€@ Kingdom Classification I CLASSIFICATION Classification is the process of, putting organisms into groups, based on their characieristics, Need for Classification Consider the vast number of plants and animals you come across in your life. If you look at it as a scientist, you will notice a pattern of differences and similarities among them. For example, all plants are green and stationary, and all animals are mobile" Aim:To sort out a box of assorted buttons and classify them into different types Materials required: A box full of different types of buttons Procedure: 1, Take a box of assorted buttons. 2. Work in small groups of 3 or 4. Sort out the buttons based on the following classification criteria. a. Shape b. Buttons with four holes ©. Buttons with two holes d. Colour ‘Mobile: the ability to move . Identify other features that can be used fo sort the buttons into different groups. hitaker's Five Kingdom Classification - Kingdom Monera Kingdom Protista Kingdom Fungi : Kingdom Plantae Kingdom Animalia From a scientific point of view, studying such a diverse group of organisms will require us to arrange them into significant and meaningful categories.Advantages of classification Classification of organisms is helpful in the following ways. « Ithelps In identifying organisms and calegorizing them into groups. « {tmakes the study of living organisms easier. It helps to name, remember, and easily study about the different organisms. «It helps to recognize the relationships among various groups of organisms. « Ithelps to trace common features between organisms, and chart their evolutionary history. It provides information about plants and animals living in different geographical regions. Ithelps in understanding how complex organisms must have evolved from simpler ones. Italso serves as a base for studying other related sciences, such as environmental biology, biogeography, and ecology. CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM A classification system is a framework for grouping things based on their similarities and dissimilarities. The modern system of biological classification consists of different levels or ranks. The highest rank of classification is kingdom. A kingdom consists of a group of organisms sharing some common features, Each successive rank in the Classification system comprises fewer Otganisms, but with greater similarity. The lowest rank of classification is the species. Species is a group of similar organisms that can reproduce among themselves, Scientists have been able to discover and classify more than 2 million organisms on the Earth, ranging from tiny bacteria to the largest blue whales. Organisms are classified according fo a system comprising seven ranks as given in Figure 2.1. sf S Fig 2.4 Ranks of the biological classification system Concept of classification Classification allows us to group organisms based on their common characteristics. The science that deals with classification is called taxonomy. Linnaeus’ two kingdom classification Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778), a Swedish botanist, developed a way to organize and name the vast variety of plants and animals. Linnaeus proposed a two-kingdom classification system, Plants and Animals, based on features, such as: * presence or absence of cell wall * mode of nutrition * locomotion, and * response to stimuliScientific nomenclature Linnaeus also introduced the binomial system of naming organisms. This system, is called the binomial nomenclature, * According to this system, every organism is assigned two names, a generic name and a specific name. + The first name is the genus name and begins with a capital letter. The second name is the species name and begins with a small letter. + Both the names are mostly written in Latin. For example, the scientific name. for human beings is Homo sapiens. Scientific names are always printed in italics. If handwritten, the two names are underlined separately. Table 2.1 gives the scientific names of some organisms. Table 2.1. Common and scientific names of some organisms Human beings Uon Mango Potato Chinese hibiscus Drawbacks of Linnaeus’ classification Linnaeus’ classification of organisms, however, led to many irregularities. This method of classification placed closely telated species in different categories. It placed unicellular and multicellular forms together, and did not differentiate between photosynthetic and non- photosynthetic organisms. It was thus felt that Linnaeus’ system of classification was inadequate. There were a number of organisms that could not fit into either of the two. kingdoms. Homo sapiens Panthera leo Mangitera indica Solanum tuberosum Hibiscus rosa-sinensis There also emerged a need to classify organisms based on features, such as. cell structure, mode of nutrition, uni- or multi-cellularity, and evolutionary felationship. Whittaker's Five-Kingdom Classification In the year 1969, 2.H. Whittaker Proposed Q five-kingdom classification of living organisms. Whittaker organized all living organisms into five kingdoms: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia (Fig 2.2).