Unit -1 FUNDAMENTALS OF AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS Microprocessor architecture, open and closed loop control strategies, PID conirol, Look up tables, introduction to modern control strategies like Fuazy logic and adaptive control. Paramoters to be controlled in Sl and Cl engines and in the other parts of the automobile. Microprocessor architecture: The working of 8085 microprocessors is studied in this topic. Internal architecture diagram? ret ee OF Tenwwedl C | | [sr | sony | a “or T : pan sinle So etoile to. * oo Control Unit Generates signals within uP to cary ont the instruction, which has been decoded. In reality causes certain connections between blocks of theuP to be opened or closed, so that data goes where it is required, and so that ALU operations occur Arithmetic Logie Unit ‘The ALU performs the actual numerical and logic operation such as ‘add’, ‘subtract’, ‘AND’, ‘OR’, etc, Uses data from memory and from Accumulator to perform arithmetic. Always stores result of operation in Accumulator. Registers The 8085/8080A-programming model includes six registers, one accumulator, and one flag register, as shown in Figure. In addition, it has two 16-bit registers: the stack pointer and the program counter. They are described briefly as follows. The 8085/8080A has six general-purpose registers to store 8 bit data; these are identified as B,C,D,E,H, and L as shown in the figure. They can be combined as register pairs - BC, DE, and HL - to perform some 16-bit operations. The programmer can use these registers to store or copy data into the registers by using data copy instructions. Accumulator The accumulator is an 8-bit register that is a part of arithmetic/logic unit (ALU). This register is used to store 8-bit data and to perform arithmetic and logical operations, The result of an operation is stored in the accumulator, The accumulator is also identified as register A Plags ‘The ALU includes five flip-flops, which are set or reset after an operation according to data conditions of the result in the accumulator and other registers. They are called Zero(Z), Carry (CY), Sign (S), Parity (P), and Auxiliary Carry (AC) flags: they are listed in the Table and their bit positions in the flag register are shown in the Figure below. The most commonly used flags are Zero, Carry, and Sign. The microprocessor uses these flags to test data conditions. For example, after an addition of two numbers, if the sum in the accumulator id larger than eight bits, the flip~ flop uses to indicate a carry ~* called the Carry flag (CY) — is set o one. When an arithmetic operation results in zero, the flip-flop called the Zero(Z) flag is set to one, The first Figure shows an 8-bit register, called the flagregister, adjacent to the accumulator. However, it is not used as a register: five bit positions out of eight are used to store the outputs of the five flip-flops. The flags are stored in the 8-bit register so that the programmer can examine these flags (data conditions) by accessing the register through an instruction. These flags have critical Importance in the decision-making process of the microprocessor. The conditions (set or reset) of the flags are tosted through the software instructions. For example, the instruetion JC (Jump on Carry) is implemented to change the sequence of a program when CY flag is so. The thorough understanding of flag is essential in writing assombly language programs. Program Counter (PC) This 16-bit register deals with sequencing the execution of instructions. This register is a memory pointer. Memory locations have 16-bit addresses, and that is why this is a 16-bit register. The microprocessor uses this register to sequence the execution of the instructions. ‘The function of the program counter is to point to the memory address from which the next byte is to be fetched, When a byte (machine code) is being fetched, the program counter is incremented by one to point to the next memory location Stack Pointer (SP) The stack pointer is also a 16-bit register used as a memory pointer. It points toa memory location in R/W memory, called the stack. The beginning of the stack is defined by loading 16-bit address in the stack pointer. The stack concept is explained in the chapter "Stack and Subroutines." Instruction Register/Decoder ‘Temporary store for the current instruction of a program. Latest instruction sent here from memory prior to execution. Decoder then takes instruction and ‘decodes’ or interprets the instruction. Decoded instruction then passed to next stage. Memory Address Register Holds address, received from PO, of next program instruction. Feeds the address bus with addresses of location of the program under executionControl Generator Generates signals within uP to carry out the instruction which has been decoded. In reality causes certain connections between blocks of the uP to be opened or closed, so that data goes where it is required, and so that ALU operations occur. Register Selector This block controls the use of the register stack in the example. Just a logie circuit which switches between different registers in the set will receive instructions from Control Unit. General Purpose Registers uP requires extra registers for versatility. Can be used to store additional data during a program. More complex processors may have a variety of differently named re Microprogramming How does the xP knows what an instruction means, especially when it is only a number? The microprogram in an uP/uC is written by the chip designer and tells the uP/uC the meaning of each instruction uP/uC can then carry out operation. 