PETROLEUM EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Volume 47, Issue 4, August 2020

Online English edition of the Chinese language journal

Cite this article as: PETROL. EXPLOR. DEVELOP., 2020, 47(4): 726–739. RESEARCH PAPER

Overpressure origin and its effects on petroleum

accumulation in the conglomerate oil province in
Mahu Sag, Junggar Basin, NW China
LI Jun1, 2, TANG Yong3, WU Tao3, ZHAO Jingzhou1, 2,*, WU Heyuan1, 2, WU Weitao1, 2, BAI Yubin1, 2
1. School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Xi’an Shiyou University, Xi’an 710065, China;
2. Shaanxi Key Lab of Petroleum Accumulation Geology, Xi’an Shiyou University, Xi’an 710065, China;
3. Research Institute of Exploration and Development, Xinjiang Oilfield Company, PetroChina, Karamay 834000, China

Abstract: The origin of overpressure and its effect on petroleum accumulation in the large Permian/Triassic conglomerate oil province in
the Mahu Sag, Junggar Basin have been investigated based on comprehensive analysis of log curve combinations, loading-unloading curves, son-
ic velocity-density cross-plot, and porosity comparison data. The study results show that there are two kinds of normal compaction models in
the study area, namely, two-stage linear model and exponent model; overpressure in the large conglomerate reservoirs including Lower Triassic
Baikouquan Formation and Permian Upper and Lower Wu’erhe Formations is the result of pressure transfer, and the source of overpressure is
the overpressure caused by hydrocarbon generation of Permian Fengcheng Formation major source rock. The petroleum migrated through
faults under the driving of hydrocarbon generation overpressure into the reservoirs to accumulate, forming the Permian and Triassic over-
pressure oil and gas reservoirs. The occurrence and distribution of overpressure are controlled by the source rock maturity and strike-slip
faults connecting the source rock and conglomerate reservoirs formed from Indosinian Movement to Himalayan Movement. As
overpressure is the driving force for petroleum migration in the large Mahu oil province, the formation and distribution of petroleum res-
ervoirs above the source rock in this area may have a close relationship with the occurrence of overpressure.

Key words: compaction model; overpressure; pressure transfer; hydrocarbon generation overpressure; migration driving force; large
conglomerate oil province; Mahu Sag; Junggar Basin

Introduction
The Mahu Sag in the northwestern margin of the Junggar
Basin is one of the onshore hydrocarbon exploration hotspots
in China at present, where the world’s biggest conglomerate
oil province has been constructed, and the main productive
formations are the Lower Triassic Baikouquan Formation (T1b)
and the Permian upper and lower Wuerhe Formations (P3w
and P2w). Exploration has shown that the large conglomerate
oil province in the Mahu Sag is characterized by poor reser-
voir physical properties, large-area distribution of reservoirs,
and extensive development of overpressure, etc.[1–10] It is gen-
erally a low permeability-tight conglomerate oil province.
Unlike the integrated source-reservoir of tight oil and gas, the
source and reservoir of the large conglomerate oil
province of the Mahu Sag are vertically separated. The hy-
drocarbon-bearing series, the T1b, the P3w and the P2w, are
vertically 1000 to 4000 m from the major source rock in the
Lower Permian Fengcheng Formation (P1f). For low-permea-
bility-tight hydrocarbon accumulation, vertical hydrocarbon
migration passing several formations over such a long dis-
tance is rare. The dynamic mechanism of this migration has
become one of the issues waiting to be answered urgently in
the study of the accumulation process and enrichment laws.
With deepening of exploration and research, it has been
found that the distribution of hydrocarbon in the above-source
large conglomerate oil province is closely related to over-
pressure[2–4, 6–7], suggesting that overpressure may be the dy-
namic mechanism for cross-formation long-distance hydro-
carbon migration. However, the origin of the overpressure and
its effect on petroleum accumulation are still unclear. The
concrete manifestations are as follows: Firstly, traditional

Received date: 03 Sep. 2019; Revised date: 28 Apr. 2020.

