning those not tied to a lord as vassals. The infrequent but bloody struggles between the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms during the early Middle Ages, and the Viking threat that followed, meant that the process of
levying troops to fight was still necessary. If people are fighting for their very homes and livelihoods - not
just a distant figurehead of a monarch - they tend to have a sense of purpose and urgency. Courage can
come later, bolstered by massed ranks in the mean time, as can proficiency - there was rarely much time
set aside for training amateurs before a battle. Originally, every able man was recruited to fight but this
revealed a flaw in that if a war or struggle became protracted, or if too many people died, then there would
be nobody to work the fields at its conclusion. To this end, the Anglo-Saxons developed what we now call
the "select" system, where only those deemed most able would be chosen to join the fyrd. The remainder
would stay at work, creating a surplus of provisions and equipment for both the marching army and those left behind in
order to sustain the realm and improve the army's chances of victory. In practice, the majority of men were not levied,
so many were expected to service the war machine in other practical ways. The fyrd were called upon on many
occasions during the years of the Viking invasions, most famously to fight the Norwegian king Harold Hardrada at the
Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066, just weeks before the cataclysmic Saxon defeat at Hastings.
Thegns
As retainers of the Anglo-Saxon king, 'thegns' were de-facto noblemen, though in reality they ranked
between freemen and those of actual noble blood. These men were, and had always been, warriors,
rallying to their king's side during wartime to command the army. Some thegns became more powerful still,
being directly involved with the running of the Saxon state in addition to their military duties. Despite this,
thegns still formed the backbone of Anglo-Saxon armies and as such were better trained and equipped than
the common, levied fyrd. In the past, their equivalent - the 'gesith' - were the tribal leader's personal
companions, his stalwart retainers, champions, and defenders on the battlefield. Eventually, following the
emergence of the European kingdoms during the Dark Ages, their services were rewarded with lands and
titles as a precursor to the concept of fealty and vassalage.

Kingdom of Kent (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Infantry

Fyrd Archers
Whilst archers had their place in the battle lines of Anglo-Saxon armies they were never used in large
numbers, as traditional military values placed greater importance on melee infantry and the glory to be
gained through hand-to-hand combat; for instance, only one archer is depicted amongst the English forces
on the Bayeux Tapestry. Whilst a thegn may have been trained in how to use a bow as a hunting weapon,
standard fyrdmen would not have had that advantage. Those who were, however, commonly used the
longbow - which became more common across Europe during the early Middle Ages. Made of yew or ash,
with bowstrings of looped and corded linen, longbows were superior to selfbows. British proponents of the
longbow, mainly the English and Welsh, became renowned for their skill with the weapon in later centuries
- the most famous example being the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, when English archers were key to the defeat of a
supposedly-superior French army.
Fyrd Javelinmen
Until very recently, when mechanisation reduced the amount of close-quarters fighting required,
skirmishers were used to harass, never giving the enemy pause to regroup and distracting them until melee
troops or cavalry could pin them down. In the ancient world, particularly among the 'civilised' states of the
Mediterranean, many skirmishers were considered highly skilled, with places such as Crete and the Balearic
Islands specialising in producing first class archers, slingers and javelineers. In the north and west of Europe,
such weapons were generally thought considered cowardly - only fighting hand-to-hand in melee carried
the required amount of honour and glory with it. As antiquity gave way to the Middle Ages, and tribal
society subsided to the more hierarchical feudal system, good skirmishers were highly valued once again.
Aside from the longbow, the javelin remained their favoured weapon, particularly when fighting from
horseback; a rider could hurl his weapon at the enemy and be far away before they had time to react. If
they were foolish enough to turn and face the threat, they could be blinded to an infantry or cavalry charge bearing
down upon them.

Fyrd Slingers
The sling is one of the oldest ranged weapons in existence, possibly dating back to before the Neolithic
period. Its use throughout history is evidenced by depictions upon Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs, as well as
those of later times, such as Trajan's Column and the Bayeux Tapestry. A sling is essentially a length of
material (usually leather, but sometimes stretched pig bladder) with a cradle in the centre to hold a stone.
The slinger then holds the ends and spins the sling to generate momentum. By extending his arm and simultaneously
increasing the force of the spin, then releasing the stone at the precise moment, the slingshot can be flung a large
distance - far greater than would be possible without it. Many young people grew up throwing stones found on the river
beds of Europe, giving them a natural advantage when applying the skill to combat. Rocks and stones were in ready
supply so, whilst spears may have needed repair after a battle, slingers were always well provisioned. Often people of
low status in society, and therefore in battle, slingers would typically take up position behind veteran warriors, providing
a blanket of slingshots to hamper the enemy when charging. In return, the veterans would use their shields to safeguard
the slingers as they unleashed their missiles. Slingshot could be an effective weapon against close enemy formations or
cavalry.
Select Archers
Whilst archers had their place in the battle lines of Anglo-Saxon armies they were never used in large
numbers, as traditional military values placed greater importance on melee infantry and the glory to be
gained through hand-to-hand combat; for instance, only one archer is depicted amongst the English forces
on the Bayeux Tapestry. Whilst a thegn may have been trained in how to use a bow as a hunting weapon,
standard fyrdmen would not have had that advantage. Those who were, however, commonly used the
longbow - which became more common across Europe during the early Middle Ages. Made of yew or ash,
with bowstrings of looped and corded linen, longbows were superior to selfbows. British proponents of the
longbow, mainly the English and Welsh, became renowned for their skill with the weapon in later centuries
- the most famous example being the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, when English archers were key to the
defeat of a supposedly-superior French army.

Kingdom of Kent (Age of Charlemagne) Spear Infantry

Fyrd Spearmen
The 'fyrd' was, in the simplest terms, a levy of ordinary farmers - 'freemen', in the parlance of the times,
meaning those not tied to a lord as vassals. The infrequent but bloody struggles between the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms during the early Middle Ages, and the Viking threat that followed, meant that the process of
levying troops to fight was still necessary. If people are fighting for their very homes and livelihoods - not
just a distant figurehead of a monarch - they tend to have a sense of purpose and urgency. Courage can
come later, bolstered by massed ranks in the mean time, as can proficiency - there was rarely much time
set aside for training amateurs before a battle. Originally, every able man was recruited to fight but this
revealed a flaw in that if a war or struggle became protracted, or if too many people died, then there would
be nobody to work the fields at its conclusion. To this end, the Anglo-Saxons developed what we now call the "select"
system, where only those deemed most able would be chosen to join the fyrd. The remainder would stay at work,
creating a surplus of provisions and equipment for both the marching army and those left behind in order to sustain the
realm and improve the army's chances of victory. In practice, the majority of men were not levied, so many were
expected to service the war machine in other practical ways. The fyrd were called upon on many occasions during the
years of the Viking invasions, most famously to fight the Norwegian king Harold Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford
Bridge in 1066, just weeks before the cataclysmic Saxon defeat at Hastings.
Select Spearmen
The 'fyrd' was, in the simplest terms, a levy of ordinary farmers - 'freemen', in the parlance of the times,
meaning those not tied to a lord as vassals. The infrequent but bloody struggles between the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms during the early Middle Ages, and the Viking threat that followed, meant that the process of
levying troops to fight was still necessary. If people are fighting for their very homes and livelihoods - not
just a distant figurehead of a monarch - they tend to have a sense of purpose and urgency. Courage can
come later, bolstered by massed ranks in the mean time, as can proficiency - there was rarely much time
set aside for training amateurs before a battle. Originally, every able man was recruited to fight but this
revealed a flaw in that if a war or struggle became protracted, or if too many people died, then there would
be nobody to work the fields at its conclusion. To this end, the Anglo-Saxons developed what we now call
the "select" system, where only those deemed most able would be chosen to join the fyrd. The remainder
would stay at work, creating a surplus of provisions and equipment for both the marching army and those left behind in
order to sustain the realm and improve the army's chances of victory. In practice, the majority of men were not levied,
so many were expected to service the war machine in other practical ways. The fyrd were called upon on many
occasions during the years of the Viking invasions, most famously to fight the Norwegian king Harold Hardrada at the
Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066, just weeks before the cataclysmic Saxon defeat at Hastings.
Thegn Spearmen
The spear has been around almost as long as people have, having been employed for hunting and fishing
long before war. A versatile weapon, it could be held in either one or both hands and used for thrusting in
melee, throwing during skirmishes, or braced in formation to stop cavalry charges. The spear was the most
commonly-used weapon through antiquity and remained so into the Middle Ages; elite warriors had the
time to learn and master the polearm, yet the common man could also be taught the basics of handling one in battle in
short space of time. Unearthed Saxon spears have broad heads with wings along the blade to stop enemy swords and
spears travelling down it, whereas others are thinner and longer to allow for deeper penetration when stabbing
opponents. Naturally, the development of heavy cavalry led to longer, heavier variants (the lance) and then to pikes –
which could be braced to unseat horsemen or massed to create an almost impenetrable wall. Most spearmen of the
period also carried a shield to provide additional defence and make spear or shield walls, which were virtually
impenetrable and particularly effective against cavalry charges.

Kingdom of Kent (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry

Horsemen
Cavalry was far-less prominent amongst Anglo-Saxon forces than in other nations of the early Middle Ages.
Their ancestors, the forest-dwelling Germanic tribes of the continent, famously had access to very few
horses compared to their Roman or steppe nomad opponents and, other than references to pack animals
pulling transport goods and supplies and messengers, little evidence of their military use has been found.
However, in later centuries, there appears to have been a determined attempt by successive Saxon kings to
breed a stock of hardy warhorses. The Anglo-Saxon thegns were usually seen atop horses, although rarely
did they ride during battle due to the long-held "barbarian" tradition of fighting on foot and in melee as the
preferred, most honourable method of combat. The Church, furthermore, was heavily involved in the
raising of royal cavalry during later centuries – a prime example being in AD875, when the Worcester diocese was made
responsible for the breeding and care of horses for the Mercian king, Ceowulf.
Royal Horsemen
Cavalry was far-less prominent amongst Anglo-Saxon forces than in other nations of the early Middle Ages.
Their ancestors, the forest-dwelling Germanic tribes of the continent, famously had access to very few
horses compared to their Roman or steppe nomad opponents and, other than references to pack animals
pulling transport goods and supplies and messengers, little evidence of their military use has been found.
However, in later centuries, there appears to have been a determined attempt by successive Saxon kings to
breed a stock of hardy warhorses. The Anglo-Saxon thegns were usually seen atop horses, although rarely
did they ride during battle due to the long-held "barbarian" tradition of fighting on foot and in melee as the
preferred, most honourable method of combat. The Church, furthermore, was heavily involved in the
raising of royal cavalry during later centuries – a prime example being in AD875, when the Worcester
diocese was made responsible for the breeding and care of horses for the Mercian king, Ceowulf.

Kingdom of Kent (Age of Charlemagne) Field Artillery

Bastion Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon
became a staple of siege warfare.
Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
 REINO DE WESSEX
Kingdom of Wessex (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry
Royal Companions
As retainers of the Anglo-Saxon king, 'thegns' were de-facto noblemen, though in reality they ranked
between freemen and those of actual noble blood. These men were, and had always been, warriors,
rallying to their king's side during wartime to command the army. Some thegns became more powerful still,
being directly involved with the running of the Saxon state in addition to their military duties. Despite this,
thegns still formed the backbone of Anglo-Saxon armies and as such were better trained and equipped than
the common, levied fyrd. In the past, their equivalent - the 'gesith' - were the tribal leader's personal
companions, his stalwart retainers, champions, and defenders on the battlefield. Eventually, following the
emergence of the European kingdoms during the Dark Ages, their services were rewarded with lands and
titles as a precursor to the concept of fealty and vassalage.

Kingdom of Wessex (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry

Fyrd Axemen
The 'fyrd' was, in the simplest terms, a levy of ordinary farmers - 'freemen', in the parlance of the times,
meaning those not tied to a lord as vassals. The infrequent but bloody struggles between the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms during the early Middle Ages, and the Viking threat that followed, meant that the process of
levying troops to fight was still necessary. If people are fighting for their very homes and livelihoods - not
just a distant figurehead of a monarch - they tend to have a sense of purpose and urgency. Courage can
come later, bolstered by massed ranks in the mean time, as can proficiency - there was rarely much time
set aside for training amateurs before a battle. Originally, every able man was recruited to fight but this
revealed a flaw in that if a war or struggle became protracted, or if too many people died, then there would
be nobody to work the fields at its conclusion. To this end, the Anglo-Saxons developed what we now call the "select"
system, where only those deemed most able would be chosen to join the fyrd. The remainder would stay at work,
creating a surplus of provisions and equipment for both the marching army and those left behind in order to sustain the
realm and improve the army's chances of victory. In practice, the majority of men were not levied, so many were
expected to service the war machine in other practical ways. The fyrd were called upon on many occasions during the
years of the Viking invasions, most famously to fight the Norwegian king Harold Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford
Bridge in 1066, just weeks before the cataclysmic Saxon defeat at Hastings.
Royal Thegns
As retainers of the Anglo-Saxon king, 'thegns' were de-facto noblemen, though in reality they ranked
between freemen and those of actual noble blood. These men were, and had always been, warriors,
rallying to their king's side during wartime to command the army. Some thegns became more powerful still,
being directly involved with the running of the Saxon state in addition to their military duties. Despite this,
thegns still formed the backbone of Anglo-Saxon armies and as such were better trained and equipped than
the common, levied fyrd. In the past, their equivalent - the 'gesith' - were the tribal leader's personal
companions, his stalwart retainers, champions, and defenders on the battlefield. Eventually, following the
emergence of the European kingdoms during the Dark Ages, their services were rewarded with lands and
titles as a precursor to the concept of fealty and vassalage.
 Select Axemen
The 'fyrd' was, in the simplest terms, a levy of ordinary farmers - 'freemen', in the parlance of the times,
meaning those not tied to a lord as vassals. The infrequent but bloody struggles between the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms during the early Middle Ages, and the Viking threat that followed, meant that the process of
levying troops to fight was still necessary. If people are fighting for their very homes and livelihoods - not
just a distant figurehead of a monarch - they tend to have a sense of purpose and urgency. Courage can
come later, bolstered by massed ranks in the mean time, as can proficiency - there was rarely much time
set aside for training amateurs before a battle. Originally, every able man was recruited to fight but this
revealed a flaw in that if a war or struggle became protracted, or if too many people died, then there would
be nobody to work the fields at its conclusion. To this end, the Anglo-Saxons developed what we now call
the "select" system, where only those deemed most able would be chosen to join the fyrd. The remainder
would stay at work, creating a surplus of provisions and equipment for both the marching army and those left behind in
order to sustain the realm and improve the army's chances of victory. In practice, the majority of men were not levied,
so many were expected to service the war machine in other practical ways. The fyrd were called upon on many
occasions during the years of the Viking invasions, most famously to fight the Norwegian king Harold Hardrada at the
Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066, just weeks before the cataclysmic Saxon defeat at Hastings.
Thegns
As retainers of the Anglo-Saxon king, 'thegns' were de-facto noblemen, though in reality they ranked
between freemen and those of actual noble blood. These men were, and had always been, warriors,
rallying to their king's side during wartime to command the army. Some thegns became more powerful still,
being directly involved with the running of the Saxon state in addition to their military duties. Despite this,
thegns still formed the backbone of Anglo-Saxon armies and as such were better trained and equipped than
the common, levied fyrd. In the past, their equivalent - the 'gesith' - were the tribal leader's personal
companions, his stalwart retainers, champions, and defenders on the battlefield. Eventually, following the
emergence of the European kingdoms during the Dark Ages, their services were rewarded with lands and
titles as a precursor to the concept of fealty and vassalage.

Kingdom of Wessex (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Infantry

Fyrd Archers
Whilst archers had their place in the battle lines of Anglo-Saxon armies they were never used in large
numbers, as traditional military values placed greater importance on melee infantry and the glory to be
gained through hand-to-hand combat; for instance, only one archer is depicted amongst the English forces
on the Bayeux Tapestry. Whilst a thegn may have been trained in how to use a bow as a hunting weapon,
standard fyrdmen would not have had that advantage. Those who were, however, commonly used the
longbow - which became more common across Europe during the early Middle Ages. Made of yew or ash,
with bowstrings of looped and corded linen, longbows were superior to selfbows. British proponents of the
longbow, mainly the English and Welsh, became renowned for their skill with the weapon in later centuries
- the most famous example being the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, when English archers were key to the defeat of a
supposedly-superior French army.
Fyrd Javelinmen
Until very recently, when mechanisation reduced the amount of close-quarters fighting required,
skirmishers were used to harass, never giving the enemy pause to regroup and distracting them until melee
troops or cavalry could pin them down. In the ancient world, particularly among the 'civilised' states of the
Mediterranean, many skirmishers were considered highly skilled, with places such as Crete and the Balearic
Islands specialising in producing first class archers, slingers and javelineers. In the north and west of Europe,
such weapons were generally thought considered cowardly - only fighting hand-to-hand in melee carried
the required amount of honour and glory with it. As antiquity gave way to the Middle Ages, and tribal
society subsided to the more hierarchical feudal system, good skirmishers were highly valued once again.
Aside from the longbow, the javelin remained their favoured weapon, particularly when fighting from
horseback; a rider could hurl his weapon at the enemy and be far away before they had time to react. If
they were foolish enough to turn and face the threat, they could be blinded to an infantry or cavalry charge bearing
down upon them.
Fyrd Slingers
The sling is one of the oldest ranged weapons in existence, possibly dating back to before the Neolithic
period. Its use throughout history is evidenced by depictions upon Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs, as well as
those of later times, such as Trajan's Column and the Bayeux Tapestry. A sling is essentially a length of
material (usually leather, but sometimes stretched pig bladder) with a cradle in the centre to hold a stone.
The slinger then holds the ends and spins the sling to generate momentum. By extending his arm and
simultaneously increasing the force of the spin, then releasing the stone at the precise moment, the slingshot can be
flung a large distance - far greater than would be possible without it. Many young people grew up throwing stones found
on the river beds of Europe, giving them a natural advantage when applying the skill to combat. Rocks and stones were
in ready supply so, whilst spears may have needed repair after a battle, slingers were always well provisioned. Often
people of low status in society, and therefore in battle, slingers would typically take up position behind veteran warriors,
providing a blanket of slingshots to hamper the enemy when charging. In return, the veterans would use their shields to
safeguard the slingers as they unleashed their missiles. Slingshot could be an effective weapon against close enemy
formations or cavalry.