(a) Monera (o) Fungi (4) Plantae {b) Protista (@) Animalia Fig 2.2 Whittaker's five-kingdom classification This system of classifying organisms is widely accepted and is based on the following criteria: Complexity of cell structure (Prokaryotic and eukaryotic organization of cells): We know that all organisms are made up of cells. Based on the presence or absence of a true nucleus, cells of all organisms may be either prokaryotic (pro = primitive, karyon = nucleus) or eukaryotic (eu = advanced, karyon = nucleus). Prokaryotic cells do not have a well-defined nucleus, i.e., the DNA, which is their nuclear material, lies Nuclear material (a) Prokaryotic cell, freely in the cytoplasm [Fig. 2.3 (a)]. Such Cells also do not possess membrane- bound organelles, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts. Organisms made of such cells are called prokaryotes. Bacteria and blue-green algae examples of prokaryotes. Eukaryotic cells, on the other hand, have a well-defined, membrane-bound nucleus [Fig. 2.3 (b)], along with nucleolus and chromatin lying in its nucleoplasm. Numerous membrane- bound organelles are also present. Organisms made of such cells are called ‘Membrane-bound organelles (b) Eukaryotic cell Fig 2.3 Cellular organisation &All other organisms, belonging to kingdom Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia are examples of eukaryotes. Complexity of body organization (Unicellularity and multicellularity): Living organisms may be unicellular or multicellular, depending upon the number of cells that make up their body. Organisms made up of a single cell are called unicellular organisms. In such organisms, a single cell is capable of carrying out life functions, such as nutrition, respiration, and excretion. Examples of unicellular organisms are bacteria, Amoeba, Euglena (Fig 2.4), yeasts, and some algae, such as Chlamydomonas. Organisms made up of many cells are called multicellular organisms. Nusleus Eye spot Nucleus tT Pseudopodia peeetu (a) Amoeba Fig 2.4 Unicellular organisms (b) Euglena (2) Qyeas Fig 2.5 Multicellular organisms ‘A majority of organisms that we see around us, such as plants and animals, are multicellular (Fig. 2.5). In such organisms, different groups of cells, form tissues, organs, and organ systems, and carry out different life functions. Mode of nutrition All organisms obtain food from their surrounding environment. The process by which organisms fake in food and utilize it for growth and development is called nutrition. There are two modes of nuitition: qutotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition. Autotrophic nutrition is a type of nutrition in which the organism makes its own food from inorganic substances present in the environment. Such organisms are called autotrophs. Plants, algae, and some bacteria are autotrophs. Heteroirophic nutrition is a type of nutrition in which the organism cannot make its own food and depends upon other organisms for food to survive. Such organisms are called heterotrophs. Most protists, fungi, and all animals are heterotrophs. (b) Shark,Choose the correct options from the bracket to fill in the blanks, 1. According to binomial nomenclature, modern-day humans are called ... (Homo habilis/Homo sapiens). 2 bors tiie based on similarities and differences is called ... (classification/taxonomy). Kingdom Monera [jp The term Monera originates from the Greek word monérés, which means single or solifary.This kingdom comprises single- celled, prokaryotic organisms that are microscopic. They can be seen only with the help of a microscope. All bacteria are grouped under Kingdom Monera. Bacteria Bacteria are the most primitive forms of life that inhabit Earth. Bacterial cells exist either solitary or in chains or clusters. They are found everywhere—in air, in water, in food, in soil, on dead matter, and even inside our bodies. Bacteria are capable of surviving the harshest conditions. Structure Bacteria are unicellular organisms, ranging from 0.5 to 4 microns. A bacterial cell is surrounded by a cell membrane and an outer rigid cell wall (Fig. 2.6).A gelatinous outer layer called the capsule surrounds the cell wall. This capsule prevents the bacterial cell from drying and protects it from mechanical injury. & (Genus/Species) is the lowest rank of classification. Prokaryotes/Eukaryotes) do not have a true nucleus. (fungi/algae) are heterotrophs as they cannot make their All bacterial cells are prokaryotic. As such, the nuclear material is not