Master's Degree

8/17/22, 10:07 AM Master's degree - Wikipedia
Master's degree
A master's degree[note 1] (from Latin magister) is an academic degree awarded by universities or
colleges upon completion of a course of study demonstrating mastery or a high-order overview of a
specific field of study or area of professional practice.[1] A master's degree normally requires previous
study at the bachelor's level, either as a separate degree or as part of an integrated course. Within the
area studied, master's graduates are expected to possess advanced knowledge of a specialized body of
theoretical and applied topics; high order skills in analysis, critical evaluation, or professional
application; and the ability to solve complex problems and think rigorously and independently.
Contents
Historical development
Medieval era to 18th century
Nineteenth century
Twentieth century
Twenty-first century
Titles
Types
Structure
Duration
Admission
Comparable European degrees
Brazil
Asia
Hong Kong
Pakistan
India
Indonesia
Israel
Nepal
Taiwan
See also
Notes
References
Historical development
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master%27s_degree 1/23
Medieval era to 18th century
The master's degree dates back to the origin of European universities, with a Papal bull of 1233
decreeing that anyone admitted to the mastership in the University of Toulouse should be allowed to
teach freely in any other university. The original meaning of the master's degree was thus that
someone who had been admitted to the rank (degree) of master (i.e. teacher) in one university should
be admitted to the same rank in other universities. This gradually became formalised as the licentia
docendī (licence to teach). Originally, masters and doctors were not distinguished, but by the 15th
century it had become customary in the English universities to refer to the teachers in the lower
faculties (arts and grammar) as masters and those in the higher faculties as doctors.[2] Initially, the
Bachelor of Arts (BA) was awarded for the study of the trivium and the Master of Arts (MA) for the
study of the quadrivium.[3]
From the late Middle Ages until the nineteenth century, the pattern of degrees was therefore to have a
bachelor's and master's degree in the lower faculties and to have bachelor's and doctorates in the
higher faculties. In the United States, the first master's degrees (Magister Artium, or Master of Arts)
were awarded at Harvard University soon after its foundation.[4] In Scotland, the pre-Reformation
universities (St Andrews, Glasgow, and Aberdeen) developed so that the Scottish MA became their
first degree, while in Oxford, Cambridge and Trinity College, Dublin, the MA was awarded to BA
graduates of a certain standing without further examination from the late seventeenth century, its
main purpose being to confer full membership of the university.[5] At Harvard the 1700 regulations
required that candidates for the master's degree had to pass a public examination,[6] but by 1835 this
was awarded Oxbridge-style three years after the BA.[7]
Nineteenth century
The nineteenth century saw a great expansion in the variety of master's degrees offered. At the start of
the century, the only master's degree was the MA, and this was normally awarded without any further
study or examination. The Master in Surgery degree was introduced by the University of Glasgow in
1815.[8] By 1861 this had been adopted throughout Scotland as well as by Cambridge and Durham in
England and the University of Dublin in Ireland.[9] When the Philadelphia College of Surgeons was
established in 1870, it too conferred the Master of Surgery, "the same as that in Europe".[10]
In Scotland, Edinburgh maintained separate BA and MA degrees until the mid-nineteenth century,[11]
although there were major doubts as to the quality of the Scottish degrees of this period. In 1832 Lord
Brougham, the Lord Chancellor and an alumnus of the University of Edinburgh, told the House of
Lords that "In England the Universities conferred degrees after a considerable period of residence,
after much labour performed, and if they were not in all respects so rigorous as the statutes of the
Universities required, nevertheless it could not be said, that Masters of Arts were created at Oxford
and Cambridge as they were in Scotland, without any residence, or without some kind of examination.
In Scotland, all the statutes of the Universities which enforced conditions on the grant of degrees were
a dead letter."[12]
It was not until 1837 that separate examinations were reintroduced for the MA in England, at the
newly established Durham University (even though, as in the ancient English universities, this was to
confer full membership), to be followed in 1840 by the similarly new University of London, which was
only empowered by its charter to grant degrees by examination.[13][14][15] However, by the middle of
the century the MA as an examined second degree was again under threat, with Durham moving to
awarding it automatically to those who gained honours in the BA in 1857, along the lines of the
Oxbridge MA, and Edinburgh following the other Scottish universities in awarding the MA as its first
degree, in place of the BA, from 1858.[16] At the same time, new universities were being established
around the then British Empire along the lines of London, including examinations for the MA: the
University of Sydney in Australia and the Queen's University of Ireland in 1850, and the Universities
of Bombay (now the University of Mumbai), Madras and Calcutta in India in 1857.
In the US, the revival of master's degrees as an examined qualification began in 1856 at the University