Select Archers
Whilst archers had their place in the battle lines of Anglo-Saxon armies they were never used in large
numbers, as traditional military values placed greater importance on melee infantry and the glory to be
gained through hand-to-hand combat; for instance, only one archer is depicted amongst the English forces
on the Bayeux Tapestry. Whilst a thegn may have been trained in how to use a bow as a hunting weapon,
standard fyrdmen would not have had that advantage. Those who were, however, commonly used the
longbow - which became more common across Europe during the early Middle Ages. Made of yew or ash,
with bowstrings of looped and corded linen, longbows were superior to selfbows. British proponents of the
longbow, mainly the English and Welsh, became renowned for their skill with the weapon in later centuries
- the most famous example being the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, when English archers were key to the
defeat of a supposedly-superior French army.

Kingdom of Wessex (Age of Charlemagne) Spear Infantry

Fyrd Spearmen
The 'fyrd' was, in the simplest terms, a levy of ordinary farmers - 'freemen', in the parlance of the times,
meaning those not tied to a lord as vassals. The infrequent but bloody struggles between the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms during the early Middle Ages, and the Viking threat that followed, meant that the process of
levying troops to fight was still necessary. If people are fighting for their very homes and livelihoods - not
just a distant figurehead of a monarch - they tend to have a sense of purpose and urgency. Courage can
come later, bolstered by massed ranks in the mean time, as can proficiency - there was rarely much time
set aside for training amateurs before a battle. Originally, every able man was recruited to fight but this
revealed a flaw in that if a war or struggle became protracted, or if too many people died, then there would
be nobody to work the fields at its conclusion. To this end, the Anglo-Saxons developed what we now call the "select"
system, where only those deemed most able would be chosen to join the fyrd. The remainder would stay at work,
creating a surplus of provisions and equipment for both the marching army and those left behind in order to sustain the
realm and improve the army's chances of victory. In practice, the majority of men were not levied, so many were
expected to service the war machine in other practical ways. The fyrd were called upon on many occasions during the
years of the Viking invasions, most famously to fight the Norwegian king Harold Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford
Bridge in 1066, just weeks before the cataclysmic Saxon defeat at Hastings.
Select Spearmen
The 'fyrd' was, in the simplest terms, a levy of ordinary farmers - 'freemen', in the parlance of the times,
meaning those not tied to a lord as vassals. The infrequent but bloody struggles between the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms during the early Middle Ages, and the Viking threat that followed, meant that the process of
levying troops to fight was still necessary. If people are fighting for their very homes and livelihoods - not
just a distant figurehead of a monarch - they tend to have a sense of purpose and urgency. Courage can
come later, bolstered by massed ranks in the mean time, as can proficiency - there was rarely much time
set aside for training amateurs before a battle. Originally, every able man was recruited to fight but this
revealed a flaw in that if a war or struggle became protracted, or if too many people died, then there would
be nobody to work the fields at its conclusion. To this end, the Anglo-Saxons developed what we now call
the "select" system, where only those deemed most able would be chosen to join the fyrd. The remainder
would stay at work, creating a surplus of provisions and equipment for both the marching army and those left behind in
order to sustain the realm and improve the army's chances of victory. In practice, the majority of men were not levied,
so many were expected to service the war machine in other practical ways. The fyrd were called upon on many
occasions during the years of the Viking invasions, most famously to fight the Norwegian king Harold Hardrada at the
Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066, just weeks before the cataclysmic Saxon defeat at Hastings.
Thegn Spearmen
The spear has been around almost as long as people have, having been employed for hunting and fishing
long before war. A versatile weapon, it could be held in either one or both hands and used for thrusting in
melee, throwing during skirmishes, or braced in formation to stop cavalry charges. The spear was the most
commonly-used weapon through antiquity and remained so into the Middle Ages; elite warriors had the
time to learn and master the polearm, yet the common man could also be taught the basics of handling one in battle in
short space of time. Unearthed Saxon spears have broad heads with wings along the blade to stop enemy swords and
spears travelling down it, whereas others are thinner and longer to allow for deeper penetration when stabbing
opponents. Naturally, the development of heavy cavalry led to longer, heavier variants (the lance) and then to pikes –
which could be braced to unseat horsemen or massed to create an almost impenetrable wall. Most spearmen of the
period also carried a shield to provide additional defence and make spear or shield walls, which were virtually
impenetrable and particularly effective against cavalry charges.

Kingdom of Wessex (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry

Horsemen
Cavalry was far-less prominent amongst Anglo-Saxon forces than in other nations of the early Middle Ages.
Their ancestors, the forest-dwelling Germanic tribes of the continent, famously had access to very few
horses compared to their Roman or steppe nomad opponents and, other than references to pack animals
pulling transport goods and supplies and messengers, little evidence of their military use has been found.
However, in later centuries, there appears to have been a determined attempt by successive Saxon kings to
breed a stock of hardy warhorses. The Anglo-Saxon thegns were usually seen atop horses, although rarely
did they ride during battle due to the long-held "barbarian" tradition of fighting on foot and in melee as the
preferred, most honourable method of combat. The Church, furthermore, was heavily involved in the
raising of royal cavalry during later centuries – a prime example being in AD875, when the Worcester diocese was made
responsible for the breeding and care of horses for the Mercian king, Ceowulf.
Royal Horsemen
Cavalry was far-less prominent amongst Anglo-Saxon forces than in other nations of the early Middle Ages.
Their ancestors, the forest-dwelling Germanic tribes of the continent, famously had access to very few
horses compared to their Roman or steppe nomad opponents and, other than references to pack animals
pulling transport goods and supplies and messengers, little evidence of their military use has been found.
However, in later centuries, there appears to have been a determined attempt by successive Saxon kings to
breed a stock of hardy warhorses. The Anglo-Saxon thegns were usually seen atop horses, although rarely
did they ride during battle due to the long-held "barbarian" tradition of fighting on foot and in melee as the
preferred, most honourable method of combat. The Church, furthermore, was heavily involved in the
raising of royal cavalry during later centuries – a prime example being in AD875, when the Worcester
diocese was made responsible for the breeding and care of horses for the Mercian king, Ceowulf.

Kingdom of Wessex (Age of Charlemagne) Field Artillery

Bastion Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon
became a staple of siege warfare.
Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
 REINO DE GLYWYSING
Kingdom of Glywysing (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry
Teulu
The 'teulu' were the personal bodyguard of the Welsh chieftains. They followed a tradition common in
other Anglo-Saxon and Germanic societies of the time, whereby close companions and retainers to the lord
or king fought alongside him in battle with unwavering loyalty and skill. In this way they are analogous to
the hearth companions of the Saxons and the housecarls of the Danes and Anglo-Saxons. Teulu literally
means 'family', which implies the close bond they shared with their lord. Riding into battle carrying spears
and shields, clad in mail, they were in many ways much like early knights. On the battlefield they were
visibly-similar, charging down their enemies with spear or lance in their lord's name.

Kingdom of Glywysing (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry

Axemen
Celtic warriors were ideally equipped to hack through even heavily-armoured foes. Their axes took one of
two forms: one-handed axes were typical, and the most practical, but two-handed axes were also used. In
comparison to swords, axes were cheap to make, and were effective against chainmail, as a blow could still
shatter bone and crush the organs beneath the armour. They could also be used to pull aside shields, or
hack them apart. Like other Celtic troops, the lightly-armoured axemen relied on their own shields for
defence. There was a long tradition, perhaps dating as far back as the Stone Age, of veneration for axes and
hammers in Celtic cultures. Although both were associated with strength, axes in particular were used as
grave goods and even depicted on coins celebrating victories.
Gazehounds
Dogs have always been useful for guard, patrol and scout work. With skilled handlers they can also be used
effectively on the battlefield. Attack dogs were specifically bred and trained to ignore the noise and chaos
of combat. Taught to attack on command, they were starved a little to ensure aggression before being
unleashed upon enemy formations as a savage wave. Faced with a pack of foaming, hungry dogs many men
naturally broke or faltered, opening gaps in a battle line that could then be exploited by melee troops.

Swordsmen
Originally a rare weapon of quite some prestige, the sword became more common in the early Middle
Ages, with blades produced on a larger scale to more standardised specifications. The spatha of the
Roman period became the basis of Viking and Carolingian longswords. These single-handed blades,
with triangular pommels and short grips, were widely used, not only by the Viking Danes but right
across Europe. Swords during the era were chiefly produced by the Franks and obtained by the
Danes through either trade or, as is more likely, raiding, pillaging and looting of Frankish possessions.
Although they were all of a roughly similar length, there were variances of several inches as, although
they were more speedily produced, mass-production of arms and armour, and the standardisation and quality control
that went with it, was still a rarity at that time.

Kingdom of Glywysing (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Infantry

Javelinmen
As far as the Celts were concerned, the best way to kill a man was in hand-to-hand combat. They thought
there was great value in personal bravery and there was no honour in killing from a distance. Even so,
slingers, javelinmen and archers still had their place on the battlefield. It was often the only way that some
Celts could go to war; warriors paid for their own equipment, so only the wealthy could afford, or had the
right to carry, fine armour and weapons. Skirmishers were usually the poor - freemen who served as clients
to the noble class. While they could never hope to achieve the same status as their noble masters, they
could still prove their worth in the cut and thrust of battle.

Welsh Archers
As far as the Celts were concerned, the best way to kill a man was in hand-to-hand combat. They thought
there was great value in personal bravery and there was no honour in killing from a distance. Even so,
slingers, javelinmen and archers still had their place on the battlefield. It was often the only way that some
Celts could go to war; warriors paid for their own equipment, so only the wealthy could afford, or had the
right to carry, fine armour and weapons. Skirmishers were usually the poor - freemen who served as clients
to the noble class. While they could never hope to achieve the same status as their noble masters, they
could still prove their worth in the cut and thrust of battle.

Welsh Longbowmen
Whilst archers had their place in the battle lines of Celtic armies, they were never used in large numbers, as
traditional military values places important on melee infantry and the glory of hand-to-hand combat.
Whilst a noble may have been trained in how to use a bow as a hunting weapon, the standard freeman
would not have had such training, unless he were a forest-dweller, where hunting was crucial to survival.
Those who were, however, used the longbow that became common amongst the northwestern European
peoples. Made of yew or ash, with bowstrings of looped and corded linen, longbows were superior to
smaller varieties, particularly in Britain, where English and Welsh longbowmen became renowned for their
skill in later centuries.

Kingdom of Glywysing (Age of Charlemagne) Spear Infantry

Armoured Spearmen
The spear has been around almost as long as people have, having been employed for hunting and fishing
long before war. A versatile weapon, it could be held in either one or both hands and used for thrusting in
melee, throwing during skirmishes, or braced in formation to stop cavalry charges. The spear was the most
commonly-used weapon through antiquity and remained so into the Middle Ages; elite warriors had the
time to learn and master the polearm, yet the common man could also be taught the basics of handling one
in battle in short space of time. Unearthed Saxon spears have broad heads with wings along the blade to
stop enemy swords and spears travelling down it, whereas others are thinner and longer to allow for
deeper penetration when stabbing opponents. Naturally, the development of heavy cavalry led to longer,
heavier variants (the lance) and then to pikes – which could be braced to unseat horsemen or massed to create an
almost impenetrable wall. Most spearmen of the period also carried a shield to provide additional defence and make
spear or shield walls, which were virtually impenetrable and particularly effective against cavalry charges.

Levy Spearmen
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from
citizen and subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes
were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for promotion on
merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.

Spearmen
The spear has been around almost as long as people have, having been employed for hunting and fishing
long before war. A versatile weapon, it could be held in either one or both hands and used for thrusting in
melee, throwing during skirmishes, or braced in formation to stop cavalry charges. The spear was the most
commonly-used weapon through antiquity and remained so into the Middle Ages; elite warriors had the
time to learn and master the polearm, yet the common man could also be taught the basics of handling one
in battle in short space of time. Unearthed Saxon spears have broad heads with wings along the blade to
stop enemy swords and spears travelling down it, whereas others are thinner and longer to allow for
deeper penetration when stabbing opponents. Naturally, the development of heavy cavalry led to longer,
heavier variants (the lance) and then to pikes – which could be braced to unseat horsemen or massed to
create an almost impenetrable wall. Most spearmen of the period also carried a shield to provide
additional defence and make spear or shield walls, which were virtually impenetrable and particularly effective against
cavalry charges.

Kingdom of Glywysing (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry

Horsemen
Most armies of the early Middle Ages relied heavily on foot soldiers. This was due to the large number of
low-status soldiers with little equipment of their own – certainly not horses – and little real training to
speak of. In fact, cavalry-heavy forces were not generally part of the military fashion of the time until the
development of the stirrup and the peaked saddle made them more attractive to the western powers. The
stirrup increased the endurance, manoeuvrability and speed of the horse and reduced its rider's fatigue as
the animal was easier to control; this, along with advances in armour technology, meant cavalry – now as
heavy as the eastern cataphracts of antiquity - once again became a fixture on the battlefield.

Royal Horsemen
Most armies of the early Middle Ages relied heavily on foot soldiers. This was due to the large number of
low-status soldiers with little equipment of their own – certainly not horses – and little real training to
speak of. In fact, cavalry-heavy forces were not generally part of the military fashion of the time until the
development of the stirrup and the peaked saddle made them more attractive to the western powers. The
stirrup increased the endurance, manoeuvrability and speed of the horse and reduced its rider's fatigue as
the animal was easier to control; this, along with advances in armour technology, meant cavalry – now as
heavy as the eastern cataphracts of antiquity - once again became a fixture on the battlefield.

Kingdom of Glywysing (Age of Charlemagne) Field Artillery

Bastion Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon
became a staple of siege warfare.

Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager made use of a
sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks or shot through torsion. As
the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the projectile. A padded beam was incorporated
into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the
incredible recoil meant that they could not be easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed
wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
 REINO DE POWYS
Kingdom of Powys (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry
Teulu
The 'teulu' were the personal bodyguard of the Welsh chieftains. They followed a tradition common in
other Anglo-Saxon and Germanic societies of the time, whereby close companions and retainers to the lord
or king fought alongside him in battle with unwavering loyalty and skill. In this way they are analogous to
the hearth companions of the Saxons and the housecarls of the Danes and Anglo-Saxons. Teulu literally
means 'family', which implies the close bond they shared with their lord. Riding into battle carrying spears
and shields, clad in mail, they were in many ways much like early knights. On the battlefield they were
visibly-similar, charging down their enemies with spear or lance in their lord's name.

Kingdom of Powys (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry

Axemen
Celtic warriors were ideally equipped to hack through even heavily-armoured foes. Their axes took one of
two forms: one-handed axes were typical, and the most practical, but two-handed axes were also used. In
comparison to swords, axes were cheap to make, and were effective against chainmail, as a blow could still
shatter bone and crush the organs beneath the armour. They could also be used to pull aside shields, or
hack them apart. Like other Celtic troops, the lightly-armoured axemen relied on their own shields for
defence. There was a long tradition, perhaps dating as far back as the Stone Age, of veneration for axes and
hammers in Celtic cultures. Although both were associated with strength, axes in particular were used as
grave goods and even depicted on coins celebrating victories.
Gazehounds
Dogs have always been useful for guard, patrol and scout work. With skilled handlers they can also be used
effectively on the battlefield. Attack dogs were specifically bred and trained to ignore the noise and chaos
of combat. Taught to attack on command, they were starved a little to ensure aggression before being
unleashed upon enemy formations as a savage wave. Faced with a pack of foaming, hungry dogs many men
naturally broke or faltered, opening gaps in a battle line that could then be exploited by melee troops.