8085 System Bus ‘Typical system uses a number of busses, collection of wires, which transmit binary numbers, one bit per wire. A typical microprocessor communicates with memory and other devices (input and output) using three busses’ Address Bus, Data Bus and Control Bus. Address Bus One wire for each bit, therefore 16 bits = 16 wires. Binary number carried alerts memory to ‘open’ the designated box. Data (binary) can then be put in or taken out. The Address Bus consists of 16 wires, therefore 16 bits. Its "width" is 16 bits. A 16-bit binary number allows 216 different numbers, or 32000 different numbers, ie 0000000000000000 up to 1111111111111111. Because memory consists of boxes, each with a unique address, the size of the address bus determines the size of memory, which can be used. Tocommunicate with memory, the microprocessor sends an address on the address bus, eg 0000000000000011 (8 in decimal), to the memory. The memory the selects box number 3 for reading or writing data, Address bus is unidirectional, ie numbers only sent from microprocessor to memory, no other way. Data Bus Data Bus: carries ‘data’, in binary form, between uP and other external units, such as memory. Typical size is 8 or 16 bits. Size determined by size of boxes in memory and uP size helps determine performance of uP. The Data Bus typically consists of 8 wires. Therefore, 28 combinations of binary digits. Data bus used to transmit "data", ie information, results of arithmetic, ete, between memory and the microprocessor. Bus is bi- directional. Size of the data bus determines what arithmetic can be done. If only 8 bits wide, then largest number is 11111111 (255 in decimal), Therefore, larger number have to be broken down into chunks of 255. This slows microprocessor. Data Bus also carries instructions from memory to the microprocessor. Size of the bus therefore limits the number of possible instructions to 256, each specified by a separate number. Control Bus Control Bus are various lines which have specific functions for coordinating and controlling uP operations. Eg: Read/NotWrite line, single binary digit. Control whether memory is being ‘written to’ (data stored in mem) or ‘read from’ (data taken out of mem) 1 = Read, 0 = Write. May also include clock line(s) for timing/synchronising, ‘interrupts, ‘reset’ ete. Typically, uP has 10 control lines. Cannot function correctly without these vital control signals. The Control Bus carries control signals partly unidirectional, partly bi-directional. Control signals are things like "read or write". This tells memory that we are either reading from a location, specified on the address bus, or writing to a location specified. Various other signals to control and coordinate the operation of the system. Modern day microprocessors, like 80386, 80486 have much larger busses. Typically, 16 or 32 bit busses, which allow larger number of instructions, more memory location, and faster arithmetic. Microcontrollers organized along same lines, except! because microcontrollers have memory etc inside the chip, the busses may all be internal. In the microprocessor the three busses are external to the chip (except for the internal data bus). In case of external busses, the chip connects to the busses via buffers, which are simply an electronicconnection between external bus and the internal data bus. Control system: Control systems are systems that are used to regulate the operation of other systems. For this discussion, the system being controlled is known as the system plant. The controlling system is called an electronic controller. A control system should 1. Perform its function accurately. 2. Respond quickly 3. Be stable 4. Respond only to valid inputs (noise immunity) Open-Loop Control In the open-loop control system of the following figure, the command input is sent to the electronic controller, which performs a control operation on the input to generate an intermediate electrical signal (denoted i in Figure 2.22). This electrical signal is the input to the actuator which generates a control input (denoted u in Figure) to the plant that, in turn, regulates the plant output to the desired value. This type of control is called open-loop control because the output of the system is never compared with the command input to see if they match. The operation of the plant is directly regulated by the actuator (which might simply be an electric motor). The system output may also be affected by external disturbances that are not an inherent part of the plant but are the result of the operating environment. One of the principal