* Corresponding author. E-mail: jzzhao@xsyu.edu.cn
Foundation item: Supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41502132) and the China National Science and Technology Major Project
(2017ZX05001-004).
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1876-3804(20)60088-X
Copyright © 2020, Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration & Development, PetroChina. Publishing Services provided by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Com-
munications Co., Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 LI Jun et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2020, 47(4): 726–739
methods are generally used to identify the origin of overpres-
sure. The multi-logging combination method[11–15], Bowers
method (the loading-unloading curve method)[16], sonic veloc-
ity–density cross-plot method[17–20], porosity comparison
method[14, 21], reverse reasoning from the pressure calculation
method, etc.[14, 20, 22–30] are all empirical identification methods
which have been widely used in recent years abroad but have
not been applied to obtain crucial information on the origin of
overpressure in this oilfield. Secondly, there are differences
between empirical identification methods of overpressure
origin in different compaction models. There is no analysis on
the two-stage linear mechanical compaction model and identi-
fication of the overpressure origin on this background. Thirdly,
only a few researchers analyzed the mechanisms of overpres-
sure by interval transit time curve and basin simulation meth-
ods, etc. Due to limited data available and other reasons, it has
been accepted that overpressure is mainly caused by disequi-
librium compaction, hydrocarbon generation makes a small
contribution, and fault activity plays an important role in the
formation of overpressure near fault zones on the margin of
the sag[2]. Fourthly, overpressure is considered to be one of the
main controlling factors for enrichment and high yield of pe-
troleum[2–4, 6–7], but there is no in-depth analysis of the forma-
tion and evolution of overpressure and its working mechanism
and coupling relationship in the process of hydrocarbon ac-
cumulation.
Overpressures of different origins have different evolution
processes and different coupling relationships with the forma-
tion and adjustment of reservoirs, and play different roles in
the accumulation models and enrichment laws of reser-
voirs[11, 25, 28, 30–33]. Through in-depth study of the origin of
overpressure in the Mahu Sag and effect of overpressure on
hydrocarbon accumulation, this paper provides a geological
basis for future exploration, and provides a comparison for the
study of overpressure and hydrocarbon accumulation in areas
with similar geological settings.
1. Geological settings
The large conglomerate oil province in the Mahu Sag of the
Junggar Basin is located on the southeastern side of the fault
zone in the northwestern margin of the basin. The Mahu Sag
in NE-SW strike overall, with an area of about 6800 km2, is
one of the most prolific sags in the Junggar Basin[1, 4–7] (Fig. 1).
The main reservoirs in the large conglomerate oil province of
the Mahu Sag are the Lower Triassic Baikouquan Formation
(T1b), the Middle Permian Lower Wuerhe Formation (P2w),
and the Upper Permian Upper Wuerhe Formation (P3w) con-
glomerate layers. With poor physical properties and strong
heterogeneity, they are typical low permeability-tight reser-
voirs. The cap rocks are the thick Middle Triassic Karamay
Formation (T2k) and the Upper Triassic Baijiantan Formation
(T3b) argillaceous rocks.
Four sets of possible source rocks in the Mahu Sag are the
 727 
Carboniferous, the Lower Permian Jiamuhe Formation (P1j)
and the Fengcheng Formation (P1f), and the Middle Permian
Lower Wuerhe Formation (P2w). But oil-source correlation
indicates that hydrocarbon in the above-source large con-
glomerate oil province is mainly generated by the Fengcheng
Formation source rock[3–4, 6–7]. The Fengcheng Formation
source rock is the oldest alkaline-lacustrine source rock dis-
covered in the world so far, which is about 50 m thick, rich in
bacteria and algal mother material, high in organic matter
abundance, dominated by type Ⅱ1 organic matter, and strong
and lasting in hydrocarbon generation capacity[7, 34]. Reverse and
strike-slip faults formed since the Indosinian movement build
communication between the source rock and the reservoirs. In
particular, the widespread strike-slip faults in the sag provide
paths for large-scale vertical migration of oil and gas[1, 3–7].
2. Distribution of pressure and origin of
overpressure
2.1. Distribution of pressure
Current drilling results show that overpressure distribution
in the large conglomerate oil province of the Mahu Sag is very
wide and regular. Vertically, overpressure mostly occurs in
strata more than 3000 m deep, including the T1b, P3w and P2w,
with pressure coefficients mainly from 1.20 to 1.60, and 1.93
at maximum (Fig. 2). The Baijiantan Formation (T3b) is the
transfer zone from normal pressure to overpressure. On the
plane, the current exploration activities of the P3w and P2w are
mainly concentrated in the southwest of Mahu Sag. Affected
by the exploration scope, overpressure is also primarily dis-
tributed in the southwest. T1b in the marginal area of the
Mahu Sag, close to the side of the fault zone in the northwest-
ern margin of the Junggar Basin is largely normal in pressure,
and gradually changes to overpressure towards the west slope
and central area of Mahu Sag. It reaches the pressure coeffi-
cient of over 1.8 in the Dabasong and Xiayan uplift in the east,
with mainly overpressure overall (Fig. 1).
2.2. Normal compaction model of the shale
Whether the overpressure point falls in the normal compac-
tion trend is an important means to identify the origin of over-
pressure by various methods[1116]. For the identification of the
origin of overpressure in an area, the normal compaction trend
and compaction model need to be clarified first, and then the
appropriate method to identify the origin of overpressure in
the corresponding compaction model can be selected. Two
normal compaction models, two-stage linear and exponential,
have been found through analyzing the logging curve charac-
teristics of more than 100 wells in the Mahu Sag and compil-
ing shale compaction profiles of over 20 key wells.
2.2.1. Exponential compaction model of the Xiayan and
Dabasong uplift
The exponential compaction model of shale is the most
 LI Jun et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2020, 47(4): 726–739