Swordsmen
Originally a rare weapon of quite some prestige, the sword became more common in the early Middle
Ages, with blades produced on a larger scale to more standardised specifications. The spatha of the
Roman period became the basis of Viking and Carolingian longswords. These single-handed blades,
with triangular pommels and short grips, were widely used, not only by the Viking Danes but right
across Europe. Swords during the era were chiefly produced by the Franks and obtained by the
Danes through either trade or, as is more likely, raiding, pillaging and looting of Frankish possessions.
Although they were all of a roughly similar length, there were variances of several inches as, although
they were more speedily produced, mass-production of arms and armour, and the standardisation and quality control
that went with it, was still a rarity at that time.

Kingdom of Powys (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Infantry

Javelinmen
As far as the Celts were concerned, the best way to kill a man was in hand-to-hand combat. They thought
there was great value in personal bravery and there was no honour in killing from a distance. Even so,
slingers, javelinmen and archers still had their place on the battlefield. It was often the only way that some
Celts could go to war; warriors paid for their own equipment, so only the wealthy could afford, or had the
right to carry, fine armour and weapons. Skirmishers were usually the poor - freemen who served as clients
to the noble class. While they could never hope to achieve the same status as their noble masters, they
could still prove their worth in the cut and thrust of battle.

Welsh Archers
As far as the Celts were concerned, the best way to kill a man was in hand-to-hand combat. They thought
there was great value in personal bravery and there was no honour in killing from a distance. Even so,
slingers, javelinmen and archers still had their place on the battlefield. It was often the only way that some
Celts could go to war; warriors paid for their own equipment, so only the wealthy could afford, or had the
right to carry, fine armour and weapons. Skirmishers were usually the poor - freemen who served as clients
to the noble class. While they could never hope to achieve the same status as their noble masters, they
could still prove their worth in the cut and thrust of battle.

Welsh Longbowmen
Whilst archers had their place in the battle lines of Celtic armies, they were never used in large numbers, as
traditional military values places important on melee infantry and the glory of hand-to-hand combat.
Whilst a noble may have been trained in how to use a bow as a hunting weapon, the standard freeman
would not have had such training, unless he were a forest-dweller, where hunting was crucial to survival.
Those who were, however, used the longbow that became common amongst the northwestern European
peoples. Made of yew or ash, with bowstrings of looped and corded linen, longbows were superior to
smaller varieties, particularly in Britain, where English and Welsh longbowmen became renowned for their
skill in later centuries.

Kingdom of Powys (Age of Charlemagne) Spear Infantry

Armoured Spearmen
The spear has been around almost as long as people have, having been employed for hunting and fishing
long before war. A versatile weapon, it could be held in either one or both hands and used for thrusting in
melee, throwing during skirmishes, or braced in formation to stop cavalry charges. The spear was the most
commonly-used weapon through antiquity and remained so into the Middle Ages; elite warriors had the
time to learn and master the polearm, yet the common man could also be taught the basics of handling one
in battle in short space of time. Unearthed Saxon spears have broad heads with wings along the blade to
stop enemy swords and spears travelling down it, whereas others are thinner and longer to allow for
deeper penetration when stabbing opponents. Naturally, the development of heavy cavalry led to longer,
heavier variants (the lance) and then to pikes – which could be braced to unseat horsemen or massed to create an
almost impenetrable wall. Most spearmen of the period also carried a shield to provide additional defence and make
spear or shield walls, which were virtually impenetrable and particularly effective against cavalry charges.

Levy Spearmen
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from
citizen and subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes
were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for promotion on
merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.

Spearmen
The spear has been around almost as long as people have, having been employed for hunting and fishing
long before war. A versatile weapon, it could be held in either one or both hands and used for thrusting in
melee, throwing during skirmishes, or braced in formation to stop cavalry charges. The spear was the most
commonly-used weapon through antiquity and remained so into the Middle Ages; elite warriors had the
time to learn and master the polearm, yet the common man could also be taught the basics of handling one
in battle in short space of time. Unearthed Saxon spears have broad heads with wings along the blade to
stop enemy swords and spears travelling down it, whereas others are thinner and longer to allow for
deeper penetration when stabbing opponents. Naturally, the development of heavy cavalry led to longer,
heavier variants (the lance) and then to pikes – which could be braced to unseat horsemen or massed to
create an almost impenetrable wall. Most spearmen of the period also carried a shield to provide
additional defence and make spear or shield walls, which were virtually impenetrable and particularly effective against
cavalry charges.

Kingdom of Powys (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry

Horsemen
Most armies of the early Middle Ages relied heavily on foot soldiers. This was due to the large number of
low-status soldiers with little equipment of their own – certainly not horses – and little real training to
speak of. In fact, cavalry-heavy forces were not generally part of the military fashion of the time until the
development of the stirrup and the peaked saddle made them more attractive to the western powers. The
stirrup increased the endurance, manoeuvrability and speed of the horse and reduced its rider's fatigue as
the animal was easier to control; this, along with advances in armour technology, meant cavalry – now as
heavy as the eastern cataphracts of antiquity - once again became a fixture on the battlefield.

Royal Horsemen
Most armies of the early Middle Ages relied heavily on foot soldiers. This was due to the large number of
low-status soldiers with little equipment of their own – certainly not horses – and little real training to
speak of. In fact, cavalry-heavy forces were not generally part of the military fashion of the time until the
development of the stirrup and the peaked saddle made them more attractive to the western powers. The
stirrup increased the endurance, manoeuvrability and speed of the horse and reduced its rider's fatigue as
the animal was easier to control; this, along with advances in armour technology, meant cavalry – now as
heavy as the eastern cataphracts of antiquity - once again became a fixture on the battlefield.

Kingdom of Powys (Age of Charlemagne) Field Artillery

Bastion Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon
became a staple of siege warfare.

Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks or shot
through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the projectile. A padded beam
was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines could require as many as eight or ten
crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly
constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
 REINO DE GWYNEDD
Kingdom of Gwynedd (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry
Teulu
The 'teulu' were the personal bodyguard of the Welsh chieftains. They followed a tradition common in
other Anglo-Saxon and Germanic societies of the time, whereby close companions and retainers to the lord
or king fought alongside him in battle with unwavering loyalty and skill. In this way they are analogous to
the hearth companions of the Saxons and the housecarls of the Danes and Anglo-Saxons. Teulu literally
means 'family', which implies the close bond they shared with their lord. Riding into battle carrying spears
and shields, clad in mail, they were in many ways much like early knights. On the battlefield they were
visibly-similar, charging down their enemies with spear or lance in their lord's name.

Kingdom of Gwynedd (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry

Axemen
Celtic warriors were ideally equipped to hack through even heavily-armoured foes. Their axes took one of
two forms: one-handed axes were typical, and the most practical, but two-handed axes were also used. In
comparison to swords, axes were cheap to make, and were effective against chainmail, as a blow could still
shatter bone and crush the organs beneath the armour. They could also be used to pull aside shields, or
hack them apart. Like other Celtic troops, the lightly-armoured axemen relied on their own shields for
defence. There was a long tradition, perhaps dating as far back as the Stone Age, of veneration for axes and
hammers in Celtic cultures. Although both were associated with strength, axes in particular were used as
grave goods and even depicted on coins celebrating victories.
Gazehounds
Dogs have always been useful for guard, patrol and scout work. With skilled handlers they can also be used
effectively on the battlefield. Attack dogs were specifically bred and trained to ignore the noise and chaos
of combat. Taught to attack on command, they were starved a little to ensure aggression before being
unleashed upon enemy formations as a savage wave. Faced with a pack of foaming, hungry dogs many men
naturally broke or faltered, opening gaps in a battle line that could then be exploited by melee troops.

Swordsmen
Originally a rare weapon of quite some prestige, the sword became more common in the early Middle
Ages, with blades produced on a larger scale to more standardised specifications. The spatha of the Roman
period became the basis of Viking and Carolingian longswords. These single-handed blades, with triangular
pommels and short grips, were widely used, not only by the Viking Danes but right across Europe. Swords
during the era were chiefly produced by the Franks and obtained by the Danes through either trade or, as is
more likely, raiding, pillaging and looting of Frankish possessions. Although they were all of a roughly
similar length, there were variances of several inches as, although they were more speedily produced,
mass-production of arms and armour, and the standardisation and quality control that went with it, was still a rarity at
that time.

Kingdom of Gwynedd (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Infantry

Javelinmen
As far as the Celts were concerned, the best way to kill a man was in hand-to-hand combat. They thought
there was great value in personal bravery and there was no honour in killing from a distance. Even so,
slingers, javelinmen and archers still had their place on the battlefield. It was often the only way that some
Celts could go to war; warriors paid for their own equipment, so only the wealthy could afford, or had the
right to carry, fine armour and weapons. Skirmishers were usually the poor - freemen who served as clients
to the noble class. While they could never hope to achieve the same status as their noble masters, they
could still prove their worth in the cut and thrust of battle.

Welsh Archers
As far as the Celts were concerned, the best way to kill a man was in hand-to-hand combat. They thought
there was great value in personal bravery and there was no honour in killing from a distance. Even so,
slingers, javelinmen and archers still had their place on the battlefield. It was often the only way that some
Celts could go to war; warriors paid for their own equipment, so only the wealthy could afford, or had the
right to carry, fine armour and weapons. Skirmishers were usually the poor - freemen who served as clients
to the noble class. While they could never hope to achieve the same status as their noble masters, they
could still prove their worth in the cut and thrust of battle.

Welsh Longbowmen
Whilst archers had their place in the battle lines of Celtic armies, they were never used in large numbers, as
traditional military values places important on melee infantry and the glory of hand-to-hand combat.
Whilst a noble may have been trained in how to use a bow as a hunting weapon, the standard freeman
would not have had such training, unless he were a forest-dweller, where hunting was crucial to survival.
Those who were, however, used the longbow that became common amongst the northwestern European
peoples. Made of yew or ash, with bowstrings of looped and corded linen, longbows were superior to
smaller varieties, particularly in Britain, where English and Welsh longbowmen became renowned for their
skill in later centuries.

Kingdom of Gwynedd (Age of Charlemagne) Spear Infantry

Armoured Spearmen
The spear has been around almost as long as people have, having been employed for hunting and fishing
long before war. A versatile weapon, it could be held in either one or both hands and used for thrusting in
melee, throwing during skirmishes, or braced in formation to stop cavalry charges. The spear was the most
commonly-used weapon through antiquity and remained so into the Middle Ages; elite warriors had the
time to learn and master the polearm, yet the common man could also be taught the basics of handling one
in battle in short space of time. Unearthed Saxon spears have broad heads with wings along the blade to
stop enemy swords and spears travelling down it, whereas others are thinner and longer to allow for
deeper penetration when stabbing opponents. Naturally, the development of heavy cavalry led to longer,
heavier variants (the lance) and then to pikes – which could be braced to unseat horsemen or massed to create an
almost impenetrable wall. Most spearmen of the period also carried a shield to provide additional defence and make
spear or shield walls, which were virtually impenetrable and particularly effective against cavalry charges.

Levy Spearmen
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from
citizen and subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes
were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for promotion on
merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.

Spearmen
The spear has been around almost as long as people have, having been employed for hunting and fishing
long before war. A versatile weapon, it could be held in either one or both hands and used for thrusting in
melee, throwing during skirmishes, or braced in formation to stop cavalry charges. The spear was the most
commonly-used weapon through antiquity and remained so into the Middle Ages; elite warriors had the
time to learn and master the polearm, yet the common man could also be taught the basics of handling one
in battle in short space of time. Unearthed Saxon spears have broad heads with wings along the blade to
stop enemy swords and spears travelling down it, whereas others are thinner and longer to allow for
deeper penetration when stabbing opponents. Naturally, the development of heavy cavalry led to longer,
heavier variants (the lance) and then to pikes – which could be braced to unseat horsemen or massed to
create an almost impenetrable wall. Most spearmen of the period also carried a shield to provide
additional defence and make spear or shield walls, which were virtually impenetrable and particularly effective against
cavalry charges.

Kingdom of Gwynedd (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry

Horsemen
Most armies of the early Middle Ages relied heavily on foot soldiers. This was due to the large number of
low-status soldiers with little equipment of their own – certainly not horses – and little real training to
speak of. In fact, cavalry-heavy forces were not generally part of the military fashion of the time until the
development of the stirrup and the peaked saddle made them more attractive to the western powers. The
stirrup increased the endurance, manoeuvrability and speed of the horse and reduced its rider's fatigue as
the animal was easier to control; this, along with advances in armour technology, meant cavalry – now as
heavy as the eastern cataphracts of antiquity - once again became a fixture on the battlefield.

Royal Horsemen
Most armies of the early Middle Ages relied heavily on foot soldiers. This was due to the large number of
low-status soldiers with little equipment of their own – certainly not horses – and little real training to
speak of. In fact, cavalry-heavy forces were not generally part of the military fashion of the time until the
development of the stirrup and the peaked saddle made them more attractive to the western powers. The
stirrup increased the endurance, manoeuvrability and speed of the horse and reduced its rider's fatigue as
the animal was easier to control; this, along with advances in armour technology, meant cavalry – now as
heavy as the eastern cataphracts of antiquity - once again became a fixture on the battlefield.

Kingdom of Gwynedd (Age of Charlemagne) Field Artillery

Bastion Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon
became a staple of siege warfare.

Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks or shot
through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the projectile. A padded beam
was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines could require as many as eight or ten
crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly
constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
 REINO DE ASTURIAS
Kingdom of Asturias (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry
Royal Guard Cavalry
As long as there have been kings and queens, there has been an elite cadre of men charged with defending
them. From Philip of Macedon's Somatophylakes or the Roman Praetorian Guard to the Mongolian Kheshig
or the Forbidden Troops of Tang Dynasty China, the very best military men have always defended their
leaders. The proximity that royal guards had to their rulers often meant that the political power they
wielded was amplified to the point that crises would often be determined by which side the royal
defenders backed; if they stayed loyal, then the leadership often survived, but if they defected, the ruler
would be supplanted in favour of a candidate of their choosing, if not one of their own.

Kingdom of Asturias (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry

Armoured Swordsmen
Originally a rare weapon of quite some prestige, the sword became more common in the early Middle
Ages, with blades produced on a larger scale to more standardised specifications. The spatha of the Roman
period became the basis of Viking and Carolingian longswords. These single-handed blades, with triangular
pommels and short grips, were widely used, not only by the Viking Danes but right across Europe. Swords
during the era were chiefly produced by the Franks and obtained by the Danes through either trade or, as is
more likely, raiding, pillaging and looting of Frankish possessions. Although they were all of a roughly
similar length, there were variances of several inches as, although they were more speedily produced,
mass-production of arms and armour, and the standardisation and quality control that went with it, was
still a rarity at that time.
Swordsmen
Originally a rare weapon of quite some prestige, the sword became more common in the early Middle
Ages, with blades produced on a larger scale to more standardised specifications. The spatha of the Roman
period became the basis of Viking and Carolingian longswords. These single-handed blades, with triangular
pommels and short grips, were widely used, not only by the Viking Danes but right across Europe. Swords
during the era were chiefly produced by the Franks and obtained by the Danes through either trade or, as is
more likely, raiding, pillaging and looting of Frankish possessions. Although they were all of a roughly
similar length, there were variances of several inches as, although they were more speedily produced,
mass-production of arms and armour, and the standardisation and quality control that went with it, was
still a rarity at that time.

Royal Guardsmen
As long as there have been kings and queens, there has been an elite cadre of men charged with defending
them. From Philip of Macedon's Somatophylakes or the Roman Praetorian Guard to the Mongolian Kheshig
or the Forbidden Troops of Tang Dynasty China, the very best military men have always defended their
leaders. The proximity that royal guards had to their rulers often meant that the political power they
wielded was amplified to the point that crises would often be determined by which side the royal
defenders backed; if they stayed loyal, then the leadership often survived, but if they defected, the ruler would be
supplanted in favour of a candidate of their choosing, if not one of their own.

Kingdom of Asturias (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Infantry

Levy Skirmishers
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from
citizen and subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes
were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for
promotion on merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.

Skirmishers
Until very recently, when mechanisation reduced the amount of close-quarters fighting required,
skirmishers were used to harass, never giving the enemy pause to regroup and distracting them until melee
troops or cavalry could pin them down. In the ancient world, particularly among the 'civilised' states of the
Mediterranean, many skirmishers were considered highly skilled, with places such as Crete and the Balearic
Islands specialising in producing first class archers, slingers and javelineers. In the north and west of Europe,
such weapons were generally thought considered cowardly - only fighting hand-to-hand in melee carried
the required amount of honour and glory with it. As antiquity gave way to the Middle Ages, and tribal
society subsided to the more hierarchical feudal system, good skirmishers were highly valued once again.
Aside from the longbow, the javelin remained their favoured weapon, particularly when fighting from
horseback; a rider could hurl his weapon at the enemy and be far away before they had time to react. If
they were foolish enough to turn and face the threat, they could be blinded to an infantry or cavalry charge bearing
down upon them.
Noble Skirmishers
Until very recently, when mechanisation reduced the amount of close-quarters fighting required,
skirmishers were used to harass, never giving the enemy pause to regroup and distracting them until melee
troops or cavalry could pin them down. In the ancient world, particularly among the 'civilised' states of the
Mediterranean, many skirmishers were considered highly skilled, with places such as Crete and the Balearic
Islands specialising in producing first class archers, slingers and javelineers. In the north and west of Europe,
such weapons were generally thought considered cowardly - only fighting hand-to-hand in melee carried
the required amount of honour and glory with it. As antiquity gave way to the Middle Ages, and tribal
society subsided to the more hierarchical feudal system, good skirmishers were highly valued once again.
Aside from the longbow, the javelin remained their favoured weapon, particularly when fighting from
horseback; a rider could hurl his weapon at the enemy and be far away before they had time to react. If
they were foolish enough to turn and face the threat, they could be blinded to an infantry or cavalry charge bearing
down upon them.