drawbacks to the open-loop controller is its inability to compensate for changes that might occur in the controller or the plant or for any disturbances coumanp | euzctRowes acruaTor’ LAN ys INPUT >] CONTROLLER [ >) ACTUATORS Fy) PANT be @ > Sapo i DISTURBANCE Closed-Loop Control It is the potential for change in an open-loop system that led to feedback, orPage |7 closed-loop, control, In 2 closed-loop control system a measurement of tne output variable being controlled is obtained via ¢ sensor and fed back to the controller, as illustrated in the following figure. The measured value of the controlled variable is compared with the desired value for that variable based on the reference input, An error signal based on the difference between desired and actual values of the output signal is created, and the controller generates an actuator signal u that tends to reduce the error to zero, In addition to reducing this error to zero, feedback has other potential benefita in a contrel aystom. It can affect control eyetem performance by improving system stability and suppressing the effects of disturbances in the system. Later chapters will include numerous examples of closed-loop control, such as idle speed control. ERROR CONTROL Sal gio ih system ons eof = FEEDBACK SGNAL | SiGKAL processina fO—] SENSOR PID CONTROLLER: tae) TK paride Ou A proportional-integral-darivative controller (PID controller) is a generic control loop ieedback mechanism (controller) widely used in industrial control systems —a PID is the most commonly used feedback controller. A FID controller calculates an "error" value as the difference between a measured process variable and a desired set point. The controller attempts to minimize the error by adjusting the process control inputs. The PID controller calculation (algorithm) involves three separate constant parameters, and is accordingly sometimes called threeterm control: theproportional, the integral and derivative values, denoted # f and D, Heuristically, these values can be interpreted in terms of time! P depends on the present error, I on the accumulation of past errors, and D is a prediction of frture errors, based on current rate of change. The weighted sum of these three actions is used to adjust the process via a control element such as the position of a control valve or the power supply of a heating element. In the absence of knowledge of the underlying process, a PID controller is the best controller. By tuning the three parameters in the PID controller algorithm, the controller can provide contrel action designed for specific process requirements, The response of the controller can be described in terms of the responsiveness of the controller to an error, the degree to which the controller overshoots the set point and the degree of system oscillation. Note that the use of the PID algorithm for control does not guarantee optimal control of the system or system stability. Some applications may require using only one or two actions to provide the appropriate system control, This is achieved by setting the other parameters to zero. A PID controller will be called a PI, PD, P orl contrdller in the absence of the respective control actions, PI controllers are fairly common, since derivative action is sensitive to measurement noise, whereas the absence of an integral term may prevent the system from reaching its target. value due to the contrel action. PID controller thecey The PID control scheme is named after its three correcting terms, whose sum constitutes the manipulated variable (MV). The proportional, integral, and derivative terms are summed to caloulate the output of the PID controller. Defining »( as the controller output, the final form of the PID algorithm is Proportions! —integral_—_—(Derivative ; d mG =K,e)+K,| e(t)dt+K, ae dtPage |9 where Kp : Proportional gain, a tuning parameter Ki J Integral gain, a tuning parameter Kd : Derivative gain, a tuning parameter A : Error = SP- PV Pe : Time or instantaneous time (the present) Proportional term: The proportional term makes a change to the output that is proportional to the current error value. The proportional response can be adjusted by multiplying the error by a constant Ap, called the proportional gain. ‘The proportional term is given by: Pout = Ky e(t) A high proportional gain results in a large change in the output for a given change in the error. If the proportional gain is too high, the system can become unstable (see the section on loop tuning). In contrast, a small gain results in a small output response to a large input error, and a less responsive or less sensitive controller. If the proportional gain is too low, the control action may be too small when responding to system disturbances. Tuning theory and industrial practice indicate that the proportional term should contribute the bulk of the output change Droop A pure proportional controller will not always settle at its target value, but may retain a steady-state error. Specifically, drift in the absence of control, such as cooling of a furnace towards room temperature, biases a pure proportional