A statistic that is a sum of terms each of which is a quotient obtained by dividing

the square of the difference between the observed and theoretical values of a quantity
by the theoretical value. A chi-square statistic is a test that compares a model to actual
observed data. A chi-square statistic requires data that is random, raw, mutually
exclusive, drawn from independent variables, and drawn from a large enough sample.
Tossing a fair coin, for example, meets these criteria. Pearson's paper of 1900
introduced what subsequently became known as the chi-squared test of goodness of fit.
The terminology and allusions of 80 years ago create a barrier for the modern reader,
who finds that the interpretation of Pearson's test procedure and the assessment of
what he achieved are less than straightforward, notwithstanding the technical advances
made since then. An attempt is made here to surmount these difficulties by exploring
Person's relevant activities during the first decade of his statistical career, and by
describing the work by his contemporaries and predecessors who seem to have
influenced his approach to the problem. Not all the questions are answered, and others
remain for further study.

The Chi-square test of independence (also known as the Pearson Chi-square test,
or simply the Chi-square) is one of the most useful statistics for testing hypotheses
when the variables are nominal, as often happens in clinical research. Unlike most
statistics, the Chi-square can provide information not only on the significance of any
observed differences, but also provides detailed information on exactly which
categories account for any differences found. Thus, the amount and detail of
information this statistic can provide renders it one of the most useful tools in the
researcher’s array of available analysis tools. As with any statistic, there are
requirements for its appropriate use, which are called “assumptions” of the statistic.
Additionally, the χ2 is a significance test, and should always be coupled with an
appropriate test of strength.
Another method is Fisher's exact test, which evaluates the likelihood of each
table with the same marginal totals. This mathematically justifies that these two
methods for determining extremes do not completely agree with each other. The
analysis obtains one-sided and two-sided conditions under which a disagreement in
determining extreme between the two tests could occur. It addresses the question
whether their discrepancy in determining extreme would make them draw different
conclusions when testing homogeneity or independence. Examination of the two tests
casts light on which test should be trusted when the two tests draw different
conclusions.