Kingdom of Asturias (Age of Charlemagne) Spear Infantry

Levy Spearmen
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from
citizen and subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes
were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for
promotion on merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.

Spearmen
The spear has been around almost as long as people have, having been employed for hunting and fishing
long before war. A versatile weapon, it could be held in either one or both hands and used for thrusting in
melee, throwing during skirmishes, or braced in formation to stop cavalry charges. The spear was the most
commonly-used weapon through antiquity and remained so into the Middle Ages; elite warriors had the time to learn
and master the polearm, yet the common man could also be taught the basics of handling one in battle in short space of
time. Unearthed Saxon spears have broad heads with wings along the blade to stop enemy swords and spears travelling
down it, whereas others are thinner and longer to allow for deeper penetration when stabbing opponents. Naturally,
the development of heavy cavalry led to longer, heavier variants (the lance) and then to pikes – which could be braced
to unseat horsemen or massed to create an almost impenetrable wall. Most spearmen of the period also carried a shield
to provide additional defence and make spear or shield walls, which were virtually impenetrable and particularly
effective against cavalry charges.
Ambushers
Due to its sound logical reasoning, the ambush remains one of the most ancient and enduring military
tactics. Essentially, a surprised enemy, and one who is hopefully surrounded at the time, can be defeated
more swiftly and easily. Learned on the hunt, the skills needed to successfully ambush were first tested by
early man against the beasts he hunted for food. Some of the most famous ambushes of history
demonstrate the form's devastating potential, such as Hannibal's surprise attack on Roman forces at the
River Trebia in 218BC and Arminius' resounding victory at the Teutoburg Forest, where his men descended
from the forests to cut a Roman Legion to pieces. For the wise military commander, any forest or mountain
pass presented an opportunity to lay an ambush or, if not scouted and traversed with sufficient care, to be
ambushed.

Tribesmen
The Kingdom of Asturias was built atop the remnants of the Visigothic Kingdom, shattered by the Umayyad
Caliphate's invasion during the first half of the 8th century AD. As such, many societal and military styles of
earlier periods survived into the Asturian era. Aspects of old Iberian tribal culture were still alive and as a
result Muslim forces encountered more difficulty capturing territory in the north. Its lack of modern, urban
centres forced the fight out into the countryside - topography that the Asturians knew far better than the
invaders and used to their advantage. In fact, the fledgling kingdom - founded by the Visigothic noble
Pelagius - united the many displaced Christians against the Muslim threat. It was largely populated with
Gothic refugees from the Umayyad conquest, who had refused to convert to Islam and submit to the
caliphate's rule. As such, whilst Christian knights and soldiers became commonplace, tribal warriors
remained an integral part of the Asturian military model, leading the kingdom to its first victory at the
Battle of Covadonga in AD711.

Kingdom of Asturias (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry

Iberian Cavalry
The Iberian Peninsula was wealthy in many resources - iron and silver were natural minerals found in
abundance there, but the region was also famous for breeding war horses at a time when cavalry warfare
was becoming more popular once again. Islamic forces were augmented with highly-proficient Berber
cavalry, whilst to the north the Franks under Charlemagne were fielding heavy, armoured riders in the style
of the eastern cataphracts. The Frankish knights saw themselves as the right-hand of both their king and
God, and fought with a brutal fervour to match the religious ideals of their Muslim enemies. The Asturians
attempted to emulate Frankish ideals in this matter, fielding their own mounted knights to combat the
Caliphate's growing army and return Spain to Christian hands.
Royal Cavalry
The mounted knights of the Middle Ages have their origins in the 'ordo equester' cohorts of the Roman
state cavalry, as well as the privately-funded household cavalry ('bucellarii') of late-period Rome. Being
privately funded, the bucellarii were afforded better armour and training than other equestrians, and this
focus on training, armour and weaponry was the basis of the emerging knight's skillset. The cataphract
horsemen of the east, donned in armour that covered both rider and his powerful steed, were also an
influence. In Europe, the Franks bred the 'Barb' horse, a sturdy and hot-blooded north African breed (the
name meaning 'Berber') capable of coping with both heavy armour and the punishing demands of warfare.
These horses were the tools that allowed Charlemagne's strategy to be realised across Europe. The
horsemen, for their efforts, were rewarded with lands and titles. In the centuries following Charlemagne's
rule, these men and their descendants went on to solidify their power, evolving into an elite warrior class
by the beginning of the Medieval period.
Royal Knights
The mounted knights of the Middle Ages have their origins in the 'ordo equester' cohorts of the Roman
state cavalry, as well as the privately-funded household cavalry ('bucellarii') of late-period Rome. Being
privately funded, the bucellarii were afforded better armour and training than other equestrians, and this
focus on training, armour and weaponry was the basis of the emerging knight's skillset. The cataphract horsemen of the
east, donned in armour that covered both rider and his powerful steed, were also an influence. In Europe, the Franks
bred the 'Barb' horse, a sturdy and hot-blooded north African breed (the name meaning 'Berber') capable of coping with
both heavy armour and the punishing demands of warfare. These horses were the tools that allowed Charlemagne's
strategy to be realised across Europe. The horsemen, for their efforts, were rewarded with lands and titles. In the
centuries following Charlemagne's rule, these men and their descendants went on to solidify their power, evolving into
an elite warrior class by the beginning of the Medieval period.

Kingdom of Asturias (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Cavalry

Jinetes
The word 'jinete' translates as 'horseman', although sometimes refers to both horse and rider. Generally
deployed in a light cavalry capacity, they were first deployed by Berber tribes such as the Zenata. Switching
from camels to horseback, they noticed a sharp increase in the speed and agility they could bring to bear,
making them much more manoeuvrable and therefore effective on the battlefield. After facing them in
battle and coming off worse, the native Spanish Christians adopted the jinete model, modifying their
equipment with swords, shields and javelins to better combat Islamic forces in the region. As the
Reconquista gained momentum, more and more jinetes were fielded to face the aggressor, eventually
becoming synonymous with Spain instead of the Berbers. Their tactics have been described thus "to swarm
around the enemy, to overwhelm him with darts, to draw off if he charged in mass, but to hang upon his flanks and
charge him when he grew tired, or fell into disorder".
Raider Cavalry
The word 'jinete' translates as 'horseman', although sometimes refers to both horse and rider. Generally
deployed in a light cavalry capacity, they were first deployed by Berber tribes such as the Zenata. Switching
from camels to horseback, they noticed a sharp increase in the speed and agility they could bring to bear,
making them much more manoeuvrable and therefore effective on the battlefield. After facing them in
battle and coming off worse, the native Spanish Christians adopted the jinete model, modifying their
equipment with swords, shields and javelins to better combat Islamic forces in the region. As the
Reconquista gained momentum, more and more jinetes were fielded to face the aggressor, eventually
becoming synonymous with Spain instead of the Berbers. Their tactics have been described thus "to swarm
around the enemy, to overwhelm him with darts, to draw off if he charged in mass, but to hang upon his
flanks and charge him when he grew tired, or fell into disorder".

Kingdom of Asturias (Age of Charlemagne) Field Artillery

Large Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon
became a staple of siege warfare.
Bastion Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager made use of a
sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks or shot through torsion. As
the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the projectile. A padded beam was incorporated
into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the
incredible recoil meant that they could not be easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed
wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
 DUCADO DE PAMPLONA
Duchy of Pamplona (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry
Guard Cavalry
As long as there have been kings and queens, there has been an elite cadre of men charged with defending
them. From Philip of Macedon's Somatophylakes or the Roman Praetorian Guard to the Mongolian Kheshig
or the Forbidden Troops of Tang Dynasty China, the very best military men have always defended their
leaders. The proximity that royal guards had to their rulers often meant that the political power they
wielded was amplified to the point that crises would often be determined by which side the royal
defenders backed; if they stayed loyal, then the leadership often survived, but if they defected, the ruler
would be supplanted in favour of a candidate of their choosing, if not one of their own.

Duchy of Pamplona (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry

Armoured Swordsmen
Originally a rare weapon of quite some prestige, the sword became more common in the early Middle
Ages, with blades produced on a larger scale to more standardised specifications. The spatha of the Roman
period became the basis of Viking and Carolingian longswords. These single-handed blades, with triangular
pommels and short grips, were widely used, not only by the Viking Danes but right across Europe. Swords
during the era were chiefly produced by the Franks and obtained by the Danes through either trade or, as is
more likely, raiding, pillaging and looting of Frankish possessions. Although they were all of a roughly
similar length, there were variances of several inches as, although they were more speedily produced,
mass-production of arms and armour, and the standardisation and quality control that went with it, was
still a rarity at that time.
Swordsmen
Originally a rare weapon of quite some prestige, the sword became more common in the early Middle
Ages, with blades produced on a larger scale to more standardised specifications. The spatha of the Roman
period became the basis of Viking and Carolingian longswords. These single-handed blades, with triangular
pommels and short grips, were widely used, not only by the Viking Danes but right across Europe. Swords
during the era were chiefly produced by the Franks and obtained by the Danes through either trade or, as is
more likely, raiding, pillaging and looting of Frankish possessions. Although they were all of a roughly
similar length, there were variances of several inches as, although they were more speedily produced,
mass-production of arms and armour, and the standardisation and quality control that went with it, was
still a rarity at that time.

Duchy of Pamplona (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Infantry

Archers
In battle, the archer needed to be peerless. His aim had to be unfailingly precise or else he was next to
useless - a mere distraction for a determined enemy force. Arrows had great power and impact but, before
the development of the bodkin-point arrowhead, if they were aimed even slightly off target, they would
bounce off armour rather than pierce it. The bodkin-point was thinner than its broadhead-point counterpart, and was
therefore better at piercing mail and some plate armours due to its smaller surface area. Bodkin-pointed arrowheads
were used mainly by the Viking Danes but caught on across Europe. However, they didn't eclipse the more common
broadhead-point, which were generally better at cutting through flesh and causing serious, mortal wounds.
Levy Archers
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from
citizen and subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes
were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for
promotion on merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.

Levy Skirmishers
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from
citizen and subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes
were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for
promotion on merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.

Levy Skirmishers
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from
citizen and subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes
were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for
promotion on merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.

Duchy of Pamplona (Age of Charlemagne) Spear Infantry

Armoured Spearmen
From the most inexperienced fighter to the most battle-hardened elite, the spear remained the cheapest,
most accessible and therefore common weapon of the Carolingian era. Historically, the weapon of the
lower classes, the spear eventually became more prominent amongst all classes of military society; an
entire force of armoured spearmen assaulted the palace of Lateran in AD769, for example. Changes in the
types of opponent led to development of weapons in order to defeat them. 'Lugs' - or wings - started to
appear under the blade in order to hook and grab at armour and 'languets' - protrusions from the shaft
itself - were added to protect the user, further evidence that the spear was used for prolonged, matched
combat against heavily-armoured cavalry.
Levy Spearmen
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from
citizen and subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes
were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for
promotion on merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.
 Spearmen
The spear has been around almost as long as people have, having been employed for hunting and fishing
long before war. A versatile weapon, it could be held in either one or both hands and used for thrusting in
melee, throwing during skirmishes, or braced in formation to stop cavalry charges. The spear was the most
commonly-used weapon through antiquity and remained so into the Middle Ages; elite warriors had the
time to learn and master the polearm, yet the common man could also be taught the basics of handling one
in battle in short space of time. Unearthed Saxon spears have broad heads with wings along the blade to
stop enemy swords and spears travelling down it, whereas others are thinner and longer to allow for
deeper penetration when stabbing opponents. Naturally, the development of heavy cavalry led to longer,
heavier variants (the lance) and then to pikes – which could be braced to unseat horsemen or massed to
create an almost impenetrable wall. Most spearmen of the period also carried a shield to provide
additional defence and make spear or shield walls, which were virtually impenetrable and particularly effective against
cavalry charges.

Duchy of Pamplona (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry

Knights
The mounted knights of the Middle Ages have their origins in the 'ordo equester' cohorts of the Roman
state cavalry, as well as the privately-funded household cavalry ('bucellarii') of late-period Rome. Being
privately funded, the bucellarii were afforded better armour and training than other equestrians, and this
focus on training, armour and weaponry was the basis of the emerging knight's skillset. The cataphract
horsemen of the east, donned in armour that covered both rider and his powerful steed, were also an
influence. In Europe, the Franks bred the 'Barb' horse, a sturdy and hot-blooded north African breed (the
name meaning 'Berber') capable of coping with both heavy armour and the punishing demands of warfare.
These horses were the tools that allowed Charlemagne's strategy to be realised across Europe. The
horsemen, for their efforts, were rewarded with lands and titles. In the centuries following Charlemagne's rule, these
men and their descendants went on to solidify their power, evolving into an elite warrior class by the beginning of the
Medieval period.
Noble Cavalry
Most armies of the early Middle Ages relied heavily on foot soldiers. This was due to the large number of
low-status soldiers with little equipment of their own – certainly not horses – and little real training to
speak of. In fact, cavalry-heavy forces were not generally part of the military fashion of the time until the
development of the stirrup and the peaked saddle made them more attractive to the western powers. The
stirrup increased the endurance, manoeuvrability and speed of the horse and reduced its rider's fatigue as
the animal was easier to control; this, along with advances in armour technology, meant cavalry – now as
heavy as the eastern cataphracts of antiquity - once again became a fixture on the battlefield.

Duchy of Pamplona (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Cavalry

Skirmisher Cavalry
Like other former barbarian kingdoms, the Franks inherited much of the Roman Empire's military and
societal structure, not just its territory. Once again, cavalry was an aristocratic division as only wealthy
landowners could afford horses and therefore provide cavalry during times of war. Elite cavalry, by
extension, was drawn only from the most highly-skilled among them. They, more than any other, could
afford not only the horse, but the mail and plate armour required; 'brunia' body armour was the single
most expensive piece of military equipment of the age, costing more than the horse itself. Some took this
to excess, adorning their armour with jewels and other finery, but Charlemagne was known to have
criticised his noblemen for such ostentatious displays. In battle, Carolingian cavalry favoured a mass charge
of spears to break the enemy quickly. This worked particularly well on favourable, flat terrain but led to problems on
less-than-ideal topography. In fact, cavalry was still considered inferior until long after the Battle of Tours when, due to a
failure in mobilisation, Charles Martel won the battle without any heavy horse at all. Standard Frankish horsemen were
lightly armoured (wearing little more than padded cloth), carried spears and shields, and were best-suited for bringing
home a cavalry charge and then, once involved in the fray, remaining to press the attack.

Duchy of Pamplona (Age of Charlemagne) Field Artillery

Large Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into massed infantry
ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager made use of a sling-like cradle
attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks or shot through torsion. As the firing arm
was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing
frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil
meant that they could not be easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was
readily available, onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
Bastion Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
 TAIFA DE ZARAGOZA
Taifa of Zaragoza (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry
Umayyad Guard Cavalry
The Umayyad military was a mixture of traditional Muslim warriors, descended from the Syrian garrisons in
Al-Andalus, as well as local Andalusian converts to Islam and Berber people from Africa. Although the elite
units were drawn from the Andalusian garrisons, the role of the caliph's personal guard - or 'hasham' - was
reserved for the elite of the slave military class - the Mamluks. Right across the caliphate's territory,
Mamluks formed the bulk of the armed forces, with status beyond that of a normal slave and even of a free
citizen. As the centuries passed, the influence of the Mamluks continued to grow, they began occupying
positions of increasing seniority in both the military and civilian administrations, eventually toppling their
masters in Egypt during the 13th century to become the sultans of the Bahri dynasty.

Taifa of Zaragoza (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry

Andalusian Infantry
Men who signed up to fight in the Andalusian armies of the Umayyad Caliphate were usually motivated by
their religious beliefs, as was generally the case right across the burgeoning Islamic empire. Spain was an
extremely wealthy territory due to its iron and silver resources. These seams, mined by both Carthage and
Rome in centuries past, were reopened by the Umayyads, who then used the resultant wealth to import
well-made weapons and armour from across Europe as well as creating their own. Less is known about
Andalusian infantry than their cavalry, save that they represented the bulk of Umayyad armies in the region
at a time when its cavalry was considered inferior and insufficient for purpose compared to that of their
western European rivals.
Andalusian Warriors
Men who signed up to fight in the Andalusian armies of the Umayyad Caliphate were usually motivated by
their religious beliefs, as was generally the case right across the burgeoning Islamic empire. Spain was an
extremely wealthy territory due to its iron and silver resources. These seams, mined by both Carthage and
Rome in centuries past, were reopened by the Umayyads, who then used the resultant wealth to import
well-made weapons and armour from across Europe as well as creating their own. Less is known about
Andalusian infantry than their cavalry, save that they represented the bulk of Umayyad armies in the region
at a time when its cavalry was considered inferior and insufficient for purpose compared to that of their
western European rivals.