enclosed within a nuclear membrane and it lies freely within the cyloplasm. The bacterial cells lack cell organelles, however, ribosomes, are present in the cytoplasm and these are much smaller in size. Bacteria have one or two whip-like structures called flagella (sing. flagellum) emerging from the cell wall, which help in locomotion. Nucleoid Flagella Fig 2.6 A bacterial cellNutrition Nutrition in bacteria can be autotrophic, saprophytic, or parasitic. * Autotrophic bacteria: These bacteria make their own food by using inorganic compounds or sunlight Os a source of energy. They contain pigments very similar to chlorophyll, which help in making the food. * Saprophytic bacteria: These bacteria derive nutrition from dead and decaying organic material. They release digestive enzymes into the organic matter, on which they grow, and break down the complex organic nutrients into simpler molecules. These molecules are then absorbed by the bacterial cell. * Parasitic bacteria: These bacteria live on or inside the body of other organisms (called host) and obtain nutrition from them. Such bacteria often cause harm to the body of the host. Parasitic bacteria cause diseases in animals and plants. Shape: Bacterial cells may be spherical, rod-shaped, spiral, or comma-shaped (Fig. 2.7). Spherical bacteria are called Cocei (sing. coccus), rod-shaped (@) Bacit (©) Coeci bacteria are called Bacilli Ging. baci spiral bacteria are called Spirilia (sing, spirillum), and comma-shaped bacterig are called Vibrio, Bacteria can be beneficial as well as harmful to nature and to us. Useful bacteria Following are some ways in which bacteria are beneficial fo us. « Curd and cheese-making: The milk bacterium, Lactobacillus, is used domestically for converting milk into curd. It is also used commercially, ‘along with Streptococcus, to ferment milk and prepare cheese. « Pickling: Lactobacillus and acetic acid bacteria are used in food industry for pickling and fermenting food products. + Antibiotic production: We use bacteria of genus Bacillus and Streptomyces to prepare antibiotics, like Bacitracin and Streptomycin. Antibiotics are chemical substances obtained from microbes, including bacteria, which inhibit the growth of other disease-causing microorganisms. Aureomycin is another example of antibiotic. () Spititla (@) Vibrio Fig 2.7 Shapes of bacterial cellsVaccine preparation: Vaccines are special preparations of dead or weakened disease-causing germs. These preparations are injected inio the human bloodstream so that ihe body develops immunity against infectious diseases. Vaccines of diseases, such as typhoid, tetanus, cholera,T.B, and diphtheria, are prepared fo prevent the spread of these diseases. Probiotics: Lactic acid bacieria and aceiic acid bacteria are used to make probiotics that help with digestion-elated problems, such as initable bowel and diarrhoea. Synthesis of vitamins: E. coli, a bacterium present in the human intestines, is isolated and used io commercially produce vitamin B-complex and vitamin K fablets. These vitamins are sold as food supplemenis. Retting of jute fibres: Bacteria are used for separating jute fibres from stem through a process called reiting. This is done by bacterial decomposition. The stems of jute are immersed in water and acted upon by bacteria, which dissolve the cell walls and separate the fibres. Recycling of Nutrients: Bacteria act on the dead remains of plants and animals, converting their complex organic compounds into simpler substances or nutrients, which are easily absorbed by plants. Nitrogen fixation: Some bacteria hay es © the ability to convert the free nitrogen of the atmosphere into nitrogenous compounds that can be used by plants.There are wo groups of nitrogen fixing bacieria: the free living bacieria, e.g., Closfridium, found in soil or air, and ithe symbioiic bacieria, Rhizobium, ihai in root nodules of leguminous planis (Fig. 2.8). Genetic engineering: Bacieria have also been used, through genetic engineering, io proieci planis from pest infesiation. The bacierium, Bacillus thuringiensis, or BT, is an environment friendly pesticide used in biological pest conirol. Root nodules Fig 2.8 Root nodules in leguminous plants Biological treatment: Bacieria are used in the biological ireaimeni of indusirial and sewage wasie effiuenis. This process converts organic wastes into environmeni-riendly substances, ie., compost and biogas.= —@@_$__—_—__——_—— Aim:To study the preparation of curd _ Materials required: one cup of milk, a8 Procedure: 1, Pour milk into the pan and heat it on a 2. Heat the milk until it turns lukewarm. Transfer the milk info a bow. 3. Now add one teaspoonful of curd to it. . Stir it well and cover it with a lid. Keep the bow! in a warm place. 