of North Carolina, followed by the University of Michigan in 1859,[17] although the idea of a master's
degree as an earned second degree was not well established until the 1870s, alongside the PhD as the
terminal degree.[18] Sometimes it was possible to earn an MA either by examination or by seniority in
the same institution, e.g. in Michigan the "in course" MA was introduced in 1848 and was last
awarded in 1882, while the "on examination" MA was introduced in 1859.[19]
Probably the most important master's degree introduced in the 19th century was the Master of
Science (MS in the US, MSc in the UK). At the University of Michigan this was introduced in two
forms in 1858: "in course", first awarded in 1859, and "on examination", first awarded in 1862. The
"in course" MS was last awarded in 1876.[19] In Britain, however, the degree took a while longer to
arrive. When London introduced its Faculty of Sciences in 1858, the University was granted a new
charter giving it the power "to confer the several Degrees of Bachelor, Master, and Doctor, in Arts,
Laws, Science, Medicine, Music",[20] but the degrees it awarded in science were the Bachelor of
Science and the Doctor of Science.[21] The same two degrees, again omitting the master's, were
awarded at Edinburgh, despite the MA being the standard undergraduate degree for Arts in
Scotland.[22] In 1862, a Royal Commission suggested that Durham should award master's degrees in
theology and science (with the suggested abbreviations MT and MS, contrary to later British practice
of using MTh or MTheol and MSc for these degrees),[23] but its recommendations were not enacted.
In 1877, Oxford introduced the Master of Natural Science, along with the Bachelor of Natural Science,
to stand alongside the MA and BA degrees and be awarded to students who took their degrees in the
honours school of natural sciences.[24] In 1879 a statute to actually establish the faculty of Natural
Sciences at Oxford was promulgated,[25] but in 1880 a proposal to rename the degree as a Master of
Science was rejected along with a proposal to grant Masters of Natural Sciences a Master of Arts
degree, in order to make them full members of the University.[26] This scheme would appear to have
then been quietly dropped, with Oxford going on to award BAs and MAs in science.
The Master of Science (MSc) degree was finally introduced in Britain in 1878 at Durham,[27] followed
by the new Victoria University in 1881.[28] At the Victoria University both the MA and MSc followed
the lead of Durham's MA in requiring a further examination for those with an ordinary bachelor's
degree but not for those with honours.[29]
Twentieth century
At the start of the twentieth century, there were, therefore, four different sorts of master's degree in
the UK: the Scottish MA, granted as a first degree; the Master of Arts (Oxbridge and Dublin), granted
to all BA graduates a certain period after their first degree without further study; master's degrees that
could be gained either by further study or by gaining an honours degree (which, at the time in the UK
involved further study beyond the ordinary degree, as it still does in Scotland and some
Commonwealth countries); and master's degrees that could only be obtained by further study
(including all London master's degrees). In 1903, the London Daily News criticised the practice of
Oxford and Cambridge, calling their MAs "the most stupendous of academic frauds" and "bogus
degrees".[30] Ensuing correspondence pointed out that "A Scotch M.A., at the most, is only the
equivalent of an English B.A." and called for common standards for degrees, while defenders of the
ancient universities said that "the Cambridge M.A. does not pretend to be a reward of learning" and
that "it is rather absurd to describe one of their degrees as a bogus one because other modern
Universities grant the same degree for different reasons".[31][32]
In 1900, Dartmouth College introduced the Master of Commercial Science (MCS), first awarded in
1902. This was the first master's degree in business, the forerunner of the modern MBA.[33] The idea
quickly crossed the Atlantic, with Manchester establishing a Faculty of Commerce, awarding Bachelor
and Master of Commerce degrees, in 1903.[34] Over the first half of the century the automatic master's
degrees for honours graduates vanished as honours degrees became the standard undergraduate
qualification in the UK. In the 1960s, new Scottish universities (except for Dundee, which inherited
the undergraduate MA from St Andrews) reintroduced the BA as their undergraduate degree in Arts,
restoring the MA to its position as a postgraduate qualification. Oxford and Cambridge retained their
MAs, but renamed many of their postgraduate bachelor's degrees in the higher faculties as master's
degrees, e.g. the Cambridge LLB became the LLM in 1982,[35] and the Oxford BLitt, BPhil (except in
philosophy) and BSc became the MLitt, MPhil and MSc.[36]
In 1983, the Engineering Council issued a "'Statement on enhanced and extended undergraduate
engineering degree courses", proposing the establishment of a four-year first degree (Master of
Engineering).[37][38] These were up and running by the mid 1980s and were followed in the early
1990s by the MPhys for physicists and since then integrated master's degrees in other sciences such as
MChem, MMath, and MGeol, and in some institutions general or specific MSci (Master in Science)
and MArts (Master in Arts) degrees. This development was noted by the Dearing Report into UK
Higher Education in 1997, which called for the establishment of a national framework of
qualifications and identified five different routes to master's degrees:[39]
Four year (five in Scotland) first degrees such as the MEng