Fig. 1. Location and pressure coefficient distribution of the T1b conglomerate oil province in the Mahu Sag, Junggar Basin, NW China.

common normal compaction model, that is, under normal

compaction, shale porosity decreases exponentially as burial
depth increases. The compaction characteristics of shale in the
Xiayan and Dabason uplifts accord with this typical exponen-
tial compaction model. The compaction profiles of shale show
that from the surface to the middle part of the Badaowan
Formation (J1b, with a burial depth of about 3500 m), as the
burial depth increases, the shale decreases exponentially in
porosity and interval transit time, increases exponentially in
density and resistivity. For formations such as the T3b, T2k,
T1b, P3w and P2w, with increase of burial depth, the interval
transit time, resistivity and density logging curves show re-
versal and different degrees of deviations from the trend of the
normal compaction curve, accompanied by the development of
Fig. 2. Depth vs. pressure coefficient in the conglomerate oil
province of the Mahu Sag. overpressure (Fig. 3).
 728 
 LI Jun et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2020, 47(4): 726–739

Fig. 3. Shale compaction features and formation pressure profiles of Well D9 in the Dabasong uplift (a) and Well YB2 in the Xiayan
uplift (b) of the Mahu Sag. J1b—Badaowan Formation; T3b—Baijiantan Formation; T2k—Karamay Formation; T1b—Baikouquan
Formation; P2w—Lower Wuerhe Formation.

2.2.2. Two-stage linear compaction model in the west
slope and central area of Mahu Sag
Unlike the eastern area, shale compaction in the west slope
and central area of Mahu Sag shows two-stage characteristics.
The first stage is mainly in the strata above the middle and
lower J1b with buried depths of 2000–2500 m. With the in-
crease of burial depth, the shale decreases in porosity and
interval transit time linearly, increases in density linearly, and
increases in resistivity normally. The second stage is from the
middle and lower J1b with burial depths of 2000–2500 m to
 729 
the P2w. As the burial depth increases, the shale formations
remain essentially unchanged in porosity, interval transit time,
and density. Overpressure turns up in the T2k, T1b, P3w and
P2w below 3000 m (Fig. 4). The top interface of the over-
pressure is usually 500 to 1000 m below that of the second
compaction stage of shale.
The two-stage linear compaction model is also a basically
model of shale normal compaction in sedimentary basins[3537],
that is, the compaction of shale is divided into deep and shal-
low burial stages. In the shallow burial stage, with the in-
 LI Jun et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2020, 47(4): 726–739