Taifa of Zaragoza (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Infantry

Andalusian Skirmishers
Until very recently, when mechanisation reduced the amount of close-quarters fighting required,
skirmishers were used to harass, never giving the enemy pause to regroup and distracting them until
melee troops or cavalry could pin them down. In the ancient world, particularly among the 'civilised'
states of the Mediterranean, many skirmishers were considered highly skilled, with places such as Crete
and the Balearic Islands specialising in producing first class archers, slingers and javelineers. In the
north and west of Europe, such weapons were generally thought considered cowardly - only fighting
hand-to-hand in melee carried the required amount of honour and glory with it. As antiquity gave way to the Middle
Ages, and tribal society subsided to the more hierarchical feudal system, good skirmishers were highly valued once
again. Aside from the longbow, the javelin remained their favoured weapon, particularly when fighting from horseback;
a rider could hurl his weapon at the enemy and be far away before they had time to react. If they were foolish enough to
turn and face the threat, they could be blinded to an infantry or cavalry charge bearing down upon them.
Andalusian Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both
melee and skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be
changed by the general according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite
advances in horse archery elsewhere in the world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained
primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were not a common sight in western Umayyad
armies of the period.

Armoured Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both
melee and skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be
changed by the general according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite
advances in horse archery elsewhere in the world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained
primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were not a common sight in western Umayyad
armies of the period.

Slingers
The sling is one of the oldest ranged weapons in existence, possibly dating back to before the Neolithic
period. Its use throughout history is evidenced by depictions upon Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs, as well as
those of later times, such as Trajan's Column and the Bayeux Tapestry. A sling is essentially a length of
material (usually leather, but sometimes stretched pig bladder) with a cradle in the centre to hold a stone.
The slinger then holds the ends and spins the sling to generate momentum. By extending his arm and
simultaneously increasing the force of the spin, then releasing the stone at the precise moment, the
slingshot can be flung a large distance - far greater than would be possible without it. Many young people
grew up throwing stones found on the river beds of Europe, giving them a natural advantage when applying
the skill to combat. Rocks and stones were in ready supply so, whilst spears may have needed repair after a
battle, slingers were always well provisioned. Often people of low status in society, and therefore in battle,
slingers would typically take up position behind veteran warriors, providing a blanket of slingshots to hamper the enemy
when charging. In return, the veterans would use their shields to safeguard the slingers as they unleashed their missiles.
Slingshot could be an effective weapon against close enemy formations or cavalry.

Taifa of Zaragoza (Age of Charlemagne) Spear Infantry

Berber Levy
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from
citizen and subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes
were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for
promotion on merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.

Berber Spearmen
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of Tariq ibn Ziyad.
Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were generally given cheaper armour and
equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.

Berber Warriors
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.

Umayyad Guardsmen
The personal guard of the Umayyad caliphs, drawn from the ranks of the mamluk slave army and bolstered
by foreign mercenaries, was known as the 'hasham'. Captured beyond the caliphate's eastern borders,
beyond Transoxiana, the mamluks (or ghilman) were trained in captivity and freed on appointment to the
guard. This was for two reasons; freed slaves owed a debt of duty to their former masters and those from
outside the caliphate would be far less likely to intrigue or join an insurrection against it. Mamluk forces
became the backbone of Islamic military power in the eastern empire, but the Cordoban caliphs of the west
augmented their armies with Berbers and native Andalusians (a mix of native Iberian and Visigothic
settlers). The proliferation of mamluk soldiers across the Umayyad Caliphate as peacekeepers contributed
greatly to its later destabilisation, as commanders were able to levy their loyal mamluks against both rivals
and the central authorities alike.

Taifa of Zaragoza (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry

Andalusian Cavalry
Compared to other armies of the period, the Muslim armies of Al-Andalus were extremely advanced and
diverse; bolstered by the tenacious Berber tribes of northern Africa as well as native Andalusians and Syrian
troops garrisoned across the Iberian Peninsula. The Andalusians bred war horses of their own, a renowned
breed now known as "Pure Spanish", from as far back as 450BC. Despite this prodigious equine legacy,
however, Umayyad cavalry lagged behind the rest of the caliphate's highly-developed military machine; the
stirrup and 'framed' saddle failed to catch on, despite being used widely in its eastern territories.
Conversely, Iberian Muslims used the 'curb' bit - which provided better control over the horses - centuries
before anyone else.
Armoured Cavalry
The Umayyad military was a mixture of traditional Muslim warriors, descended from the Syrian garrisons in
Al-Andalus, as well as local Andalusian converts to Islam and Berber people from Africa. Although the elite
units were drawn from the Andalusian garrisons, the role of the caliph's personal guard - or 'hasham' - was
reserved for the elite of the slave military class - the Mamluks. Right across the caliphate's territory,
Mamluks formed the bulk of the armed forces, with status beyond that of a normal slave and even of a free
citizen. As the centuries passed, the influence of the Mamluks continued to grow, they began occupying
positions of increasing seniority in both the military and civilian administrations, eventually toppling their
masters in Egypt during the 13th century to become the sultans of the Bahri dynasty.

Horsemen
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful asset for the
Muslim forces stationed in Spain.
Berber Light Cavalry
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.

Taifa of Zaragoza (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Cavalry

Berber Jinetes
The Berber people amalgamated into the Muslim forces after the Islamic conquest of Maghreb in the 7th
and 8th centuries AD were fierce, stubborn, and not easily subjugated by their new masters. As a collection
of tribes, Berbers brought great diversity and skill to the caliphate's army. Their cavalry was of particular
note; the Berber being proficient cavalrymen who fielded lightly-armoured, mounted raiders atop excellent
Arabian horses. The cavalrymen of the Zenata tribe became known as 'jinetes', who found that switching to
horses from camels greatly improved their usefulness on the battlefield. As a result of the caliphate's
relentless advance into the Iberian Peninsula, the north African natives soon found themselves fighting the
Spanish, who later adapted the jinete cavalry model as they fought back against Islam during the
Reconquista.
Berber Raiders
The Berber people amalgamated into the Muslim forces after the Islamic conquest of Maghreb in the 7th
and 8th centuries AD were fierce, stubborn, and not easily subjugated by their new masters. As a collection
of tribes, Berbers brought great diversity and skill to the caliphate's army. Their cavalry was of particular
note; the Berber being proficient cavalrymen who fielded lightly-armoured, mounted raiders atop excellent
Arabian horses. The cavalrymen of the Zenata tribe became known as 'jinetes', who found that switching to
horses from camels greatly improved their usefulness on the battlefield. As a result of the caliphate's
relentless advance into the Iberian Peninsula, the north African natives soon found themselves fighting the
Spanish, who later adapted the jinete cavalry model as they fought back against Islam during the
Reconquista.

Taifa of Zaragoza (Age of Charlemagne) Field Artillery

Large Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon
became a staple of siege warfare.
Bastion Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon
became a staple of siege warfare.
Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.

TAIFA DE BARCELONA
Taifa of Barcelona (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry
Umayyad Guard Cavalry
The Umayyad military was a mixture of traditional Muslim warriors, descended from the Syrian garrisons in Al-Andalus,
as well as local Andalusian converts to Islam and Berber people from Africa. Although the elite units were drawn from
the Andalusian garrisons, the role of the caliph's personal guard - or 'hasham' - was reserved for the elite of the slave
military class - the Mamluks. Right across the caliphate's territory, Mamluks formed the bulk of the armed forces, with
status beyond that of a normal slave and even of a free citizen. As the centuries passed, the influence of the Mamluks
continued to grow, they began occupying positions of increasing seniority in both the military and civilian
administrations, eventually toppling their masters in Egypt during the 13th century to become the sultans of the Bahri
dynasty.

Taifa of Barcelona (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry

Andalusian Infantry
Men who signed up to fight in the Andalusian armies of the Umayyad Caliphate were usually motivated by
their religious beliefs, as was generally the case right across the burgeoning Islamic empire. Spain was an
extremely wealthy territory due to its iron and silver resources. These seams, mined by both Carthage and
Rome in centuries past, were reopened by the Umayyads, who then used the resultant wealth to import
well-made weapons and armour from across Europe as well as creating their own. Less is known about
Andalusian infantry than their cavalry, save that they represented the bulk of Umayyad armies in the region
at a time when its cavalry was considered inferior and insufficient for purpose compared to that of their
western European rivals.

Andalusian Warriors
Men who signed up to fight in the Andalusian armies of the Umayyad Caliphate were usually motivated by
their religious beliefs, as was generally the case right across the burgeoning Islamic empire. Spain was an
extremely wealthy territory due to its iron and silver resources. These seams, mined by both Carthage and
Rome in centuries past, were reopened by the Umayyads, who then used the resultant wealth to import
well-made weapons and armour from across Europe as well as creating their own. Less is known about
Andalusian infantry than their cavalry, save that they represented the bulk of Umayyad armies in the region
at a time when its cavalry was considered inferior and insufficient for purpose compared to that of their
western European rivals.

Taifa of Barcelona (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Infantry

Andalusian Skirmishers
Until very recently, when mechanisation reduced the amount of close-quarters fighting required,
skirmishers were used to harass, never giving the enemy pause to regroup and distracting them until melee
troops or cavalry could pin them down. In the ancient world, particularly among the 'civilised' states of the
Mediterranean, many skirmishers were considered highly skilled, with places such as Crete and the Balearic
Islands specialising in producing first class archers, slingers and javelineers. In the north and west of Europe,
such weapons were generally thought considered cowardly - only fighting hand-to-hand in melee carried
the required amount of honour and glory with it. As antiquity gave way to the Middle Ages, and tribal
society subsided to the more hierarchical feudal system, good skirmishers were highly valued once again.
Aside from the longbow, the javelin remained their favoured weapon, particularly when fighting from horseback; a rider
could hurl his weapon at the enemy and be far away before they had time to react. If they were foolish enough to turn
and face the threat, they could be blinded to an infantry or cavalry charge bearing down upon them.
Andalusian Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both
melee and skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be
changed by the general according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite
advances in horse archery elsewhere in the world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained
primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were not a common sight in western Umayyad
armies of the period.

Armoured Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both melee and
skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be changed by the general
according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite advances in horse archery elsewhere in the
world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were
not a common sight in western Umayyad armies of the period.

Slingers
The sling is one of the oldest ranged weapons in existence, possibly dating back to before the Neolithic
period. Its use throughout history is evidenced by depictions upon Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs, as well as
those of later times, such as Trajan's Column and the Bayeux Tapestry. A sling is essentially a length of
material (usually leather, but sometimes stretched pig bladder) with a cradle in the centre to hold a stone.
The slinger then holds the ends and spins the sling to generate momentum. By extending his arm and
simultaneously increasing the force of the spin, then releasing the stone at the precise moment, the
slingshot can be flung a large distance - far greater than would be possible without it. Many young people
grew up throwing stones found on the river beds of Europe, giving them a natural advantage when applying
the skill to combat. Rocks and stones were in ready supply so, whilst spears may have needed repair after a
battle, slingers were always well provisioned. Often people of low status in society, and therefore in battle,
slingers would typically take up position behind veteran warriors, providing a blanket of slingshots to hamper the enemy
when charging. In return, the veterans would use their shields to safeguard the slingers as they unleashed their missiles.
Slingshot could be an effective weapon against close enemy formations or cavalry.

Taifa of Barcelona (Age of Charlemagne) Spear Infantry

Berber Levy
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from
citizen and subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes
were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for
promotion on merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.

Berber Spearmen
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.

Berber Warriors
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.

Umayyad Guardsmen
The personal guard of the Umayyad caliphs, drawn from the ranks of the mamluk slave army and bolstered
by foreign mercenaries, was known as the 'hasham'. Captured beyond the caliphate's eastern borders,
beyond Transoxiana, the mamluks (or ghilman) were trained in captivity and freed on appointment to the
guard. This was for two reasons; freed slaves owed a debt of duty to their former masters and those from outside the
caliphate would be far less likely to intrigue or join an insurrection against it. Mamluk forces became the backbone of
Islamic military power in the eastern empire, but the Cordoban caliphs of the west augmented their armies with Berbers
and native Andalusians (a mix of native Iberian and Visigothic settlers). The proliferation of mamluk soldiers across the
Umayyad Caliphate as peacekeepers contributed greatly to its later destabilisation, as commanders were able to levy
their loyal mamluks against both rivals and the central authorities alike.

Taifa of Barcelona (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry

Andalusian Cavalry
Compared to other armies of the period, the Muslim armies of Al-Andalus were extremely advanced and
diverse; bolstered by the tenacious Berber tribes of northern Africa as well as native Andalusians and Syrian
troops garrisoned across the Iberian Peninsula. The Andalusians bred war horses of their own, a renowned
breed now known as "Pure Spanish", from as far back as 450BC. Despite this prodigious equine legacy,
however, Umayyad cavalry lagged behind the rest of the caliphate's highly-developed military machine; the
stirrup and 'framed' saddle failed to catch on, despite being used widely in its eastern territories.
Conversely, Iberian Muslims used the 'curb' bit - which provided better control over the horses - centuries
before anyone else.
Armoured Cavalry
The Umayyad military was a mixture of traditional Muslim warriors, descended from the Syrian garrisons in
Al-Andalus, as well as local Andalusian converts to Islam and Berber people from Africa. Although the elite
units were drawn from the Andalusian garrisons, the role of the caliph's personal guard - or 'hasham' - was
reserved for the elite of the slave military class - the Mamluks. Right across the caliphate's territory,
Mamluks formed the bulk of the armed forces, with status beyond that of a normal slave and even of a free
citizen. As the centuries passed, the influence of the Mamluks continued to grow, they began occupying
positions of increasing seniority in both the military and civilian administrations, eventually toppling their
masters in Egypt during the 13th century to become the sultans of the Bahri dynasty.

Horsemen
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.

Berber Light Cavalry

When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.

Taifa of Barcelona (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Cavalry

Berber Jinetes
The Berber people amalgamated into the Muslim forces after the Islamic conquest of Maghreb in the 7th
and 8th centuries AD were fierce, stubborn, and not easily subjugated by their new masters. As a collection
of tribes, Berbers brought great diversity and skill to the caliphate's army. Their cavalry was of particular
note; the Berber being proficient cavalrymen who fielded lightly-armoured, mounted raiders atop excellent
Arabian horses. The cavalrymen of the Zenata tribe became known as 'jinetes', who found that switching to
horses from camels greatly improved their usefulness on the battlefield. As a result of the caliphate's relentless advance
into the Iberian Peninsula, the north African natives soon found themselves fighting the Spanish, who later adapted the
jinete cavalry model as they fought back against Islam during the Reconquista.
Berber Raiders
The Berber people amalgamated into the Muslim forces after the Islamic conquest of Maghreb in the 7th
and 8th centuries AD were fierce, stubborn, and not easily subjugated by their new masters. As a collection
of tribes, Berbers brought great diversity and skill to the caliphate's army. Their cavalry was of particular
note; the Berber being proficient cavalrymen who fielded lightly-armoured, mounted raiders atop excellent
Arabian horses. The cavalrymen of the Zenata tribe became known as 'jinetes', who found that switching to
horses from camels greatly improved their usefulness on the battlefield. As a result of the caliphate's
relentless advance into the Iberian Peninsula, the north African natives soon found themselves fighting the
Spanish, who later adapted the jinete cavalry model as they fought back against Islam during the
Reconquista.

Taifa of Barcelona (Age of Charlemagne) Field Artillery

Large Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon
became a staple of siege warfare.
Bastion Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
 EMIRATO DE CÓRDOBA
Emirate of Cordoba (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry
Umayyad Guard Cavalry
The Umayyad military was a mixture of traditional Muslim warriors, descended from the Syrian garrisons in
Al-Andalus, as well as local Andalusian converts to Islam and Berber people from Africa. Although the elite
units were drawn from the Andalusian garrisons, the role of the caliph's personal guard - or 'hasham' - was
reserved for the elite of the slave military class - the Mamluks. Right across the caliphate's territory,
Mamluks formed the bulk of the armed forces, with status beyond that of a normal slave and even of a free
citizen. As the centuries passed, the influence of the Mamluks continued to grow, they began occupying
positions of increasing seniority in both the military and civilian administrations, eventually toppling their
masters in Egypt during the 13th century to become the sultans of the Bahri dynasty.