Conversion degrees, sometimes below the standard of undergraduate degrees in the same
subject
The honours arts degree of the ancient universities of Scotland
Specialist postgraduate programmes, such as the MA and MSc
The Oxbridge MA, awarded without additional work
This led to the establishment of the Quality Assurance Agency, which was charged with drawing up
the framework.
Twenty-first century
In 2000 renewed pressure was put on Oxbridge MAs in the UK Parliament, with Labour MP Jackie
Lawrence introducing an early day motion calling for them to be scrapped and telling the Times
Higher Education it was a "discriminatory practice" and that it "devalues and undermines the efforts
of students at other universities".[40][41] The following month the Quality Assurance Agency
announced the results of a survey of 150 major employers showing nearly two thirds mistakenly
thought the Cambridge MA was a postgraduate qualification and just over half made the same error
regarding the Edinburgh MA, with QAA chief executive John Randall calling the Oxbridge MA
"misleading and anachronistic".[42]
The QAA released the first "framework for higher education qualifications in England, Wales and
Northern Ireland" in January 2001. This specified learning outcomes for M-level (master's) degrees
and advised that the title "Master" should only be used for qualifications that met those learning
outcomes in full. It addressed many of the Dearing Report's concerns, specifying that shorter courses
at H-level (honours), e.g. conversion courses, should be styled Graduate Diploma or Graduate
Certificate rather than as master's degrees, but confirmed that the extended undergraduate degrees
were master's degrees, saying that "Some Masters degrees in science and engineering are awarded
after extended undergraduate programmes that last, typically, a year longer than Honours degree
programmes". It also addressed the Oxbridge MA issue, noting that "the MAs granted by the
Universities of Oxford and Cambridge are not academic qualifications".[43] The first "framework for
qualifications of Higher Education Institutes in Scotland", also published in January 2001, used the
same qualifications descriptors, adding in credit values that specified that a stand-alone master
should be 180 credits and a "Masters (following an integrated programme from undergraduate to
Masters level study)" should be 600 credits with a minimum of 120 at M-level. It was specified that
the title "Master" should only be used for qualifications that met the learning outcomes and credit
definitions, although it was noted that "A small number of universities in Scotland have a long
tradition of labelling certain first degrees as 'MA'. Reports of Agency reviews of such provision will
relate to undergraduate benchmarks and will make it clear that the title reflects Scottish custom and
practice, and that any positive judgement on standards should not be taken as implying that the
outcomes of the programme were at postgraduate level."[44]
The Bologna declaration in 1999 started the Bologna Process, leading to the creation of the European
Higher Education Area (EHEA). This established a three-cycle bachelor's—master's—doctorate
classification of degrees, leading to the adoption of master's degrees across the continent, often
replacing older long-cycle qualifications such as the Magister (arts), Diplom (sciences) and state
registration (professional) awards in Germany.[45] As the process continued, descriptors were
introduced for all three levels in 2004, and ECTS credit guidelines were developed. This led to
questions as to the status of the integrated master's degrees and one-year master's degrees in the
UK.[46] However, the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications in England, Wales and
Northern Ireland and the Framework for Qualifications of Higher Education Institutes in Scotland
have both been aligned with the overarching framework for the EHEA with these being accepted as
masters-level qualifications.
Titles
Master's degrees are commonly titled using the form 'Master of ...', where either a faculty (typically
Arts or Science) or a field (Engineering, Physics, Chemistry, Business Administration, etc.) is
specified. The two most common titles of master's degrees are the Master of Arts (MA/M.A./A.M) and
Master of Science (MSc/M.Sc./M.S./S.M.) degrees, which normally consist of a mixture of research
and taught material.[47][48]
The title of Master of Philosophy (MPhil) indicates (in the same manner as Doctor of Philosophy) an
extended degree with a large research component.[49] Other generically named master's programs
include the Master of Studies (MSt)/Master of Advanced Study (MASt)/Master of Advanced Studies
(M.A.S.), and Professional Master's (MProf). Integrated master's degrees and postgraduate master's
degrees oriented towards professional practice are often more specifically named for their field of
study ("tagged degrees"), including, for example, Master of Business Administration, Master of
Divinity, Master of Engineering, Master of Physics, and Master of Public Health.
The form "Master in ..." is also sometimes used, particularly where a faculty title is used for an
integrated master's degree in addition to its use in a traditional postgraduate master's degree, e.g.
Master in Science (MSci) and Master in Arts (MArts). This form is also sometimes used with other
integrated master's degrees[50] and occasionally for postgraduate master's degrees (e.g. Master's in
Accounting).[51] Some universities use Latin degree names; because of the flexibility of syntax in
Latin, the Master of Arts and Master of Science degrees may be known in these institutions as
Magister artium and Magister scientiæ or reversed from the English order to Artium magister and
Scientiæ magister. Examples of the reversed usage include Harvard University and the University of
Chicago, leading to the abbreviations A.M. and S.M. for these degrees. The forms "Master of Science"
and "Master in Science" are indistinguishable in Latin.
In the UK, full stops (periods) are not commonly used in degree abbreviations.[52][53] In the US, The
Gregg Reference Manual recommends placing periods in degrees (e.g. B.S., Ph.D.), while The Chicago
Manual of Style recommends writing degrees without periods (e.g. BS, PhD).[54]
Master of Science is generally abbreviated M.S. or MS in countries following United States usage and
MSc or M.Sc. in countries following British usage, where MS would refer to the degree of Master of
Surgery. In Australia, some extended master's degrees use the title "doctor": Juris doctor and Doctors
of Medical Practice, Physiotherapy, Dentistry, Optometry and Veterinary Practice. Despite their titles
these are still master's degree and may not be referred to as doctoral degrees, nor may graduates use
the title "doctor".[55]
Types
Postgraduate/graduate master's degrees (MA/M.A./A.M., MPhil/M.Phil., MSc/M.S./SM,
MBA/M.B.A., LLM/LL.M., MAsc, etc.) are the traditional formal form of master's degree, where the
student already holds an undergraduate (bachelor's) degree on entry. Courses normally last one
year in the UK and two years in the US.[47][48]
Integrated master's degrees (MChem, MEng, MMath, MPharm, MPhys, MPsych, MSci, etc.) are
UK degrees that combine an undergraduate bachelor's degree course with an extra year at
master's level (i.e. a total of four years in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, and five years in
Scotland). A 2011 survey of UK Higher Education Institutes found that 64% offered integrated
master's course, mostly in STEM disciplines, with the most common degrees being MEng, MSci
and MChem. 82% of respondents conferred only a master's degree for the course, while 9%
conferred a bachelor's degree at the end of the bachelor's-level stage and a master's degree at
the end of the course and a further 9% conferred both bachelor's and master's degrees at the end
of the course.[56][57]
Non-master's level master's degrees The ancient universities of the UK and Ireland have
traditionally awarded MAs in a different manner to that usual today. The Scottish MA is a
bachelor's-level qualification offered by the ancient universities of Scotland. The Oxbridge MA is
not an academic qualification; it is granted without further examination to those who have gained
a BA from Oxford or Cambridge Universities in England,[56] and the MA of Trinity College Dublin
in Ireland is granted to its graduates in a similar manner.[58]
The UK Quality Assurance Agency defines three categories of master's degrees:[59]
Research master's degrees are primarily research based, although may contain taught elements,
particularly on research methods. Examples are the MLitt (usually, but not always a research
degree), the Master's by Research, and the MPhil. The Master's by Research (MbyRes, ResM),
which is a research degree, is distinct from the Master of Research (MRes), which is a taught
degree concentrating on research methods.[60]
Specialised or advanced study master's degrees are primarily taught degrees, although
commonly at least a third of the course is devoted to a research project assessed by dissertation.
These may be stand-alone master's courses, leading to, e.g., MSc, MA or MRes degrees, or
integrated master's degrees.
Professional or practice master's degrees (see also professional degree) are designed to
prepare students for a particular professional career and are primarily taught, although they may
include work placements and independent study projects. Some may require professional
experience for entry. Examples include MBA, MDiv, LLM and MSW as well as some integrated
master's degrees. The name of the degree normally includes the subject name.
The United States Department of Education classifies master's degrees as research or