5. Observe the milk after about 5-6 hours. Observation: After 5-6 hours, you will notice that the milk in the bow! has turned into cura, Conclusion: The teaspoontul of curd contained a bacterium called Lactobacillus. When this curd, with the bacterium, was transferred fo the lukewarm milk, the bacterium acted ‘on the milk, converting the lactose in milk to lactic acid. This turned the milk into curd. Sete eens ts ee Harmful bacteria diseases in plants, animals, and humans. Such organisms that cause Bacteria can be harmful in a variety of ways mentioned below: diseases are called pathogens. mall bowl, lid, pan, and one teaspoonful of curd stove on medium flame. B Some common bacterial diseases and * Spoilage of food: Some bacteria . grow on days old vegetables and their causative bacteria are given in fruits, even meat, bread, and other Table 2.1. perishable food items. The food Table 2.1 Some common bacterial dis items get spoilt and become unfit for human consumption. Vibrio cholerae + Food Poisoning: Some bacteria Cholera produce certain harmful chemicals, called toxins, in food. When such Aaperalodis Mycobactertum tuberculosis food items, containing toxins are consumed, food poisoning occurs. Clostridium tefoni Clostridium botulinum is a common Tetanus bacterium that infects canned food. Typhoid fever Salmonella typhi * Disease-causing bacteria: Many Botulism Clostridium botulinum bacteria are known to cause several athChoose the correct term from the bracket (multicellular, cell membrane, nuclear membrane, cell wall, organelles, nucleus, Coccus, unicellular, Bacilli, beneficial) | Bacteria are ...... (1) microscopi Well OS ose (2) in many ways. A having a... .». (8). Bacterial cells and lack membrane-bound ......... - (6) Kingdom Protista [ijpir Kingdom Protista consists of very small single-celled, eukaryotic organisms. They can be seen with the help of a compound microscope. These organisms, called protists, live in aquatic habitats such as ponds, rivers, lakes, and seas. Some may also be terrestrial. Protists are eukaryotes, ie. their cells contain a well-defined prominent nucleus. The cells also contain several Ortoplasm Nucleus Pseudopodia (a) Amoeba .» (6). The fod shaped bacteria are to fill in the blank spaces. ic organisms. They can be harmful as bacterial cell resembles a plant cell in A) called do not have a true ....... membrane-bound cell organelles, such as mitochondria and golgi body. Amoeba, Paramoecium, and Euglena are the common protists (Fig. 2.9). Amoeba moves with the help of pseudopodia that are temporary fingerlike projections of its cytoplasm. Paramoecium has hairlike structures. called cilia scattered alll over its body, which help it to move. Euglena has a whip-ike structure called flagellum for movement. Eye spot Nucleus Flagellum (b) Paramoectum (c) Eugiena Fig 2.9 ProtistsNutrition Nutrition in protists can be oallher autotrophic or heterotrophic, + Autotrophic protists: Euglena is a unique protist, as it can be both autotrophic and heterotrophic according to its need for nutrition. It Holorotrophic protists: Paramnosciury, and Amoeba are halarotrophic. prolisis, They feed on microscopic organisms, such a6 bacteria and algae, Parasitic protists: Some protists ars parasitic, |,2., Ihey derive {hair nutrition from other organisms, Parasitic protist, uses its chloroplasts to produce food through photosynthesis. However, in the absence of sunlight. it becomes is a parasilic prolist that causes heterotrophic. malaria in human beings; Entamoshs Sy causes amoebiasis, Aim: To study the presence of some common protists in a drop of pond water Materials required: A beaker of pond water, dropper, glass slides, cover slips, and a compound microscope. Procedure: 1, Collect pond water in a beaker from a nearby freshwater pond, 2. Filla dropper from the beaker, and put a drop of this water on a glass slide, Cover the slide with a cover slip. Make sure that no bubbles are formed while placing the cover slip. 3, Place the slide on a microscope stage and observe it after focussing. 4. Draw pencil diagrams of the different organisms that you observe, Note their colour, cell shapes and structure, and any other features, Observation: Amoeba, Paramoecium, and Euglena are common protists that you can find in pond water. All these organisms are unicellular. Observe the features of these organisms and answer the following questions. a. How are the shapes of Amoeba, Paramoecium and Euglena different? . Can you identify their nuclear structure? . What are the fingerlike projections in Amoeba? |. What are the hairlike structures present all over a Paramoecium's body? . What is the whip-like structure projecting out of the body of Euglena? generally cause diseases in anirnals, including human beings. Plasmodiury ®ao0oc Structure Amoeba has an irregularly shaped bod) covered by a thin plasma membrane. Amoeba Amoebais a unicellular, microscopic protist, found in freshwater and moist soils. 