controller. If the drift is downwards, ax in cooling, then the bias will be deZow the set point, hence the term “droop”. Droop is proportional to process gain and inversely proportional to proportional gain. Specifically, the steady-state error is given by:Page [10 | a a Graph for proportional term Integral term: The contribution from the integral term is proportional to both the magnitude of the error and the duration of the error. The integral in a PID controller is the sum of the instantaneous error over time and gives the accumulated offset that should have been corrected previously. The accumulated error is then multiplied by the integral gain (i) and added to the controller output. ‘ js [ e(r)dr fh The integral term accelerates the movement of the process towards set point and eliminates the residual steady-state error that occurs with a pure proportional controller. However, since the integral term responds to accumulated errors from the past, it can cause the present value to overshoot the set point value. Tout =Page | 1a 6 ‘Graph for iteoral tama * Ged foc devote tein | Derivative torm: The derivative of the process error is calculated by determining the slope of the error over time and multiplying this rate of change by the derivative gain Kd. The magnitude of the contribution of the derivative term to the overall control action is termed the derivative gain, Kd. The derivative term is given by: Dout = The derivative term slows the rate of change of the controller output. Derivative control is used to reduce the magnitude of the overshoot produced by the integral component and improve the combined controller-process. stability. However, the derivative term slows the transient response of the controller. Also, differentiation of a signal amplifies noise and thus this term in the controller is highly sensitive to noise in the error term, and can cause a process to become unstable if the noise and the derivative gain are sufficiently large. Hence an approximation to a differentiator with a limited bandwidth is more commonly used. Lookup table: A lookup table is a data structure, usually an array or associative array, often used to replace a runtime computation with a simpler array indexing operation. The savings in torms of processing time can be significant, sinco retrieving a value from memory is often faster than undergoing an. ‘expensive’ computation or input/output operation. The concept of table lookup is ilustrated in Figure 4.25, in which aPage |12 pair of variables, Vo and X, are related by the graph depicted therein. Also shown in Figure 4.25 is a table listing certain specific values for the relationship. The functional relationship between Vo and X might, for example, be the output voltage of a nonlinear sensor Vo for measuring a quantity X. If the value for Vo is known, then the corresponding value for X can theoretically be found using the graph or the tabulated values. In the latter case, the nearest two tabulated values for Vo are located, and the corresponding values for X are read from the table. Denoting Vland V2as the nearest values and X1, X2as the corresponding tabulated values, the value for X corresponding to Vo is found by linear interpolation. X= Xy4(X3— X,MYo -Va)/(Vi-V2) A microcomputer can perform the same operation using tabulated values for the relationship between Vo and X (ie., Vo(X) in corre mathematical notation). This method is illustrated using a specific example of the measurement of a variable X using a sensor output voltage and variable X is assumed to be that which is illustrated in Figure 4.24, A microcomputer is to obtain the value for X using a table lookup operation. The portion of the microcomputer that is involved in the table lookup process is illustrated in Figure below. The relationship Vo(X) is stored in ROM for representative points along the curve. These data are stored using Vo values as addresses, and corresponding values of X as data. For example, consider a point (V1, X1). The data Xlare stored at memory location Vlin binary format. The operation of the table lookup is as follows. The sensor $ has output voltage Vo. The computer reads the values of Vo (using an ADC to convert to digital format) through the I/O device. Then the MPU under program control (program ROM) calculates the addresses for the two nearest values to Vo, which are Viand V2 values Xland X2and then calculates X using the preceding formula. (V1| (Fuzzy Logic) Tachometer FT| Deterinaton ot ——— ‘on Ting [__ Knock sensor | —>} (Fu Loic) Angle of (Cranksha Linguistic variable Situation ( Term 1: Start Control strategy 1s that the cold engine runs smooth. Ignition fs timed early, and the mix 15 fat: Term 2: Idle Control ignition timing and fuel injection depending on engine temperature to ensure that the engine runs smooth: Term 3: Normal drive, low or medium load Maximize fuel efficiency by meager mix, watch knocking Term 4: Normal drive, high load Fat mix and early ignition to maximize performance. The only constraint is the permitted emission maximum: Term 6: Coasting Fuel cut-off, depending on situation Term 