professional. Research master's degrees in the US (e.g., M.A./A.M. or M.S.) require the completion
of taught courses and examinations in a major and one or more minor subjects, as well as (normally)
a research thesis. Professional master's degrees may be structured like research master's (e.g.,
M.E./M.Eng.) or may concentrate on a specific discipline (e.g., M.B.A.) and often substitute a project
for the thesis.[48]
The Australian Qualifications Framework classifies master's degrees as research, coursework or

extended. Research master's degrees typically take one to two years, and two thirds of their content
consists of research, research training and independent study. Coursework master's degrees typically
also last one to two years, and consist mainly of structured learning with some independent research
and project work or practice-related learning. Extended master's degrees typically take three to four
years and contain significant practice-related learning that must be developed in collaboration with
relevant professional, statutory or regulatory bodies.[61]
In Ireland, master's degrees may be either Taught or Research. Taught master's degrees are
normally one to two year courses, rated at 60 - 120 ECTS credits, while research master's degrees are
normally two year courses, either rated at 120 ECTS credits or not credit rated.[62]
Structure
There is a range of pathways to the degree with entry based on evidence of a capacity to undertake
higher level studies in a proposed field. A dissertation may or may not be required depending on the
program. In general, structure and duration of a program of study leading to a master's degree will
differ by country and university.
Duration
Master's programs in the US and Canada are normally two years (full-time) in length. In some
fields/programs, work on a doctorate begins immediately after the bachelor's degree, but a master's
degree may be granted along the way as an intermediate qualification if the student petitions for it.[48]
Some universities offer evening options so that students can work during the day and earn a master's
degree in the evenings.[63]
In the UK, postgraduate master's degrees typically take one to two years full-time or two to four years
part-time.[64] Master's degrees may be classified as either "research" or "taught", with taught degrees
(those where research makes up less than half of the volume of work) being further subdivided into
"specialist or advanced study" or "professional or practice". Taught degrees (of both forms) typically
take a full calendar year (180 UK credits, compared to 120 for an academic year), while research
degrees are not typically credit rated but may take up to two years to complete. An MPhil normally
takes two calendar years (360 credits). An integrated master's degree (which is always a taught
degree) combines a bachelor's degree course with an additional year of study (120 credits) at master's
level for a four (England, Wales and Northern Ireland) or five (Scotland) academic year total
period.[56][65][66]
In Australia, master's degrees vary from one year for a "research" or "coursework" master's following
on from an Australian honours degree in a related field, with an extra six months if following on
straight from an ordinary bachelor's degree and another extra six months if following on from a
degree in a different field, to four years for an "extended" master's degree. At some Australian
universities, the master's degree may take up to two years.[61]
In the Overarching Framework of Qualifications for the European Higher Education Area defined as
part of the Bologna process, a "second cycle" (i.e. master's degree) programme is typically 90–120
ECTS credits, with a minimum requirement of at least 60 ECTS credits at second-cycle level.[67] The
definition of ECTS credits is that "60 ECTS credits are allocated to the learning outcomes and
associated workload of a full-time academic year or its equivalent",[68] thus European master's
degrees should last for between one calendar year and two academic years, with at least one academic
year of study at master's level. The Framework for Higher Education Qualification (FHEQ) in England
Wales and Northern Ireland level 7 qualifications and the Framework for Qualification of Higher
Education Institutes in Scotland (FQHEIS) level 11 qualifications (postgraduate and integrated
master's degrees, except for MAs from the ancient universities of Scotland and Oxbridge MAs) have
been certified as meeting this requirement.[69][70]
Irish master's degrees are one to two years (60–120 ECTS credits) for taught degrees and two years
(not credit rated) for taught and research degrees. These have also been certified as compatible with
the FQ-EHEA.[71]
Admission
Admission to a master's degree normally requires successful completion of study at bachelor's degree
level either (for postgraduate degrees) as a stand-alone degree or (for integrated degrees) as part of an
integrated scheme of study. In countries where the bachelor's degree with honours is the standard
undergraduate degree, this is often the normal entry qualification.[59][72] In addition, students will
normally have to write a personal statement and, in the arts and humanities, will often have to submit
a portfolio of work.[73]
In the UK, students will normally need to have a 2:1. Students may also have to provide evidence of
their ability to successfully pursue a postgraduate degree to be accepted into a taught master's course,
and possibly higher for a research master's.[74] Graduate schools in the US similarly require strong
undergraduate performance, and may require students to take one or more standardised tests, such
as the GRE, GMAT or LSAT.[75]
Comparable European degrees