Emirate of Cordoba (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry

Andalusian Infantry
Men who signed up to fight in the Andalusian armies of the Umayyad Caliphate were usually motivated by
their religious beliefs, as was generally the case right across the burgeoning Islamic empire. Spain was an
extremely wealthy territory due to its iron and silver resources. These seams, mined by both Carthage and
Rome in centuries past, were reopened by the Umayyads, who then used the resultant wealth to import
well-made weapons and armour from across Europe as well as creating their own. Less is known about
Andalusian infantry than their cavalry, save that they represented the bulk of Umayyad armies
in the region at a time when its cavalry was considered inferior and insufficient for purpose
compared to that of their western European rivals.
Andalusian Warriors
Men who signed up to fight in the Andalusian armies of the Umayyad Caliphate were usually motivated by their religious
beliefs, as was generally the case right across the burgeoning Islamic empire. Spain was an extremely wealthy territory
due to its iron and silver resources. These seams, mined by both Carthage and Rome in centuries past, were reopened
by the Umayyads, who then used the resultant wealth to import well-made weapons and armour from across Europe as
well as creating their own. Less is known about Andalusian infantry than their cavalry, save that they represented the
bulk of Umayyad armies in the region at a time when its cavalry was considered inferior and insufficient for purpose
compared to that of their western European rivals.

Emirate of Cordoba (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Infantry

Andalusian Skirmishers
Until very recently, when mechanisation reduced the amount of close-quarters fighting required,
skirmishers were used to harass, never giving the enemy pause to regroup and distracting them until melee
troops or cavalry could pin them down. In the ancient world, particularly among the 'civilised' states of the
Mediterranean, many skirmishers were considered highly skilled, with places such as Crete and the Balearic
Islands specialising in producing first class archers, slingers and javelineers. In the north and west of Europe,
such weapons were generally thought considered cowardly - only fighting hand-to-hand in melee carried
the required amount of honour and glory with it. As antiquity gave way to the Middle Ages, and tribal
society subsided to the more hierarchical feudal system, good skirmishers were highly valued once again.
Aside from the longbow, the javelin remained their favoured weapon, particularly when fighting from horseback; a rider
could hurl his weapon at the enemy and be far away before they had time to react. If they were foolish enough to turn
and face the threat, they could be blinded to an infantry or cavalry charge bearing down upon them.
Andalusian Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both
melee and skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be
changed by the general according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite
advances in horse archery elsewhere in the world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained
primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were not a common sight in western Umayyad
armies of the period.

Armoured Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both
melee and skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be
changed by the general according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite
advances in horse archery elsewhere in the world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained
primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were not a common sight in western Umayyad
armies of the period.

Slingers
The sling is one of the oldest ranged weapons in existence, possibly dating back to before the Neolithic
period. Its use throughout history is evidenced by depictions upon Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs, as well as
those of later times, such as Trajan's Column and the Bayeux Tapestry. A sling is essentially a length of
material (usually leather, but sometimes stretched pig bladder) with a cradle in the centre to hold a stone.
The slinger then holds the ends and spins the sling to generate momentum. By extending his arm and
simultaneously increasing the force of the spin, then releasing the stone at the precise moment, the
slingshot can be flung a large distance - far greater than would be possible without it. Many young people
grew up throwing stones found on the river beds of Europe, giving them a natural advantage when applying
the skill to combat. Rocks and stones were in ready supply so, whilst spears may have needed repair after a
battle, slingers were always well provisioned. Often people of low status in society, and therefore in battle,
slingers would typically take up position behind veteran warriors, providing a blanket of slingshots to hamper the enemy
when charging. In return, the veterans would use their shields to safeguard the slingers as they unleashed their missiles.
Slingshot could be an effective weapon against close enemy formations or cavalry.

Emirate of Cordoba (Age of Charlemagne) Spear Infantry

Berber Levy
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from
citizen and subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes
were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for
promotion on merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.

Berber Spearmen
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.

Berber Warriors
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.

Umayyad Guardsmen
The personal guard of the Umayyad caliphs, drawn from the ranks of the mamluk slave army and bolstered
by foreign mercenaries, was known as the 'hasham'. Captured beyond the caliphate's eastern borders,
beyond Transoxiana, the mamluks (or ghilman) were trained in captivity and freed on appointment to the
guard. This was for two reasons; freed slaves owed a debt of duty to their former masters and those from
outside the caliphate would be far less likely to intrigue or join an insurrection against it. Mamluk forces
became the backbone of Islamic military power in the eastern empire, but the Cordoban caliphs of the west
augmented their armies with Berbers and native Andalusians (a mix of native Iberian and Visigothic
settlers). The proliferation of mamluk soldiers across the Umayyad Caliphate as peacekeepers contributed
greatly to its later destabilisation, as commanders were able to levy their loyal mamluks against both rivals
and the central authorities alike.

Emirate of Cordoba (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry

Andalusian Cavalry
Compared to other armies of the period, the Muslim armies of Al-Andalus were extremely advanced and
diverse; bolstered by the tenacious Berber tribes of northern Africa as well as native Andalusians and Syrian
troops garrisoned across the Iberian Peninsula. The Andalusians bred war horses of their own, a renowned
breed now known as "Pure Spanish", from as far back as 450BC. Despite this prodigious equine legacy,
however, Umayyad cavalry lagged behind the rest of the caliphate's highly-developed military machine; the
stirrup and 'framed' saddle failed to catch on, despite being used widely in its eastern territories.
Conversely, Iberian Muslims used the 'curb' bit - which provided better control over the horses
- centuries before anyone else.
Armoured Cavalry
The Umayyad military was a mixture of traditional Muslim warriors, descended from the Syrian garrisons in Al-Andalus,
as well as local Andalusian converts to Islam and Berber people from Africa. Although the elite units were drawn from
the Andalusian garrisons, the role of the caliph's personal guard - or 'hasham' - was reserved for the elite of the slave
military class - the Mamluks. Right across the caliphate's territory, Mamluks formed the bulk of the armed forces, with
status beyond that of a normal slave and even of a free citizen. As the centuries passed, the influence of the Mamluks
continued to grow, they began occupying positions of increasing seniority in both the military and civilian
administrations, eventually toppling their masters in Egypt during the 13th century to become the sultans of the Bahri
dynasty.

Horsemen
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.
Berber Light Cavalry
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.

Emirate of Cordoba (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Cavalry

Berber Jinetes
The Berber people amalgamated into the Muslim forces after the Islamic conquest of Maghreb in the 7th
and 8th centuries AD were fierce, stubborn, and not easily subjugated by their new masters. As a collection
of tribes, Berbers brought great diversity and skill to the caliphate's army. Their cavalry was of particular
note; the Berber being proficient cavalrymen who fielded lightly-armoured, mounted raiders atop excellent
Arabian horses. The cavalrymen of the Zenata tribe became known as 'jinetes', who found that switching to
horses from camels greatly improved their usefulness on the battlefield. As a result of the caliphate's
relentless advance into the Iberian Peninsula, the north African natives soon found themselves fighting the
Spanish, who later adapted the jinete cavalry model as they fought back against Islam during the
Reconquista.
Berber Raiders
The Berber people amalgamated into the Muslim forces after the Islamic conquest of Maghreb in the 7th
and 8th centuries AD were fierce, stubborn, and not easily subjugated by their new masters. As a collection
of tribes, Berbers brought great diversity and skill to the caliphate's army. Their cavalry was of particular
note; the Berber being proficient cavalrymen who fielded lightly-armoured, mounted raiders atop excellent
Arabian horses. The cavalrymen of the Zenata tribe became known as 'jinetes', who found that switching to
horses from camels greatly improved their usefulness on the battlefield. As a result of the caliphate's
relentless advance into the Iberian Peninsula, the north African natives soon found themselves fighting the
Spanish, who later adapted the jinete cavalry model as they fought back against Islam during the
Reconquista.

Emirate of Cordoba (Age of Charlemagne) Field Artillery

Large Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew which provided
the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege machine against buildings and
fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon
of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm
was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle
would unhook, firing the projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger
machines could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be easily
or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon became a
staple of siege warfare.
Bastion Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
 TAIFA DE BADAJOZ
Taifa of Badajoz (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry
Umayyad Guard Cavalry
The Umayyad military was a mixture of traditional Muslim warriors, descended from the Syrian garrisons in
Al-Andalus, as well as local Andalusian converts to Islam and Berber people from Africa. Although the elite
units were drawn from the Andalusian garrisons, the role of the caliph's personal guard - or 'hasham' - was
reserved for the elite of the slave military class - the Mamluks. Right across the caliphate's territory,
Mamluks formed the bulk of the armed forces, with status beyond that of a normal slave and even of a free
citizen. As the centuries passed, the influence of the Mamluks continued to grow, they began occupying
positions of increasing seniority in both the military and civilian administrations, eventually toppling their
masters in Egypt during the 13th century to become the sultans of the Bahri dynasty.

Taifa of Badajoz (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry

Andalusian Infantry
Men who signed up to fight in the Andalusian armies of the Umayyad Caliphate were usually motivated by
their religious beliefs, as was generally the case right across the burgeoning Islamic empire. Spain was an
extremely wealthy territory due to its iron and silver resources. These seams, mined by both Carthage and
Rome in centuries past, were reopened by the Umayyads, who then used the resultant wealth to import
well-made weapons and armour from across Europe as well as creating their own. Less is known about
Andalusian infantry than their cavalry, save that they represented the bulk of Umayyad armies in the region
at a time when its cavalry was considered inferior and insufficient for purpose compared to that of their
western European rivals.
Andalusian Warriors
Men who signed up to fight in the Andalusian armies of the Umayyad Caliphate were usually motivated by
their religious beliefs, as was generally the case right across the burgeoning Islamic empire. Spain was an
extremely wealthy territory due to its iron and silver resources. These seams, mined by both Carthage and
Rome in centuries past, were reopened by the Umayyads, who then used the resultant wealth to import
well-made weapons and armour from across Europe as well as creating their own. Less is known about
Andalusian infantry than their cavalry, save that they represented the bulk of Umayyad armies in the region
at a time when its cavalry was considered inferior and insufficient for purpose compared to that of their
western European rivals.

Taifa of Badajoz (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Infantry

Andalusian Skirmishers
Until very recently, when mechanisation reduced the amount of close-quarters fighting required,
skirmishers were used to harass, never giving the enemy pause to regroup and distracting them until melee
troops or cavalry could pin them down. In the ancient world, particularly among the 'civilised' states of the
Mediterranean, many skirmishers were considered highly skilled, with places such as Crete and the Balearic
Islands specialising in producing first class archers, slingers and javelineers. In the north and west of Europe,
such weapons were generally thought considered cowardly - only fighting hand-to-hand in melee carried the required
amount of honour and glory with it. As antiquity gave way to the Middle Ages, and tribal society subsided to the more
hierarchical feudal system, good skirmishers were highly valued once again. Aside from the longbow, the javelin
remained their favoured weapon, particularly when fighting from horseback; a rider could hurl his weapon at the enemy
and be far away before they had time to react. If they were foolish enough to turn and face the threat, they could be
blinded to an infantry or cavalry charge bearing down upon them.
Andalusian Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both
melee and skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be
changed by the general according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite
advances in horse archery elsewhere in the world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained
primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were not a common sight in western Umayyad
armies of the period.

Armoured Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both
melee and skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be
changed by the general according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite
advances in horse archery elsewhere in the world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained
primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were not a common sight in western Umayyad
armies of the period.

Slingers
The sling is one of the oldest ranged weapons in existence, possibly dating back to before the Neolithic
period. Its use throughout history is evidenced by depictions upon Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs, as well as
those of later times, such as Trajan's Column and the Bayeux Tapestry. A sling is essentially a length of
material (usually leather, but sometimes stretched pig bladder) with a cradle in the centre to hold a stone.
The slinger then holds the ends and spins the sling to generate momentum. By extending his arm and
simultaneously increasing the force of the spin, then releasing the stone at the precise moment, the
slingshot can be flung a large distance - far greater than would be possible without it. Many young people
grew up throwing stones found on the river beds of Europe, giving them a natural advantage when applying
the skill to combat. Rocks and stones were in ready supply so, whilst spears may have needed repair after a
battle, slingers were always well provisioned. Often people of low status in society, and therefore in battle,
slingers would typically take up position behind veteran warriors, providing a blanket of slingshots to hamper the enemy
when charging. In return, the veterans would use their shields to safeguard the slingers as they unleashed their
missiles. Sl

Taifa of Badajoz (Age of Charlemagne) Spear Infantry

Berber Levy
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from
citizen and subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes
were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for
promotion on merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.

Berber Spearmen
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military divisions -
consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally
speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were generally given cheaper armour and
equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.

Berber Warriors
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.

Umayyad Guardsmen
The personal guard of the Umayyad caliphs, drawn from the ranks of the mamluk slave army and bolstered
by foreign mercenaries, was known as the 'hasham'. Captured beyond the caliphate's eastern borders,
beyond Transoxiana, the mamluks (or ghilman) were trained in captivity and freed on appointment to the
guard. This was for two reasons; freed slaves owed a debt of duty to their former masters and those from
outside the caliphate would be far less likely to intrigue or join an insurrection against it. Mamluk forces
became the backbone of Islamic military power in the eastern empire, but the Cordoban caliphs of the west
augmented their armies with Berbers and native Andalusians (a mix of native Iberian and Visigothic
settlers). The proliferation of mamluk soldiers across the Umayyad Caliphate as peacekeepers contributed
greatly to its later destabilisation, as commanders were able to levy their loyal mamluks against both rivals
and the central authorities alike.

Taifa of Badajoz (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry

Andalusian Cavalry
Compared to other armies of the period, the Muslim armies of Al-Andalus were extremely advanced and
diverse; bolstered by the tenacious Berber tribes of northern Africa as well as native Andalusians and Syrian
troops garrisoned across the Iberian Peninsula. The Andalusians bred war horses of their own, a renowned
breed now known as "Pure Spanish", from as far back as 450BC. Despite this prodigious equine legacy,
however, Umayyad cavalry lagged behind the rest of the caliphate's highly-developed military machine; the
stirrup and 'framed' saddle failed to catch on, despite being used widely in its eastern territories.
Conversely, Iberian Muslims used the 'curb' bit - which provided better control over the horses - centuries
before anyone else.
Armoured Cavalry
The Umayyad military was a mixture of traditional Muslim warriors, descended from the Syrian garrisons in
Al-Andalus, as well as local Andalusian converts to Islam and Berber people from Africa. Although the elite
units were drawn from the Andalusian garrisons, the role of the caliph's personal guard - or 'hasham' - was
reserved for the elite of the slave military class - the Mamluks. Right across the caliphate's territory,
Mamluks formed the bulk of the armed forces, with status beyond that of a normal slave and even of a free
citizen. As the centuries passed, the influence of the Mamluks continued to grow, they began occupying
positions of increasing seniority in both the military and civilian administrations, eventually toppling their
masters in Egypt during the 13th century to become the sultans of the Bahri dynasty.

Horsemen
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat the Romans at
such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful asset for the Muslim forces
stationed in Spain.
Berber Light Cavalry
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.

Taifa of Badajoz (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Cavalry

Berber Jinetes
The Berber people amalgamated into the Muslim forces after the Islamic conquest of Maghreb in the 7th
and 8th centuries AD were fierce, stubborn, and not easily subjugated by their new masters. As a collection
of tribes, Berbers brought great diversity and skill to the caliphate's army. Their cavalry was of particular
note; the Berber being proficient cavalrymen who fielded lightly-armoured, mounted raiders atop excellent
Arabian horses. The cavalrymen of the Zenata tribe became known as 'jinetes', who found that switching to
horses from camels greatly improved their usefulness on the battlefield. As a result of the caliphate's
relentless advance into the Iberian Peninsula, the north African natives soon found themselves fighting the
Spanish, who later adapted the jinete cavalry model as they fought back against Islam during the
Reconquista.
Berber Raiders
The Berber people amalgamated into the Muslim forces after the Islamic conquest of Maghreb in the 7th
and 8th centuries AD were fierce, stubborn, and not easily subjugated by their new masters. As a collection
of tribes, Berbers brought great diversity and skill to the caliphate's army. Their cavalry was of particular
note; the Berber being proficient cavalrymen who fielded lightly-armoured, mounted raiders atop excellent
Arabian horses. The cavalrymen of the Zenata tribe became known as 'jinetes', who found that switching to
horses from camels greatly improved their usefulness on the battlefield. As a result of the caliphate's
relentless advance into the Iberian Peninsula, the north African natives soon found themselves fighting the
Spanish, who later adapted the jinete cavalry model as they fought back against Islam during the
Reconquista.

Taifa of Badajoz (Age of Charlemagne) Field Artillery

Large Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon
became a staple of siege warfare.
Bastion Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon
became a staple of siege warfare.
Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.

TAIFA DE TOLEDO
Taifa of Toledo (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry
Umayyad Guard Cavalry
The Umayyad military was a mixture of traditional Muslim warriors, descended from the Syrian garrisons in Al-Andalus,
as well as local Andalusian converts to Islam and Berber people from Africa. Although the elite units were drawn from
the Andalusian garrisons, the role of the caliph's personal guard - or 'hasham' - was reserved for the elite of the slave
military class - the Mamluks. Right across the caliphate's territory, Mamluks formed the bulk of the armed forces, with
status beyond that of a normal slave and even of a free citizen. As the centuries passed, the influence of the Mamluks
continued to grow, they began occupying positions of increasing seniority in both the military and civilian
administrations, eventually toppling their masters in Egypt during the 13th century to become the sultans of the Bahri
dynasty.