6: Acceleration Depending on load, fattentng of the mix } ADAPTIVE CONTROL: Adaptive control is the control method used by a controller which must adapt toa controlled system with parameters which vary, or are initially uncertain. For example, as an aircratt flies, its mass will slowly decrease as a result of fuel consumption’ a control law is needed that adapts itself to such changing conditions. Adaptive control is different from robust control in that it does not need a priori information about the bounds on these uncertain or time-varying parameters: robust control guaranteesPage |17 that if the changes are within given bounds the control law need not be changed, while adaptive control is concerned with control law changes themselves. Adaptive Cruise control: Operation The basic function of Adaptive Cruise Control relies on the conventional cruise-control system (vehicle-speed controller), which maintains a desired speed specified by the driver. In addition, ACC can adapt vehicle speed to changing traffic conditions by means of automatic acceleration, deceleration or braking. This system thus maintains the vehicle's distance to the vehicle driving in front as a function of road speed. Distance sensor ‘The most important component in an ACC system is a sensor which measures the distance, the relative speed and the relative position of the preceding vehicles. Maximum performance is achieved even in poor weather conditions — with a radar sensor. The radar sensor (see Sensor types) operates at a frequency of ... 77 GHz which was specially allocated for ACC. Three beams are emitted simultaneously for measurement purposes. The beams reflected by the preceding vehicles are analyzed regarding their propagation time, Doppler shift and amplitude ratio, and from these factors the distance,age |18 relative speed, and relative position are calculated (for details, refer Sensor types). Course setting To ensure reliable ACC operation, no matter what the situation — e.g. also on curves/bends — it is essential that the preceding vehicles are allocated to the correct lane(s). For this purpose, the information from the ESP sensor system (yaw rate, steering-wheel angle, wheel speeds and lateral acceleration) is evaluated with regard to the ACC-equipped vehicle's actual curve status. Further information on the traffic flow is obtained from the radar signals. Video imaging and navigation systems are also being considered for future assistance in defining the courses taken by the vehicle. Engine intervention Speed control requires an electronic engine-power control system (ETC or EDO). Such a system enables the vehicle to be accelerated to the desired speed or, if an obstacle appears, to be decelerated by means of automatic throttle closing. Active brake intervention Experience has shown that deceleration by means of throttle closing is not sufficient for ACC operation. Only the inclusion of brake intervention makes it possible for longer follow-on control operations with ACC without the need for frequent driver interventions. ESP provides the possibility of braking without driver intervention. ACC permits only "soft" brake interventions. Emergency braking due to the sudden appearance of obstacles (e.g. the slow-moving vehicle in front suddenly changing its lane) is therefore not possible. Setting options The driver inputs the desired speed and the desired time gap: values of 1... 2s are offered for the latter.age |19 Display elements The driver must be provided with at least the following information: + indication of the desired speed, + indication of the switch-on status, + indication of the desired time gap selected by the driver, + indication of the follow-on mode, which informs the driver as to whether the system is controlling the distance to a detected target object or not. Aim of ACC + The aim of ACC is to relieve the driver of the stress associated with "mindless" driving tasks such as maintaining speeds and driving behind other vehicles in heavy traffic. This system helps to improve road safety as well as driver comfort. System limits + Even with this form of driver support, the driver remains fully responsible for controlling the vehicle. He/she continues to remain responsible for complex decisions relating to straight- ahead driving and control of the vehicle ~ and obviously for steering as well. The alignment of the functions to emphasize the comfort aspect for the driver, means that a clear boundary has been defined between the tasks which are the responsibility of ACC and those which are the responsibility of the driver. Safety functions such as emergency braking and forced spacing are thus not featured in this system. These functions, together with selecting the desired speed and the desired time gap, are the sole responsibility of the driver, + ACC does not yet permit control operations in urban environments. ‘This system can only be activated at speeds in excess of 30 km/h. Expanding functions for operation in urban areas would require considerably higher performance on the part of the sensors responsible for monitoring the environment. Such