In some European countries, a magister is a first degree and may be considered equivalent to a
modern (standardized) master's degree (e.g., the German, Austrian and Polish university
Diplom/Magister, or the similar five-year Diploma awarded in several subjects in Greek,[76] Spanish,
Portuguese, and other universities and polytechnics).
Under the Bologna Process, countries in the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) are moving to
a three-cycle (bachelor's - master's - doctorate) system of degrees. Two-thirds of EHEA countries have
standardised on 120 ECTS credits for their second-cycle (master's) degrees, but 90 ECTS credits is the
main form in Cyprus, Ireland and Scotland and 60-75 credits in Montenegro, Serbia and Spain.[77]
The combined length of the first and second cycle varies from "3 + 1" years (240 ECTS credits),
through "3 + 2" or "4 + 1" years (300 ECTS credits), to "4 + 2" years (360 ECTS credits). As of 2015,
31 EHEA countries have integrated programmes that combine the first and second cycle and lead to a
second-cycle qualification (e.g. the UK integrated master's degree), particularly in STEM subjects and
subjects allied to medicine. These typically have a duration of 300 – 360 ECTS credits (five to six
years), with the integrated master's degrees in England, Wales and Northern Ireland being the
shortest at 240 ECTS credits (four years).[78]
In Denmark there are two forms of master's degree. The Master's Degree or candidatus is a FQ-
EHEA second-cycle qualification worth 120 ECTS credits. These degrees are research-based and
offered through universities (e.g. University of Copenhagen and Copenhagen Business School).
The second form is the Master Degree (no possessive) within the adult further education system,
which is worth 60 ECTS credits and is taught part-time.[79] The candidatus degree is abbreviated
cand. and upon completion of, for instance, an engineering master's degree, a person becomes
cand.polyt. (polytechnical). Similar abbreviations, inspired by Latin, apply to a large number of
fields, e.g.: sociology (cand.scient.soc), economics (cand.merc., cand.polit. or cand.oecon), law
(cand.jur), humanities (cand.mag) etc. Use of a cand. title requires a master's degree. Holders of
a cand. degree are also entitled to use M.Sc. or M.A. titles, depending on the field of study. In
Finland and Sweden, the title of kandidaatti/kandidat (abbreviated kand.) equates to a bachelor's
degree.[80]
In France, the master's degree (diplôme de master) takes two years and is worth 120 ECTS
credits.[81] The two years are often called the master 1 (M1) and master 2 (M2), following the
Bologna Process. Depending on the goal of the student (a doctorate or a professional career) the
master can also be called a "Master Recherche" (research master) or a "Master Professionnel"
(professional master), each with different requirements.
A French diplôme d'ingénieur (postgraduate degree in engineering of grandes écoles) is also the
equivalent of a master's degree, provided the diploma is recognised by the Commission des titres
d'ingénieur, as are qualifications recognised at Level 7 of the répertoire national des certifications
professionnelles (national register of professional certificates).[82][83]
In Italy the master's degree is equivalent to the two-year Laurea magistrale, which can be earned
after a Laurea (a three-year undergraduate degree, equivalent to a bachelor's degree). In
particular fields, namely law, pharmacy and medicine, this distinction is not made. University
courses are therefore single and last five to six years, after which the master's degree is awarded
(in this case referred to as Laurea magistrale a ciclo unico). The old Laurea degree (Vecchio
Ordinamento, Old Regulations), which was the only awarded in Italy before the Bologna process,
is equivalent[84] to the current Laurea Magistrale.
In the Netherlands the titles ingenieur (ir.), meester (mr.) and doctorandus (drs.) may be rendered,
if obtained in the Netherlands from a university, after the application of the Bologna process, as:
MSc instead of ir., LLM instead of mr. and MA or MSc instead of drs.[85] This is because a single
program that led to these degree was in effect before 2002, which comprised the same course
load as the bachelor and master programs put together. Those who had already started the
program could, upon completing it, bear the appropriate title (MSc, LLM or MA), but alternatively
still use the old-style title (ir., mr. or drs.), corresponding to their field of study. Since these
graduates do not have a separate bachelor's degree (which is – in retrospect – incorporated into
the program), the master's degree is their first academic degree. Bearers of foreign master's
degree can use the titles ir., mr. and drs. only after obtaining a permission to bear such titles from
the Dienst Uitvoering Onderwijs. Those who received their mr., ir. or drs. title after the application
of the Bologna process have the option of signing as A. Jansen, MA or A. Jansen, MSc,
depending on the field in which the degree was obtained, since the ir., mr. and drs. titles are
similar to a master's degree, and the shortcut MA or MSc. may officially be used in order to render
such title as an international title.[86][87][88][89]
In Switzerland, the old Licence or Diplom (4 to 5 years in duration) is considered equivalent to the
master's degree.[90]
In Slovenia and Croatia, during the pre-Bologna process education, all academic degrees were
awarded after a minimum of four years of university studies and a successful defence of a written
thesis and are considered equivalent to the master's degree. After the completion of that first
cycle of the pre-Bologna higher education, the students obtained professional degrees with the
titles of Professor (abbreviation "prof.") for educational studies, Engineer (abbreviation "ing.") for