Fig. 4. Shale compaction features and formation pressure profiles of Well MH2 in the west slope (a) and Well M18 in the central area (b)
of the Mahu Sag. J1b—Badaowan Formation; T3b—Baijiantan Formation; T2k—Karamay Formation; T1b—Baikouquan Formation;
P2w— Lower Wuerhe Formation.

crease of burial depth, the shale formations decrease linearly
in porosity, sonic velocity, and density. In the deep burial
stage, the shale formations remain unchanged in porosity,
sonic velocity, and density. In the 1990s, Hunt et al.[3637] ex-
amined the two-stage linear compaction model of shale in the
Gulf Coast Region, US, and concluded that its development
was primarily related to high quartz content. X-ray diffraction
and elemental analysis of hundreds of shale samples show that
clay-scale minerals of grain size less than 4 μm have a quartz
content of 74% and content of clay minerals of 24%. Among
them, samples containing fine-grained quartz and carbonate
with small internal surface area stop compaction when the
 730 
porosity is about 3%, while shale samples containing smectite
and illite with large internal surface area stop compaction
when the porosity is about 10%. Some researchers suggested
that the shale sections with constant porosity, sonic velocity
and density occurring in the Qiongdongnan Basin of China
were related to the combination and transformation of clay
minerals[38].
According to the traditional exponential compaction model,
the second stage (constant porosity stage) of the two-stage
linear compaction model can easily be mistaken for a mani-
festation of disequilibrium compaction, and the existence of
overpressure may then be attributed to disequilibrium com-
 LI Jun et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2020, 47(4): 726–739
paction. In fact, the second stage of the two-stage linear com-
paction model also belongs to the normal compaction stage,
and is a manifestation of the cessation of mechanical compac-
tion and dominance of chemical compaction, and isn’t related
to the formation of overpressure[11, 37]. It cannot be regarded as
the basis of disequilibrium compaction overpressure.
The compaction characteristics of the shale formations in
the west slope and central area of the Mahu Sag conform to
the two-stage linear compaction model. The first stage is from
the surface to burial depths of 2000–2500 m where the poros-
ity decreases linearly, the second stage is more than 2500 m
deep where the porosity remains constant (Fig. 4). The com-
paction model difference between this area and the Xiayan
and Dabasong uplift areas may be related to the differences in
source materials of the two areas. The sediments in the west
slope and central area of Mahu Sag are mainly from the west-
ern provenance, while those of the Xiayan and Dabasong up-
lifts are from the eastern provenance. Taking the T1b as an
example, it has finer grain size, better sorting and higher shale
content in the eastern Xiayan and Dabasong uplifts than in the
west slope and central area of the sag[3940].
Since the west slope and central area of the Mahu Sag have
different normal compaction model from the Xiayan and Da-
basong uplift, different identification methods of overpressure
origin should be adopted for them, so several differnt methods
were used to identify the overpressure origins in the two areas.
Wells MH2 and M18 in the west slope and the central area of
the sag, and wells D9 and YB2 in the Xiayan and Dabasong
uplifts were taken as examples.
2.3. Origins of overpressure in the Xiayan and Dabasong
uplifts
2.3.1. Multi-logging combination method
Analysis of logging curve combination is a basic and reli-
able method for identifying the origins of overpressure in
sedimentary basins. The combination characteristics of three
logging curves, interval transit time, resistivity, and density at
least must be used in this method[1115]. Firstly, if the interval
transit time, resistivity and density log curves show large re-
versal synchronously in the overpressure section, the over-