performance cannot be achieved by the 76.5 GHz radar alone.Page | Parameters to be controlled in SI, Gl engines The parameters are \. Fuel metering control 2. Ignition control 3. Ignition timing 4, Exhaust gas recirculation control 1. Fuel motering contral: The following figure illustrates the variation in the performance variables of torque(T) and brake power (BSFC) as well ac engine emissions with variations in the air/fuel ratio with fixed spark timing and a constant engine speed. In this figure the exhaust gases are represented in brake-specific form, Thisis a standard way to characterize exhaust gases whose absolute emission levels are proportional to power. The definitions for the brake-specific emission rates are BSHC = brakespec ic HC concentration =e 2 BSCO = brake-specific CO concentration Too. h BSNO, = brakespecific NO, concentration =O 2p mc = HC foo = CO rate of flow NO, rate of How ate of flow No, One specific air/fuel ratio is highly significant in electronic fuel control aystems, namely, the stoishiometric mixture. The stcichiometric Ge., chemically correct) mixture corresponds to an air and fuel combinatione [2a such that if combustion were perfect all of the hydrogen and carbon in the fuel would be converted by the burning process to H20 and CO2. For gasoline the stoichiometric mixture ratio is 14.71. Stoichiometry is sufficiently important that the fuel and air mixture is often represented by a ratio called the equivalence ratio, which is given the specific designation Kie., the Greek letter lambda). The equivalence ratio is defined as follows (air/fuel) air/fuel stoichiometry) A relatively low airffuel ratio, below 14.7 (corresponding to 1<1), is ealled a rich mixture; an air/fuel ratio above 14.7 (corresponding to 1>1) is called a lean mixture. Emission control is strongly affected by air/fuel ratio, or by L. Note from the following figure that torque (T) reaches a maximum in the airduel ratio range of 12 to 14. The exact air/fuel ratio for which torque is maximum depends on the engine configuration, engine speed, and ignition timing. Also note that the CO and unburned hydrocarbons tend to decrease sharply with increasing air/fuel ratios, as one might expect because there is relatively more oxygen available for combustion with lean mixtures than with rich mixtures Unfortunately for the purposes of controlling exhaust emissions, the NOx exhaust concentration increases with increasing air/fuel ratios. That is, there is no air/fuel ratio that simultancously minimizes all regulated exhaust gasesPage [22 2. Spark timing: Spark advance is the time before top dead center (TDC) when the spark is initiated. It is usually expressed in number of degrees of crankshaft rotation relative to TDC. Figure 6.9 reveals the influence of spark timing on brake-specific exhaust emissions with constant speed and constant. airffuel ratio. Note that both NOx and HC generally inerease with increased advance of spark timing. BSFC and torque are also strongly influenced by timing. The following figure shows that maximum torque occurs at a particular advanced timing denoted MBT. Operation at or near MBTT is desirable since this spark timing tends to optimize performance. This optimal spark timing varies with RPM. As will be explained, engine control strategy involves regulating fuel delivery at a stoichiometric mixture and varying ignition timing for optimized performance. However, there is yet another variable to be controlled, which assists the engine control system in meeting exhaust gas emission regulations. PERFORMANCE | VARIABLES | CONSTANT SPEED. CONSTANT AF eS Ce tev %eRRO ToC ADVANCE ‘SPARK TIMING (OEGREES) EGR Control! Up to this point in the discussion, only the traditional calibration parameters of the engine (air/fuel ratio and spark timing) have been considered, However, by adding another control variable, the undesirable exhaust gas emission of NOx can be significantly redueed while maintaining a relatively high level of torque. This new control variable, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), consists of recirculating a precisely controlled amount of exhaust gas into the intake. Exhaust gas recirculation is a majorPage [23 subsystem of the overall control system. Its influence on emissions is shown in figures as a function of the percentage of exhaust gas in the intake. Figure shows the dramatic reduction in NOx emission when plotted against air/fuel ratio, and Figure shows the effect on performance variables as the percentage of EGR is increased. Note that the emission rate of NOx is most strongly influenced by EGR. and decreases as the percentage of EGR increases. The HC emission rate increases with increasing EGR) however, for relatively low EGR percentages, the HC rate changes only slightly. The mechanism by which EGR affects NOx production is related to the peak combustion temperature. Roughly speaking, the NOx generation rate increases with increasing peak combustion temperature if all other variables remain fixed. Increasing EGR. tends to lower this temperature; therefore, it tends to lower NOx generation.