technical studies, or Licensed professional of their field of expertise (abbreviation "dipl." with a
reference to the profession) for other studies. The title of Magister Scientiae (abbreviation "mr.
sc.") was awarded to students who completed a postgraduate university programme (and
therefore qualified for a doctorate programme), while the title of Scientiae Doctor (abbreviation "dr.
sc.") was awarded to students who completed a postgraduate doctoral programme. Slovenia is a
full member of the Bologna Process since 1999[91] and Croatia since 2001.[92]
In Baltic countries there is a two-year education program that offers a chance to gain a master's
degree in interdisciplinary issues. The system offers an education in different areas, such as
humanities, environmental and social issues, whilst paying specific consideration to the Baltic Sea
area. It is a joint-degree program, which is part of a team effort with four universities. There is for
example the University of Tartu in Estonia, Vytautas Magnus University in Lithuania and the
University of Latvia. The educational programmes allow students to be mobile within the system,
for example one semester may be taken in a confederate school without paying additional
membership or tuition fees. Subsequently, after passing the qualifications provided, people may
procure teaching qualifications and continue their scholastic research around doctoral studies, or
carry on studying within their career in the private or public sector. Graduates of the program,
within the Baltic Sea area are also given the chance to continue onwards with their studies within
the postgraduate system if they have studied the social sciences or humanities field.
In Greece, the metaptychiako (μεταπτυχιακό) which literally translates as post-degree
(...programme or title), lasts normally from one to, more often, two years, and can be studied after
a, at least, four-years undergraduate ptychio, which means degree.
Also, the five-year diploma (δίπλωμα) awarded in all Polytechnics (schools of engineering) and
the Athens School of Fine Arts is considered equal to a graduate degree plus a master's
degree.[76]
In Russia master (магистр) degree can be obtained after a two-year master course
(магистратура) which is available after a four-year bachelor or a five-year specialist course. A
graduate may choose a master course completely different from his/her previous one. During
these two years master students attend specialized lectures in chosen profile, choose a faculty
advisor and prepare their master thesis which is eventually defended before certifying commission
consisting mostly of professors, leading by the professor from another university.
In the United Kingdom, first degrees in medicine, dentistry and veterinary science are considered
equivalent to master's degrees despite, for historical reasons, often having the titles of bachelor's
degrees.[56]
The old Spanish degrees of Licenciado (Licenciate), Arquitecto (Architect) and Ingeniero
(Engineer) are also equivalent to master's degrees. They were integrated programmes of study
that combined first and second cycles and led to a second cycle qualification. The Spanish
government issued a royal decree in 2014 establishing the official equivalences between the
Spanish pre-Bologna degrees and the European Qualifications Framework (EQF) levels.[93] Most
(if not all) Licenciado, Arquitecto and Ingeniero degrees were placed in level 7 (Master) of the
EQF. These programmes have been phased out and replaced with the new Bologna programmes
of Máster, to be completed after completion of a programme of Grado (Bachelor's).
Brazil
After acquiring a Bachelor's or Licenciate Degree, students are qualified to continue their academic
career through Master's Degree ("mestrado", in Portuguese, a.k.a. stricto sensu post-graduation) or
Specialization Degree ("especialização", in Portuguese, a.k.a. lato sensu post-graduation) programs.
At the Master's program there are 2–3 years of graduate-level studies. Usually focused on academic
research, the Master's Degree requires, on any specific knowledge area, the development of a thesis to
be presented and defended before a board of professors after the period of research. Conversely, the
Specialization Degree, also comprehends a 1–2 years studies, but does not require a new thesis to be
proposed and defended, being usually attended by professionals looking for complementary training
on a specific area of their knowledge.
In addition, many Brazilian universities offer an MBA program. However, those are not the equivalent
to a United States MBA degree, as it does not formally certify the student with a Master's degree
(stricto sensu) but with a Specialization Degree (lato sensu) instead. A regular post-graduation course
has to comply with a minimum of 360 class-hours, while a M.B.A. degree has to comply with a
minimum of 400 class-hours. Master's degree (stricto sensu) does not require a set minimum of class-
hours, but it's practically impossible to finish it in less than 18 months due to the workload and
research required; an average time for the degree is 2.5 years. Specialization (lato sensu) and M.B.A.
degrees can be also offered as distance education courses, while the master's degree (stricto-sensu)
requires physical attendance. In Brazil, the degree often serves as additional qualification for those
seeking to differentiate themselves in the job market, or for those who want to pursue a Ph.D. It
corresponds to the European (Bologna Process) 2nd Cycle or the North American master's.
Asia
Hong Kong
M.Arch., M.L.A., M.U.D., M.A., M.Sc., M.Soc.Sc., M.S.W., M.Eng., LL.M.
Hong Kong requires one or two years of full-time coursework to achieve a master's degree.
For part-time study, two or three years of study are normally required to achieve a postgraduate
degree.
M.Phil.
As in the United Kingdom, M.Phil/MPhil/Master of Philosophy is the most advanced master's