pressure is caused by disequilibrium compaction. Secondly, if
the three don’t show reversal synchronously or the density
does not change or slightly reduces, the overpressure is caused
by hydrocarbon generation etc. fluid expansion origin, or
pressure transfer. Thirdly, if all the three do not show reversal,
the overpressure may be caused by tectonic compression.
The log curves of overpressure sections in the Xiayan and
Dabasong uplifts show obvious characteristics of asynchro-
nous reversal. The reversal depth of the density curve lags
behind that of the interval transit time and resistivity curves.
For example, the reversal depth of the interval transit time and
resistivity curves of Well D9 is at 3800 m, and that of the den-
sity curve is at 4100 m; the reversal depth of the interval tran-
 731 
sit time and resistivity curves of Well YB2 is at 3300 m, and
that of the density curve is at 3800 m (Fig. 3).
The overpressure in the reservoirs of T1b, P3w and P2w in
the large conglomerate oil province in the Mahu Sag is in-
ferred to be caused by fluid expansion or pressure transfer.
2.3.2. Bowers method and sonic velocity–density cross-
plot method
Bowers considered that the charts of changes in sonic ve-
locity and vertical effective stress in the overpressure section
(that is, loading-unloading curve charts) can be used to iden-
tify the origins of overpressure[16]. These charts are widely
used, and have been generally accepted to discriminate the
origins of overpressure and have achieved good application
results[16, 4150]. To identify the origin of overpressure effec-
tively, when applying Bowers method, the sonic veloc-
ity-density cross plot and the relation plate of effective stress-
density should be considered[1720, 24, 43, 47]. So far, only a few
domestic researchers used this method to identify the origin of
overpressure in the Qingshankou Formation of the Songliao
Basin[11] and Paleozoic overpressure in the Ordos Basin in
China[40], with good results achieved.
In this study, the vertical effective stress of the key wells in
the Mahu Sag was calculated using the calculation method of
overburden pressure proposed by Tingay et al.[48] and the Ter-
zaghi equation. The cross plots of sonic velocity-effective
stress, sonic velocity-density and the relation plate of effective
stress-density were accordingly compiled. In the cross plots of
vertical effective stress-sonic velocity (Bowers method) and
vertical effective stress-density, the overpressure points in the
Xiayan and Dabasong uplifts fall on the unloading curve (Fig.
5), indicating that the overpressure is the result of fluid ex-
pansion/pressure transfer.
In the density-sonic velocity cross plot, the overpressure
points of the study area fall in the overpressure area caused by
non-disequilibrium compaction, such as fluid expansion/pres-
sure transfer, outside the loading curve (Fig. 5). In the sonic
velocity-density chart, the overpressure caused by non-dise-
quilibrium compaction deviates from the loading curve, but
the overpressures of different non-disequilibrium compaction
origins differ in distribution. Firstly, non-disequilibrium com-
paction caused by fluid expansion/pressure transfer manifests
as a slight decrease of sonic velocity, and constant or slightly
reduction of density with the increase of overpressure inten-
sity[43]. Secondly, overpressure caused by the transformation
of clay minerals such as smectite to illite features an increase
in density and unchanged or slightly decrease of sonic veloc-
ity with the increase of overpressure intensity[19, 24]. Thirdly,
overpressure caused by load transfer and combination origin
shows a decrease in sonic velocity and an increase in density
with the increase of overpressure intensity[11]. According to
comprehensive analysis, the overpressure of the Xiayan and
Dabasong uplifts is of pressure transfer origin.
 LI Jun et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2020, 47(4): 726–739