Taifa of Toledo (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry

Andalusian Infantry
Men who signed up to fight in the Andalusian armies of the Umayyad Caliphate were usually motivated by
their religious beliefs, as was generally the case right across the burgeoning Islamic empire. Spain was an
extremely wealthy territory due to its iron and silver resources. These seams, mined by both Carthage and
Rome in centuries past, were reopened by the Umayyads, who then used the resultant wealth to import
well-made weapons and armour from across Europe as well as creating their own. Less is known about
Andalusian infantry than their cavalry, save that they represented the bulk of Umayyad armies in the region
at a time when its cavalry was considered inferior and insufficient for purpose compared to that of their
western European rivals.

Taifa of Toledo (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry

Andalusian Warriors
Men who signed up to fight in the Andalusian armies of the Umayyad Caliphate were usually motivated by
their religious beliefs, as was generally the case right across the burgeoning Islamic empire. Spain was an
extremely wealthy territory due to its iron and silver resources. These seams, mined by both Carthage and
Rome in centuries past, were reopened by the Umayyads, who then used the resultant wealth to import
well-made weapons and armour from across Europe as well as creating their own. Less is known about
Andalusian infantry than their cavalry, save that they represented the bulk of Umayyad armies in the region
at a time when its cavalry was considered inferior and insufficient for purpose compared to that of their
western European rivals.

Taifa of Toledo (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Infantry

Andalusian Skirmishers
Until very recently, when mechanisation reduced the amount of close-quarters fighting required,
skirmishers were used to harass, never giving the enemy pause to regroup and distracting them until melee
troops or cavalry could pin them down. In the ancient world, particularly among the 'civilised' states of the
Mediterranean, many skirmishers were considered highly skilled, with places such as Crete and the Balearic
Islands specialising in producing first class archers, slingers and javelineers. In the north and west of Europe,
such weapons were generally thought considered cowardly - only fighting hand-to-hand in melee carried
the required amount of honour and glory with it. As antiquity gave way to the Middle Ages, and tribal
society subsided to the more hierarchical feudal system, good skirmishers were highly valued once again.
Aside from the longbow, the javelin remained their favoured weapon, particularly when fighting from horseback; a rider
could hurl his weapon at the enemy and be far away before they had time to react. If they were foolish enough to turn
and face the threat, they could be blinded to an infantry or cavalry charge bearing down upon them.
Andalusian Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both
melee and skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be
changed by the general according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite
advances in horse archery elsewhere in the world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained
primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were not a common sight in western Umayyad
armies of the period.

Armoured Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both melee and
skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be changed by the general
according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite advances in horse archery elsewhere in the
world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were
not a common sight in western Umayyad armies of the period.

Slingers
The sling is one of the oldest ranged weapons in existence, possibly dating back to before the Neolithic
period. Its use throughout history is evidenced by depictions upon Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs, as well as
those of later times, such as Trajan's Column and the Bayeux Tapestry. A sling is essentially a length of
material (usually leather, but sometimes stretched pig bladder) with a cradle in the centre to hold a stone.
The slinger then holds the ends and spins the sling to generate momentum. By extending his arm and
simultaneously increasing the force of the spin, then releasing the stone at the precise moment, the
slingshot can be flung a large distance - far greater than would be possible without it. Many young people
grew up throwing stones found on the river beds of Europe, giving them a natural advantage when applying
the skill to combat. Rocks and stones were in ready supply so, whilst spears may have needed repair after a
battle, slingers were always well provisioned. Often people of low status in society, and therefore in battle,
slingers would typically take up position behind veteran warriors, providing a blanket of slingshots to hamper the enemy
when charging. In return, the veterans would use their shields to safeguard the slingers as they unleashed their missiles.
Slingshot could be an effective weapon against close enemy formations or cavalry.

Taifa of Toledo (Age of Charlemagne) Spear Infantry

Berber Levy
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from
citizen and subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes
were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for
promotion on merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.

Berber Spearmen
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.

Berber Warriors
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.

Umayyad Guardsmen
The personal guard of the Umayyad caliphs, drawn from the ranks of the mamluk slave army and bolstered
by foreign mercenaries, was known as the 'hasham'. Captured beyond the caliphate's eastern borders,
beyond Transoxiana, the mamluks (or ghilman) were trained in captivity and freed on appointment to the
guard. This was for two reasons; freed slaves owed a debt of duty to their former masters and those from outside the
caliphate would be far less likely to intrigue or join an insurrection against it. Mamluk forces became the backbone of
Islamic military power in the eastern empire, but the Cordoban caliphs of the west augmented their armies with Berbers
and native Andalusians (a mix of native Iberian and Visigothic settlers). The proliferation of mamluk soldiers across the
Umayyad Caliphate as peacekeepers contributed greatly to its later destabilisation, as commanders were able to levy
their loyal mamluks against both rivals and the central authorities alike.

Taifa of Toledo (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry

Andalusian Cavalry
Compared to other armies of the period, the Muslim armies of Al-Andalus were extremely advanced and
diverse; bolstered by the tenacious Berber tribes of northern Africa as well as native Andalusians and Syrian
troops garrisoned across the Iberian Peninsula. The Andalusians bred war horses of their own, a renowned
breed now known as "Pure Spanish", from as far back as 450BC. Despite this prodigious equine legacy,
however, Umayyad cavalry lagged behind the rest of the caliphate's highly-developed military machine; the
stirrup and 'framed' saddle failed to catch on, despite being used widely in its eastern territories.
Conversely, Iberian Muslims used the 'curb' bit - which provided better control over the horses - centuries
before anyone else.
Armoured Cavalry
The Umayyad military was a mixture of traditional Muslim warriors, descended from the Syrian garrisons in
Al-Andalus, as well as local Andalusian converts to Islam and Berber people from Africa. Although the elite
units were drawn from the Andalusian garrisons, the role of the caliph's personal guard - or 'hasham' - was
reserved for the elite of the slave military class - the Mamluks. Right across the caliphate's territory,
Mamluks formed the bulk of the armed forces, with status beyond that of a normal slave and even of a free
citizen. As the centuries passed, the influence of the Mamluks continued to grow, they began occupying
positions of increasing seniority in both the military and civilian administrations, eventually toppling their
masters in Egypt during the 13th century to become the sultans of the Bahri dynasty.

Horsemen
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.
Berber Light Cavalry
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.

Taifa of Toledo (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Cavalry

Berber Jinetes
The Berber people amalgamated into the Muslim forces after the Islamic conquest of Maghreb in the 7th
and 8th centuries AD were fierce, stubborn, and not easily subjugated by their new masters. As a collection
of tribes, Berbers brought great diversity and skill to the caliphate's army. Their cavalry was of particular
note; the Berber being proficient cavalrymen who fielded lightly-armoured, mounted raiders atop excellent
Arabian horses. The cavalrymen of the Zenata tribe became known as 'jinetes', who found that switching to
horses from camels greatly improved their usefulness on the battlefield. As a result of the caliphate's
relentless advance into the Iberian Peninsula, the north African natives soon found themselves fighting the Spanish, who
later adapted the jinete cavalry model as they fought back against Islam during the Reconquista.
Berber Raiders
The Berber people amalgamated into the Muslim forces after the Islamic conquest of Maghreb in the 7th
and 8th centuries AD were fierce, stubborn, and not easily subjugated by their new masters. As a collection
of tribes, Berbers brought great diversity and skill to the caliphate's army. Their cavalry was of particular
note; the Berber being proficient cavalrymen who fielded lightly-armoured, mounted raiders atop excellent
Arabian horses. The cavalrymen of the Zenata tribe became known as 'jinetes', who found that switching to
horses from camels greatly improved their usefulness on the battlefield. As a result of the caliphate's
relentless advance into the Iberian Peninsula, the north African natives soon found themselves fighting the
Spanish, who later adapted the jinete cavalry model as they fought back against Islam during the
Reconquista.

Taifa of Toledo (Age of Charlemagne) Field Artillery

Large Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon
became a staple of siege warfare.
Bastion Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
 TAIFA DE VALENCIA
Taifa of Valencia (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry
Umayyad Guard Cavalry
The Umayyad military was a mixture of traditional Muslim warriors, descended from the Syrian garrisons in
Al-Andalus, as well as local Andalusian converts to Islam and Berber people from Africa. Although the elite
units were drawn from the Andalusian garrisons, the role of the caliph's personal guard - or 'hasham' - was
reserved for the elite of the slave military class - the Mamluks. Right across the caliphate's territory,
Mamluks formed the bulk of the armed forces, with status beyond that of a normal slave and even of a free
citizen. As the centuries passed, the influence of the Mamluks continued to grow, they began occupying
positions of increasing seniority in both the military and civilian administrations, eventually toppling their
masters in Egypt during the 13th century to become the sultans of the Bahri dynasty.

Taifa of Valencia (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry

Andalusian Infantry
Men who signed up to fight in the Andalusian armies of the Umayyad Caliphate were usually motivated by
their religious beliefs, as was generally the case right across the burgeoning Islamic empire. Spain was an
extremely wealthy territory due to its iron and silver resources. These seams, mined by both Carthage and
Rome in centuries past, were reopened by the Umayyads, who then used the resultant wealth to import
well-made weapons and armour from across Europe as well as creating their own. Less is known about
Andalusian infantry than their cavalry, save that they represented the bulk of Umayyad armies in the region
at a time when its cavalry was considered inferior and insufficient for purpose compared to that of their
western European rivals.
Andalusian Warriors
Men who signed up to fight in the Andalusian armies of the Umayyad Caliphate were usually motivated by
their religious beliefs, as was generally the case right across the burgeoning Islamic empire. Spain was an
extremely wealthy territory due to its iron and silver resources. These seams, mined by both Carthage and
Rome in centuries past, were reopened by the Umayyads, who then used the resultant wealth to import
well-made weapons and armour from across Europe as well as creating their own. Less is known about Andalusian
infantry than their cavalry, save that they represented the bulk of Umayyad armies in the region at a time when its
cavalry was considered inferior and insufficient for purpose compared to that of their western European rivals.

Taifa of Valencia (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Infantry

Andalusian Skirmishers
Until very recently, when mechanisation reduced the amount of close-quarters fighting required,
skirmishers were used to harass, never giving the enemy pause to regroup and distracting them until melee
troops or cavalry could pin them down. In the ancient world, particularly among the 'civilised' states of the
Mediterranean, many skirmishers were considered highly skilled, with places such as Crete and the Balearic
Islands specialising in producing first class archers, slingers and javelineers. In the north and west of Europe,
such weapons were generally thought considered cowardly - only fighting hand-to-hand in melee carried
the required amount of honour and glory with it. As antiquity gave way to the Middle Ages, and tribal
society subsided to the more hierarchical feudal system, good skirmishers were highly valued once again.
Aside from the longbow, the javelin remained their favoured weapon, particularly when fighting from horseback; a rider
could hurl his weapon at the enemy and be far away before they had time to react. If they were foolish enough to turn
and face the threat, they could be blinded to an infantry or cavalry charge bearing down upon them.
Andalusian Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both
melee and skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be
changed by the general according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite
advances in horse archery elsewhere in the world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained
primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were not a common sight in western Umayyad
armies of the period.

Armoured Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both
melee and skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be
changed by the general according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite
advances in horse archery elsewhere in the world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained
primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were not a common sight in western Umayyad
armies of the period.

Slingers
The sling is one of the oldest ranged weapons in existence, possibly dating back to before the Neolithic
period. Its use throughout history is evidenced by depictions upon Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs, as well as
those of later times, such as Trajan's Column and the Bayeux Tapestry. A sling is essentially a length of
material (usually leather, but sometimes stretched pig bladder) with a cradle in the centre to hold a stone.
The slinger then holds the ends and spins the sling to generate momentum. By extending his arm and
simultaneously increasing the force of the spin, then releasing the stone at the precise moment, the
slingshot can be flung a large distance - far greater than would be possible without it. Many young people
grew up throwing stones found on the river beds of Europe, giving them a natural advantage when applying
the skill to combat. Rocks and stones were in ready supply so, whilst spears may have needed repair after a
battle, slingers were always well provisioned. Often people of low status in society, and therefore in battle,
slingers would typically take up position behind veteran warriors, providing a blanket of slingshots to hamper the enemy
when charging. In return, the veterans would use their shields to safeguard the slingers as they unleashed their missiles.
Slingshot could be an effective weapon against close enemy formations or cavalry.

Taifa of Valencia (Age of Charlemagne) Spear Infantry

Berber Levy
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually commanded by
nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king would order his subordinates to
muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen brought their households, attendant
warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from citizen and subject recruits to professional standing
armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a
duty. In turn, this opened the way for promotion on merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than
the old social order.

Berber Spearmen
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.

Berber Warriors
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.

Umayyad Guardsmen
The personal guard of the Umayyad caliphs, drawn from the ranks of the mamluk slave army and bolstered
by foreign mercenaries, was known as the 'hasham'. Captured beyond the caliphate's eastern borders,
beyond Transoxiana, the mamluks (or ghilman) were trained in captivity and freed on appointment to the
guard. This was for two reasons; freed slaves owed a debt of duty to their former masters and those from
outside the caliphate would be far less likely to intrigue or join an insurrection against it. Mamluk forces
became the backbone of Islamic military power in the eastern empire, but the Cordoban caliphs of the west
augmented their armies with Berbers and native Andalusians (a mix of native Iberian and Visigothic
settlers). The proliferation of mamluk soldiers across the Umayyad Caliphate as peacekeepers contributed
greatly to its later destabilisation, as commanders were able to levy their loyal mamluks against both rivals
and the central authorities alike.

Taifa of Valencia (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry

Andalusian Cavalry
Compared to other armies of the period, the Muslim armies of Al-Andalus were extremely advanced and
diverse; bolstered by the tenacious Berber tribes of northern Africa as well as native Andalusians and Syrian
troops garrisoned across the Iberian Peninsula. The Andalusians bred war horses of their own, a renowned
breed now known as "Pure Spanish", from as far back as 450BC. Despite this prodigious equine legacy,
however, Umayyad cavalry lagged behind the rest of the caliphate's highly-developed military machine; the
stirrup and 'framed' saddle failed to catch on, despite being used widely in its eastern territories.
Conversely, Iberian Muslims used the 'curb' bit - which provided better control over the horses - centuries
before anyone else.
Armoured Cavalry
The Umayyad military was a mixture of traditional Muslim warriors, descended from the Syrian garrisons in
Al-Andalus, as well as local Andalusian converts to Islam and Berber people from Africa. Although the elite
units were drawn from the Andalusian garrisons, the role of the caliph's personal guard - or 'hasham' - was
reserved for the elite of the slave military class - the Mamluks. Right across the caliphate's territory,
Mamluks formed the bulk of the armed forces, with status beyond that of a normal slave and even of a free
citizen. As the centuries passed, the influence of the Mamluks continued to grow, they began occupying
positions of increasing seniority in both the military and civilian administrations, eventually toppling their masters in
Egypt during the 13th century to become the sultans of the Bahri dynasty.

Horsemen
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.
Berber Light Cavalry
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.

Taifa of Valencia (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Cavalry

Berber Jinetes
The Berber people amalgamated into the Muslim forces after the Islamic conquest of Maghreb in the 7th
and 8th centuries AD were fierce, stubborn, and not easily subjugated by their new masters. As a collection
of tribes, Berbers brought great diversity and skill to the caliphate's army. Their cavalry was of particular
note; the Berber being proficient cavalrymen who fielded lightly-armoured, mounted raiders atop excellent
Arabian horses. The cavalrymen of the Zenata tribe became known as 'jinetes', who found that switching to
horses from camels greatly improved their usefulness on the battlefield. As a result of the caliphate's
relentless advance into the Iberian Peninsula, the north African natives soon found themselves fighting the
Spanish, who later adapted the jinete cavalry model as they fought back against Islam during the
Reconquista.
Berber Raiders
The Berber people amalgamated into the Muslim forces after the Islamic conquest of Maghreb in the 7th
and 8th centuries AD were fierce, stubborn, and not easily subjugated by their new masters. As a collection
of tribes, Berbers brought great diversity and skill to the caliphate's army. Their cavalry was of particular
note; the Berber being proficient cavalrymen who fielded lightly-armoured, mounted raiders atop excellent
Arabian horses. The cavalrymen of the Zenata tribe became known as 'jinetes', who found that switching to
horses from camels greatly improved their usefulness on the battlefield. As a result of the caliphate's
relentless advance into the Iberian Peninsula, the north African natives soon found themselves fighting the
Spanish, who later adapted the jinete cavalry model as they fought back against Islam during the
Reconquista.

Taifa of Valencia (Age of Charlemagne) Field Artillery

Large Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be easily or safely
mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon became a staple of
siege warfare.
Bastion Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
 TAIFA DE SEVILLA
Taifa of Sevilla (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry
Umayyad Guard Cavalry
The Umayyad military was a mixture of traditional Muslim warriors, descended from the Syrian garrisons in
Al-Andalus, as well as local Andalusian converts to Islam and Berber people from Africa. Although the elite
units were drawn from the Andalusian garrisons, the role of the caliph's personal guard - or 'hasham' - was
reserved for the elite of the slave military class - the Mamluks. Right across the caliphate's territory,
Mamluks formed the bulk of the armed forces, with status beyond that of a normal slave and even of a free
citizen. As the centuries passed, the influence of the Mamluks continued to grow, they began occupying
positions of increasing seniority in both the military and civilian administrations, eventually toppling their
masters in Egypt during the 13th century to become the sultans of the Bahri dynasty.