2)The cytoplasm is differentiated into outer ~—_ water content of the cell and several ectoplasm and inner endoplasm. food vacuoles enclosing particles of Since Amoeba is an eukaryote, the food. Temporary, fingerlike, cytoplasm. endoplasm prominently contains a wel __ filed projections called pseudopodia defined nucleus enclosed within wo. | -—-_ (Pseudo meaning false: podia layered nuclear membrane. meaning feet) are used by Amoeba for locomotion and for engulfing the prey. These ‘false feet’ are formed by extension of the cytoplasm. The endoplasm also contains a contractile vacuole, which regulates the ‘To study the structure of Amoeba from a permanent slide _ Materials required: Permanent slide of Amoeba and a compound microscope | Procedure: | 1. Take a permanent slide of Amoeba and place it on the stage of the compound | microscope. _ 2. Observe the structure of Amoeba and draw it in your lab file. _ Observation: Amoeba is unicellular and iregular in shape. It has a thin plasma | membrane enclosing the protoplasm. The cytoplasm forms irregular, fingerlike projections called pseudopodia. Within the cytoplasm is a disc-shaped nucleus, food vacuoles, and contractile vacuoles. ‘ _ Conclusion: The organism viewed under compound microscope is Amoeba belonging to _ the Kingdom Protista. Nutrition Digestion: Digestive enzymes are Amoeba feeds on microscopic secreted within the food vacuole inside organisms found in water bodies. the cell. These enzymes break the food Nutrition in Amoeba is holozoic! and into simple, soluble forms that can be ‘occurs in the following steps: easily absorbed by the cell. Ingestion: When an Amoeba senses Absorption: The soluble form of digested food, it develops pseudopodia in food, or nutrients, are absorbed within the the direction of the food particle. The cytoplasm by diffusion. Pseudopodia enguif the food particle Assimilation: The nutrients are then used and fuse over it fo forma food vacuole in to build new protoplasm and obtain the cytoplasm (Fig. 2.10). energy. 'Holozoic: a type of nutrition in which solid food is ingested, digested, absorbed, and assimilated to utilize it, ©Plasma membrane Food vacuole pe 3 Nucleus = Step 1 Step 2 Fig 2.10 An Amoeba feeding Egestion: The undigested wastes that projections in the direction of movement are left within the food vacuole move to of its body. the rear end of the cell, where the cell Step 2. The pseudopodium extends membrane ruptures to release the wastes gue to the flow of protoplasm in that out of the body. particular direction. This extension Locomotion continues to grow due to the flow of protoplasm.The Amoeba then moves in that direction. SI 6s on ancetocromgertt direction of movement, a new smevenien (Fig. 2.11). pseudopodium is formed in the direction of the movement and the old @ al, pseudopodium disappears. ‘rae agar tenon oan in ade Sap 2 Amoeba occurs by diffusion through | The dissolved oxygen present in the surtounding environment diffuses continuously inside the cytoplasm as it: Stop 3 concentration outside the cell is alway Fig 2.11. Locomotion in Amoeba higher than in the cytoplasm. This oxyg: x is used for respiration within the cell anc step 1. When an Amoeba moves. it forms the resultant carbon dioxide diffuses ou’ a pseudopodium from the cytoplasmic Of the cell into the surroundings.Reproduction Binary fission and multiple fission are the two methods by which Amoeba reproduces, Binary fission occurs when conditions, such as availability of food, are favourable to Amoeba. In this method, the nucleus first divides into two equal parts and then the cytoplasm splits from the middle, giving rise to two daughter cells (Fig. 2.12). These daughter cells grow and split in the same manner, producing new cells, Amoeba undergoes multiple fission to survive unfavourable conditions such as a Seo, += Od) Daughter ‘Amoebae 2, Nucleus: 3. The cytoplasm, divides into two divides into two parts, each part receiving a nucleus Fig 2.12 Binary fission in Amoeba Name the bacteria that are responsible for each of the following conditions. Food poisoning Causing cholera Making curd anRwena . Synthesis of vitamin B Kingdom Fungi er Kingdom Fungi consists of plantlike organisms that are mostly multicellular, Non-green, and non-photosynthetic in nature. . Living symbiotically in root nodules of legume harsh weather and unavailability of food. In this case, the cell develops a hard, outer covering called cyst. Within the cyst, the nucleus of the parent cell divides repeatedly, producing several nuclei. This is followed by division of the cytoplasm into several parts with each part enclosing one nucleus. When favourable conditions return, the cyst breaks open, releasing a number of