degree and usually includes both a taught portion and a research portion which requires
candidates to complete an extensive original research for their thesis. Regardless of subject,
students in all faculties (including sciences, arts, humanities and social sciences) may be awarded
the Master of Philosophy.
Pakistan
In Pakistani education system, there are two different master's degree programmes:
2 years master's programmes: these are mostly Master of Arts (M.A.) leading to M.Phil.
4 years master's programmes: these are mostly Master of Science (M.S.) leading to Ph.D
Both M.A. and M.S. are offered in all major subjects.
India
In the Indian system, a master's degree is a postgraduate degree following a Bachelor's degree and
preceding a Doctorate, usually requiring two years to complete. The available degrees include but are
not limited to the following:
Master of Arts (M.A.)

Master of Social Work (MSW)
Master of Business Administration (M.B.A.)
Master of Engineering (M.Eng.)
Master of Philosophy (M.Phil.)
Master of Science (M.Sc.)
Master of Science in Information Technology (M.Sc. IT)
Master of Technology (M.Tech.)
Master of Statistics (M.Stat.)
Master of Laws (LL.M.)
Master of Commerce (M.Com.)
Master of Architecture (M.Arch.)
Master of Veterinary Science (MVSc)
Indonesia
In the Indonesian higher education system, a master's degree (Indonesian: magister) is a

postgraduate degree following a Bachelor's degree and preceding a Doctorate, requiring maximum of
four years to complete.[94] Master's student is required to submit their thesis (Indonesian: tesis) for
examination by two or three examiners. The available degrees include but are not limited to the
following:[95]
Magister Administrasi Bisnis (M.A.B) (Master of Business Administration)

Magister Manajemen (M.M) (Master of Management)
Magister Sains (M.Si) (Master of Science)
Magister Teknik (M.T) (Master of Engineering)
Magister Hukum (M.H) (Master of Laws)
Magister Pendidikan (M.Pd) (Master of Education)
Israel
Postgraduate studies in Israel require the completion of a bachelor's degree and is dependent upon
this title's grades; see Education in Israel #Higher education.
Degrees awarded are the M.A., M.Sc.,
M.B.A. and LLM; the Technion awards a non-thesis M.Eng. [96]
There also exists "a direct track"
doctorate degree, which lasts four to five years. Taking this route, students prepare a preliminary
research paper during their first year, after which they must pass an exam before being allowed to
proceed, at which point they are awarded a master's degree.
Nepal
In Nepal, after completing a bachelor's degree, students must spend at least three or four years
studying full-time in college and university, with an entrance test for those who wish to pursue
master's, Ph.D., and doctorate degrees. All doctoral and Ph.D. degrees, as well as third cycle degrees,
are research and experience oriented, with a focus on results.
After completing a successful bachelor's degree, students pursue master's degrees in engineering,
education, and arts, as well as all law and medicine-related courses.
M.B.B.S. is only a medical degree with six and a half years of study resulting in a medical doctor and
must finish its study in four years after master's degree with minimum education of 15 or 16 years of
university bachelor's degree education.
The following are the most professional and internationalized programs in Nepal:
Master of Business Administration (M.B.A.)