Taifa of Sevilla (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry

Andalusian Infantry
Men who signed up to fight in the Andalusian armies of the Umayyad Caliphate were usually motivated by
their religious beliefs, as was generally the case right across the burgeoning Islamic empire. Spain was an
extremely wealthy territory due to its iron and silver resources. These seams, mined by both Carthage and
Rome in centuries past, were reopened by the Umayyads, who then used the resultant wealth to import
well-made weapons and armour from across Europe as well as creating their own. Less is known about
Andalusian infantry than their cavalry, save that they represented the bulk of Umayyad armies in the region
at a time when its cavalry was considered inferior and insufficient for purpose compared to that of their
western European rivals.
Andalusian Warriors
Men who signed up to fight in the Andalusian armies of the Umayyad Caliphate were usually motivated by
their religious beliefs, as was generally the case right across the burgeoning Islamic empire. Spain was an
extremely wealthy territory due to its iron and silver resources. These seams, mined by both Carthage and
Rome in centuries past, were reopened by the Umayyads, who then used the resultant wealth to import
well-made weapons and armour from across Europe as well as creating their own. Less is known about
Andalusian infantry than their cavalry, save that they represented the bulk of Umayyad armies in the region
at a time when its cavalry was considered inferior and insufficient for purpose compared to that of their
western European rivals.}

Taifa of Sevilla (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Infantry

Andalusian Skirmishers
Until very recently, when mechanisation reduced the amount of close-quarters fighting required,
skirmishers were used to harass, never giving the enemy pause to regroup and distracting them until
melee troops or cavalry could pin them down. In the ancient world, particularly among the 'civilised'
states of the Mediterranean, many skirmishers were considered highly skilled, with places such as Crete
and the Balearic Islands specialising in producing first class archers, slingers and javelineers. In the
north and west of Europe, such weapons were generally thought considered cowardly - only fighting
hand-to-hand in melee carried the required amount of honour and glory with it. As antiquity gave way to the Middle
Ages, and tribal society subsided to the more hierarchical feudal system, good skirmishers were highly valued once
again. Aside from the longbow, the javelin remained their favoured weapon, particularly when fighting from horseback;
a rider could hurl his weapon at the enemy and be far away before they had time to react. If they were foolish enough to
turn and face the threat, they could be blinded to an infantry or cavalry charge bearing down upon them.
Andalusian Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both
melee and skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be
changed by the general according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite
advances in horse archery elsewhere in the world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained
primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were not a common sight in western Umayyad
armies of the period.

Armoured Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both
melee and skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be
changed by the general according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite
advances in horse archery elsewhere in the world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained
primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were not a common sight in western Umayyad
armies of the period.

Slingers
The sling is one of the oldest ranged weapons in existence, possibly dating back to before the Neolithic
period. Its use throughout history is evidenced by depictions upon Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs, as well as
those of later times, such as Trajan's Column and the Bayeux Tapestry. A sling is essentially a length of
material (usually leather, but sometimes stretched pig bladder) with a cradle in the centre to hold a stone.
The slinger then holds the ends and spins the sling to generate momentum. By extending his arm and
simultaneously increasing the force of the spin, then releasing the stone at the precise moment, the
slingshot can be flung a large distance - far greater than would be possible without it. Many young people
grew up throwing stones found on the river beds of Europe, giving them a natural advantage when applying
the skill to combat. Rocks and stones were in ready supply so, whilst spears may have needed repair after a
battle, slingers were always well provisioned. Often people of low status in society, and therefore in battle,
slingers would typically take up position behind veteran warriors, providing a blanket of slingshots to hamper the enemy
when charging. In return, the veterans would use their shields to safeguard the slingers as they unleashed their missiles.
Slingshot could be an effective weapon against close enemy formations or cavalry.

Taifa of Sevilla (Age of Charlemagne) Spear Infantry

Berber Levy
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from
citizen and subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes
were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for
promotion on merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.

Berber Spearmen
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of Tariq ibn Ziyad.
Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were generally given cheaper armour and
equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.

Berber Warriors
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.

Umayyad Guardsmen
The personal guard of the Umayyad caliphs, drawn from the ranks of the mamluk slave army and bolstered
by foreign mercenaries, was known as the 'hasham'. Captured beyond the caliphate's eastern borders,
beyond Transoxiana, the mamluks (or ghilman) were trained in captivity and freed on appointment to the
guard. This was for two reasons; freed slaves owed a debt of duty to their former masters and those from
outside the caliphate would be far less likely to intrigue or join an insurrection against it. Mamluk forces
became the backbone of Islamic military power in the eastern empire, but the Cordoban caliphs of the west
augmented their armies with Berbers and native Andalusians (a mix of native Iberian and Visigothic
settlers). The proliferation of mamluk soldiers across the Umayyad Caliphate as peacekeepers contributed
greatly to its later destabilisation, as commanders were able to levy their loyal mamluks against both rivals
and the central authorities alike.

Taifa of Sevilla (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry

Andalusian Cavalry
Compared to other armies of the period, the Muslim armies of Al-Andalus were extremely advanced and
diverse; bolstered by the tenacious Berber tribes of northern Africa as well as native Andalusians and Syrian
troops garrisoned across the Iberian Peninsula. The Andalusians bred war horses of their own, a renowned
breed now known as "Pure Spanish", from as far back as 450BC. Despite this prodigious equine legacy,
however, Umayyad cavalry lagged behind the rest of the caliphate's highly-developed military machine; the
stirrup and 'framed' saddle failed to catch on, despite being used widely in its eastern territories.
Conversely, Iberian Muslims used the 'curb' bit - which provided better control over the horses - centuries
before anyone else.
Armoured Cavalry
The Umayyad military was a mixture of traditional Muslim warriors, descended from the Syrian garrisons in
Al-Andalus, as well as local Andalusian converts to Islam and Berber people from Africa. Although the elite
units were drawn from the Andalusian garrisons, the role of the caliph's personal guard - or 'hasham' - was
reserved for the elite of the slave military class - the Mamluks. Right across the caliphate's territory,
Mamluks formed the bulk of the armed forces, with status beyond that of a normal slave and even of a free
citizen. As the centuries passed, the influence of the Mamluks continued to grow, they began occupying
positions of increasing seniority in both the military and civilian administrations, eventually toppling their
masters in Egypt during the 13th century to become the sultans of the Bahri dynasty.

Horsemen
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful asset for the
Muslim forces stationed in Spain.

Berber Light Cavalry

When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.

Taifa of Sevilla (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Cavalry

Berber Jinetes
The Berber people amalgamated into the Muslim forces after the Islamic conquest of Maghreb in the 7th
and 8th centuries AD were fierce, stubborn, and not easily subjugated by their new masters. As a collection
of tribes, Berbers brought great diversity and skill to the caliphate's army. Their cavalry was of particular
note; the Berber being proficient cavalrymen who fielded lightly-armoured, mounted raiders atop excellent
Arabian horses. The cavalrymen of the Zenata tribe became known as 'jinetes', who found that switching to
horses from camels greatly improved their usefulness on the battlefield. As a result of the caliphate's
relentless advance into the Iberian Peninsula, the north African natives soon found themselves fighting the
Spanish, who later adapted the jinete cavalry model as they fought back against Islam during the
Reconquista.
Berber Raiders
The Berber people amalgamated into the Muslim forces after the Islamic conquest of Maghreb in the 7th
and 8th centuries AD were fierce, stubborn, and not easily subjugated by their new masters. As a collection
of tribes, Berbers brought great diversity and skill to the caliphate's army. Their cavalry was of particular
note; the Berber being proficient cavalrymen who fielded lightly-armoured, mounted raiders atop excellent
Arabian horses. The cavalrymen of the Zenata tribe became known as 'jinetes', who found that switching to
horses from camels greatly improved their usefulness on the battlefield. As a result of the caliphate's
relentless advance into the Iberian Peninsula, the north African natives soon found themselves fighting the
Spanish, who later adapted the jinete cavalry model as they fought back against Islam during the
Reconquista.

Taifa of Sevilla (Age of Charlemagne) Field Artillery

Large Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon
became a staple of siege warfare.
Bastion Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines could require
as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be easily or safely mounted on
walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon became a staple of siege
warfare.
Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.

EMIRATO DE GRANADA
 Emirate of Granada (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry
Umayyad Guard Cavalry
The Umayyad military was a mixture of traditional Muslim warriors, descended from the Syrian garrisons in
Al-Andalus, as well as local Andalusian converts to Islam and Berber people from Africa. Although the elite
units were drawn from the Andalusian garrisons, the role of the caliph's personal guard - or 'hasham' - was
reserved for the elite of the slave military class - the Mamluks. Right across the caliphate's territory,
Mamluks formed the bulk of the armed forces, with status beyond that of a normal slave and even of a free
citizen. As the centuries passed, the influence of the Mamluks continued to grow, they began occupying
positions of increasing seniority in both the military and civilian administrations, eventually toppling their
masters in Egypt during the 13th century to become the sultans of the Bahri dynasty.

Emirate of Granada (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Infantry

Andalusian Infantry
Men who signed up to fight in the Andalusian armies of the Umayyad Caliphate were usually motivated by
their religious beliefs, as was generally the case right across the burgeoning Islamic empire. Spain was an
extremely wealthy territory due to its iron and silver resources. These seams, mined by both Carthage and
Rome in centuries past, were reopened by the Umayyads, who then used the resultant wealth to import
well-made weapons and armour from across Europe as well as creating their own. Less is known about
Andalusian infantry than their cavalry, save that they represented the bulk of Umayyad armies in the region
at a time when its cavalry was considered inferior and insufficient for purpose compared to that of their
western European rivals.
Andalusian Warriors
Men who signed up to fight in the Andalusian armies of the Umayyad Caliphate were usually motivated by
their religious beliefs, as was generally the case right across the burgeoning Islamic empire. Spain was an
extremely wealthy territory due to its iron and silver resources. These seams, mined by both Carthage and
Rome in centuries past, were reopened by the Umayyads, who then used the resultant wealth to import
well-made weapons and armour from across Europe as well as creating their own. Less is known about
Andalusian infantry than their cavalry, save that they represented the bulk of Umayyad armies in the region
at a time when its cavalry was considered inferior and insufficient for purpose compared to that of their
western European rivals.

Andalusian Skirmishers
Until very recently, when mechanisation reduced the amount of close-quarters fighting required,
skirmishers were used to harass, never giving the enemy pause to regroup and distracting them until melee
troops or cavalry could pin them down. In the ancient world, particularly among the 'civilised' states of the
Mediterranean, many skirmishers were considered highly skilled, with places such as Crete and the Balearic
Islands specialising in producing first class archers, slingers and javelineers. In the north and west of Europe,
such weapons were generally thought considered cowardly - only fighting hand-to-hand in melee carried
the required amount of honour and glory with it. As antiquity gave way to the Middle Ages, and tribal
society subsided to the more hierarchical feudal system, good skirmishers were highly valued once again.
Aside from the longbow, the javelin remained their favoured weapon, particularly when fighting from
horseback; a rider could hurl his weapon at the enemy and be far away before they had time to react. If
they were foolish enough to turn and face the threat, they could be blinded to an infantry or cavalry charge bearing
down upon them.
Andalusian Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both
melee and skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be
changed by the general according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite
advances in horse archery elsewhere in the world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained
primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were not a common sight in western Umayyad
armies of the period.

Armoured Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained biased in favour of
infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from the native Andalusian and north
African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both melee and skirmishing techniques and carried both
axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be changed by the general according to the tactical situation with which
they were presented. Despite advances in horse archery elsewhere in the world - and particularly in the east -
skirmishing remained primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were not a common sight in western
Umayyad armies of the period.

Slingers
The sling is one of the oldest ranged weapons in existence, possibly dating back to before the Neolithic
period. Its use throughout history is evidenced by depictions upon Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs, as well as
those of later times, such as Trajan's Column and the Bayeux Tapestry. A sling is essentially a length of
material (usually leather, but sometimes stretched pig bladder) with a cradle in the centre to hold a stone.
The slinger then holds the ends and spins the sling to generate momentum. By extending his arm and
simultaneously increasing the force of the spin, then releasing the stone at the precise moment, the
slingshot can be flung a large distance - far greater than would be possible without it. Many young people
grew up throwing stones found on the river beds of Europe, giving them a natural advantage when applying
the skill to combat. Rocks and stones were in ready supply so, whilst spears may have needed repair after a
battle, slingers were always well provisioned. Often people of low status in society, and therefore in battle,
slingers would typically take up position behind veteran warriors, providing a blanket of slingshots to hamper the enemy
when charging. In return, the veterans would use their shields to safeguard the slingers as they unleashed their missiles.
Slingshot could be an effective weapon against close enemy formations or cavalry.

Emirate of Granada (Age of Charlemagne) Spear Infantry

Berber Levy
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from
citizen and subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes
were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for
promotion on merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.

Berber Spearmen
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.

Berber Warriors
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.

Umayyad Guardsmen
The personal guard of the Umayyad caliphs, drawn from the ranks of the mamluk slave army and bolstered by foreign
mercenaries, was known as the 'hasham'. Captured beyond the caliphate's eastern borders, beyond Transoxiana, the
mamluks (or ghilman) were trained in captivity and freed on appointment to the guard. This was for two reasons; freed
slaves owed a debt of duty to their former masters and those from outside the caliphate would be far less likely to
intrigue or join an insurrection against it. Mamluk forces became the backbone of Islamic military power in the eastern
empire, but the Cordoban caliphs of the west augmented their armies with Berbers and native Andalusians (a mix of
native Iberian and Visigothic settlers). The proliferation of mamluk soldiers across the Umayyad Caliphate as
peacekeepers contributed greatly to its later destabilisation, as commanders were able to levy their loyal mamluks
against both rivals and the central authorities alike.

Emirate of Granada (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry

Andalusian Cavalry
Compared to other armies of the period, the Muslim armies of Al-Andalus were extremely advanced and
diverse; bolstered by the tenacious Berber tribes of northern Africa as well as native Andalusians and Syrian
troops garrisoned across the Iberian Peninsula. The Andalusians bred war horses of their own, a renowned
breed now known as "Pure Spanish", from as far back as 450BC. Despite this prodigious equine legacy,
however, Umayyad cavalry lagged behind the rest of the caliphate's highly-developed military machine; the
stirrup and 'framed' saddle failed to catch on, despite being used widely in its eastern territories.
Conversely, Iberian Muslims used the 'curb' bit - which provided better control over the horses - centuries
before anyone else.
Armoured Cavalry
The Umayyad military was a mixture of traditional Muslim warriors, descended from the Syrian garrisons in
Al-Andalus, as well as local Andalusian converts to Islam and Berber people from Africa. Although the elite
units were drawn from the Andalusian garrisons, the role of the caliph's personal guard - or 'hasham' - was
reserved for the elite of the slave military class - the Mamluks. Right across the caliphate's territory,
Mamluks formed the bulk of the armed forces, with status beyond that of a normal slave and even of a free
citizen. As the centuries passed, the influence of the Mamluks continued to grow, they began occupying
positions of increasing seniority in both the military and civilian administrations, eventually toppling their
masters in Egypt during the 13th century to become the sultans of the Bahri dynasty.

Horsemen
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.
Berber Light Cavalry
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.

Emirate of Granada (Age of Charlemagne) Missile Cavalry

Berber Jinetes
The Berber people amalgamated into the Muslim forces after the Islamic conquest of Maghreb in the 7th
and 8th centuries AD were fierce, stubborn, and not easily subjugated by their new masters. As a collection
of tribes, Berbers brought great diversity and skill to the caliphate's army. Their cavalry was of particular
note; the Berber being proficient cavalrymen who fielded lightly-armoured, mounted raiders atop excellent Arabian
horses. The cavalrymen of the Zenata tribe became known as 'jinetes', who found that switching to horses from camels
greatly improved their usefulness on the battlefield. As a result of the caliphate's relentless advance into the Iberian
Peninsula, the north African natives soon found themselves fighting the Spanish, who later adapted the jinete cavalry
model as they fought back against Islam during the Reconquista.
Berber Raiders
The Berber people amalgamated into the Muslim forces after the Islamic conquest of Maghreb in the 7th
and 8th centuries AD were fierce, stubborn, and not easily subjugated by their new masters. As a collection
of tribes, Berbers brought great diversity and skill to the caliphate's army. Their cavalry was of particular
note; the Berber being proficient cavalrymen who fielded lightly-armoured, mounted raiders atop excellent
Arabian horses. The cavalrymen of the Zenata tribe became known as 'jinetes', who found that switching to
horses from camels greatly improved their usefulness on the battlefield. As a result of the caliphate's
relentless advance into the Iberian Peninsula, the north African natives soon found themselves fighting the
Spanish, who later adapted the jinete cavalry model as they fought back against Islam during the
Reconquista.

Emirate of Granada (Age of Charlemagne) Field Artillery

Large Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon
became a staple of siege warfare.

Bastion Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.