daughter cells from a single parent at the same time (Fig. 2.13) Step 4: Amoeba pulls in its pseudopodia and secretes a oyst wall. Nucleus Step 3: Under favourable conditions, the cyst ruptures releasing many daughter cells. Step 2: Repeated division of nucleus followed by cytoplasm, Fig 2.43 Multiple fission in Amoeba Yeasts are the only unicellular form of fungi; all other fungi are multicellular, Fungi are eukaryotic organisms, and hence have a well-defined membrane- bound nucleus,They also have other membrane-bound organelles within their cells, but they lack plastids. Their cell wall is made up of chitin. Most fungi contain a vegetative body, made up of a number of long, multicellular, filamentMike structures called hyphae. A network of such hyphae is called mycelium. Since fungi lack chlorophyll, nutrition is heterotrophic. They may either be saprotrophic or parasitic. Saprotrophic fungi: Fungi, such as mushrooms, moulds, and toadstools are saprophytes. They grow on dead and decomposing plant and animal matter, obtaining nutrition from it. Parasitic fungi: Fungi, such as rusts and smuts are parasitic, Le., they obtain their nutrition from another living organism, called host. Parasitic fungi are the causes of various plant and animal diseases. Let us learn more about Rhizopus, a fungi, commonly called bread mould. Rhizopus Rhizopus, (Fig. 2.14) is a fungus that grows on organic matter, such as stale bread or rotting fruit. They may also | Procedure: microscope. grow on other household items, such as leather, damp clothes, and paper. Structure Moulds appear as a cottony mass that consists of threacHlike multicellular filaments called hyphae. Each hypha is a single continuous column filled with cyioplasm and several nuclei. The hyphae grow out in all directions to obtain nutrition -— Spores ‘Sporangiophore ‘Sporanigium Rhizoids stolon Fig 2.14 Rhizopus Hyphae that grow downwards to obtain nutrients from the organic medium (e.g. bread) forming root-like structures are called rhizoids. Hyphae that grow upwards forming slender columns are called sporangiophores.The tip of each sporangiophore has an oval structure called sporangium, which bears spores. The liberated spores germinate ‘on a favourable organic medium and grow into new individuals. | Aim: To study the structure of Rhizopus from a permanent slide ‘Materials required: permanent slide of Rhizopus and a compound microscope | 1, Take a permanent slide of Rhizopus and place it on the stage of the compound | (ss)| the Kingdom Fungi. Nutrition Rhizopus is saprophytic and depends ‘on nutrients from dead or decaying material, The hyphae of the fungus function as microscopic tubes that spread throughout the organic medium on which it grows. These hyphae penetrate the organic material, such as stale food and pickles, and secrete enzymes into it. The enzymes digest the food particles into simpler, easily absorbable nutrients, which are easily taken up by the hyphae. Respiration Moulds breathe aerobically, taking in oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide. They grow in humid places where there is little or no sunlight and air. They draw oxygen from pockets of air that are trapped within the medium on which they grow. The hyphae grow into these microscopic pockets for gaseous exchange by diffusion through the hyphal walls, Moulds also have the capacity to exchange gases with the open atmosphere. Useful fungi Following are some common uses of fungi: * Baking and alcoholic products: Yeast, Observe the structure of Rhizopus and draw it in your lab file servation: Multicellular, filamentous, branched structures can be seen called hyphae. The network of hyphae forms mycelium. Some of the hyphae project as short _ strands called sporangiophores, ending into oval structures known as sporangia. Each | sporangium contains small rounded spores. These are the asexual reproductive units. Conclusion: The organism viewed under compound microscope is Rhizopus belonging to common fungus, is widely used in the baking industry to make bread, pizza base, cakes, and other wheat- based products. It is also used to produce alcoholic beverages, such as wine and beer, by fermentation of various plant parts. Fruits of grapes, stems of cane sugar, and grains of barley are some of the plant parts acted upon by yeasts. Figure 2.15 shows two such products obtained from yeasts, (@) Bread (b) Wine Fig 2.15 Products obtained from fungi * Edible products: Different fungi are used to produce cheese of different varieties. They impart flavor and texture to the cheese. « Many mushrooms and morels are cooked and eaten for their rich nutrient content. * Medicinal and commercial products: Penicillium is an important fungus that is used in the preparation of several important antibiotics, such as penicillin and ampicillin.