Master of Computer Applications (M.C.A.)
Master of Engineering (M.Eng.)
Master of Science (M.Sc.)
Master of Science in Information Technology (M.Sc.I.T.)
Master of Business Studies (M.B.S.)
Master of Education (M.Ed)
Master of Arts (M.A.)
Master of Science in Agriculture (M.Sc.Ag.)
Master of Laws (LL.M.)
Master of Management (M.M.)
Taiwan
In Taiwan, bachelor's degree courses are about four years in length, while an entrance examination is
required for people who want to study for master's degrees and doctorates. The courses leading to
these higher degrees are normally research-based.
Tuition is less expensive than would be the case in North America, costing as little as US$5000 for an
M.B.A. As an incentive designed to increase foreign student numbers, the government and
universities of Taiwan have redoubled their efforts to make a range of high-quality scholarships
available in the form of university-specific scholarships that include tuition waivers of up to
NT$20,000 per month. The government offers the Taiwan Scholarship amounting to NT$20,000–
30,000 (US$18,000–24,000) for a two-year program.
See also
Associate's degree
Bachelor's degree
British degree abbreviations
Diploma mill
Doctorate
Educational specialist
Engineer's degree
Euromaster
European Joint Master degree in Economics
Graduate school
Licentiate
List of master's degrees
Magister (degree)
Master of Advanced Studies
Master of Arts (Oxbridge and Dublin)
Master of Arts (Scotland)
Master of Education
Master of Engineering
Master of Laws
Master of Science
Master's degree in Europe
Master's degree in North America
Master's degree non-Euroamerican
Professional Science Master's degree
Terminal degree
Notes
1. The spelling of master's degree and master's without an apostrophe is considered a mistake by
many (see non-standard apostrophe use), but it is becoming more common. It is considered
incorrect by most if not all US and most UK and Australian universities, style guides, and
dictionaries, for example: OED (http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/master),
Collins (http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/master-s-degree), Cambridge
Dictionaries Online (http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/master-s-degree?a%3Dbritis
h), American Heritage (https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q%3DMaster%27s)
(master's), American Heritage (https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q%3Dmaster%27
s+degree) (master's degree), Merriam-Webster (http://www.merriam-webster.com/interstitial-ad?n
ext%3D/dictionary/master%27s%20degree), and the Macquarie Dictionary (not free online) as
shown in the following Monash University quotation. Monash University's style guide (http://www.
monash.edu/about/editorialstyle/editing/apostrophes) directly admits that the incorrectly missing
apostrophe used to be more widespread in publications of this and therefore presumably other
Australian universities: "Note that both 'bachelor's degree’ and 'master's degree', when used in a
generic sense, require an apostrophe. While some dislike this convention, it is prescribed by the
Macquarie Dictionary (the Australian standard) and the Oxford English Dictionary (the UK
standard), and aligns with our key institutional partner Warwick University. Currently, you will find
the terms used both with and without an apostrophe throughout our online and print publications –
gradually, we need to move toward correct usage."
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8/17/22, 10:07 AM Master's degree - Wikipedia

Medieval era to 18th century

Four year (five in Scotland) first degrees such as the MEng

The UK Quality Assurance Agency defines three categories of master's degrees:[59]

The United States Department of Education classifies master's degrees as research or

The Australian Qualifications Framework classifies master's degrees as research, coursework or

Comparable European degrees

M.Arch., M.L.A., M.U.D., M.A., M.Sc., M.Soc.Sc., M.S.W., M.Eng., LL.M.

As in the United Kingdom, M.Phil/MPhil/Master of Philosophy is the most advanced master's

Both M.A. and M.S. are offered in all major subjects.

Master of Arts (M.A.)

In the Indonesian higher education system, a master's degree (Indonesian: magister) is a

Magister Administrasi Bisnis (M.A.B) (Master of Business Administration)

Master of Business Administration (M.B.A.)

12. "PARLIAMENTARY REFORM—BILL FOR SCOTLAND—COMMITTEE" (http://hansard.millbanks

23. "Durham University" (http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000156/18621007/029/

48. "Structure of the U.S. Education System: Master's Degrees" (http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/

59. Master's Degree Characteristics Statement (https://web.archive.org/web/20161006014405/http://w

87. "Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap" (https://web.archive.org/web/2009021018425

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Master%27s_degree&oldid=1102794614"

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