Fig. 5. Overpressure origin identification charts by Bowers method and sonic velocity–density cross-plot method for Well D9 in the Da-
basong uplift and Well YB2 in the Xiayan uplift of the Mahu Sag.
2.3.3. Porosity comparison method
Bowers and Katsube[49] found that disequilibrium compac-
tion usually enabled the preservation of a large number of
primary pores and led to significant changes in the volume
attributes of the rock. In contrast, the effective stress reduction
in fluid expansion/transfer overpressure horizons can gener-
ally only result in increase of pore width reflecting connec-
tivity. Differences in the changes in connected pores and res-
ervoir pores in the overpressure horizon (the porosity com-
parison method) can be used to identify the origin of over-
pressure.
There is little measured porosity data of shale samples
available. Hermanrud et al.[14], Bowers[17], Bowers and Ka-
tsube[49] concluded that neutron and density logs reflected
volume attributes, whereas sonic velocity and resistivity logs
reflected the conductivity attributes of rocks. Logging data
can be used to calculate the size of different types of pores in
Fig. 6. Overpressure origin identification chart by porosity
the overpressure section, and the origin of overpressure can be
comparison for Well D9.
determined through comparative analysis. Some scholars used
this method and achieved good application results[14, 2122, 47]. tions in the west slope and central area meet the two-stage
In this study, the method proposed by Tingay et al.[22] was linear compaction model. The analysis of logging curve com-
used to calculate sonic porosity (reflecting the conductivity bination has been seldom reported to identify the origin of
attribute of rock) and density porosity (reflecting the volume overpressure in this model.
attribute of rock), and plates of sonic porosity vs. depth and
density porosity vs. depth were compiled. The calculated po- 2.4.1.1. Characteristics of diverse origins of overpressure
rosities based on shale density of the overpressure sections in on logging curve combination in the two-stage linear
the Xiayan and Dabasong uplifts basically conform to the compaction model
normal compaction trend, indicating that the overpressure has Based on the mechanisms of overpressure of various ori-
not significantly changed the volume properties of the rock. gins and existing literatures[3637], combined with the charac-
That the calculated porosity based on sonic velocity deviates teristics and identification methods of different origins of
from the normal compaction trend (Fig. 6) is because the overpressure with logging curve combinations under the ex-
higher pressure coefficient (the pressure coefficient of the T1b ponential compaction model of shale[1115, 40], an scheme to
in Well D9 is greater than 1.8) and the large excessive pres- identify different origins of overpressure with logging curve
sure causes the width of connected pores, such as throats and combination in a two-stage linear compaction model has been
microfractures, to increase significantly, resulting in a small
established (Fig. 7) to improve the identification system of
dilatancy effect. Accordingly, it is believed that overpressure in
overpressure origin and guide the identification of overpres-
the study area is the result of fluid expansion/pressure transfer.
sure origins in the study area.
2.4. Origin of overpressure in the west slope and central For overpressure caused by disequilibrium compaction, due
area of Mahu Sag to the preservation of primary porosity (the porosity of the
overpressure section is likely to be significantly greater than
2.4.1. Analysis of multi-logging combination
that of the normal compaction section), the overpressure sec-
Unlike the Xiayan and Dabasong uplifts, the shale forma- tion should exhibit a marked increase in interval transit time, or
 732 
 LI Jun et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2020, 47(4): 726–739
Fig. 7. Overpressure origin identification chart by multi-logging combination method under the two-stage linear compaction model.
A—Transition point of linear decrease stage and constant stage of porosity; B—Occurrence depth of overpressures of different origins;
B—Reversal depth delay of the logging curve of non-disequilibrium compaction overpressure; C—normal compaction/normal pressure;
D—Equivalent depth of disequilibrium compaction.
an obvious decrease in sonic velocity, resistivity, and density.
Among overpressures not caused by disequilibrium com-
paction, the overpressure of fluid expansion (hydrocarbon
generation pressurization) / pressure transfer origin would
change the pore connectivity of the rock (for example, by
making throats turn wider) but has no, or little, effect on vol-
ume attributes, so it may lead to an increase in interval transit
time, slight reduction or no variation in density, or obvious
delay in the depth of density decrease than the depth of in-
crease of interval transit time (that is, the two do not reverse
synchronically). When tectonic compression occurs, most of
the compaction has stopped, and the compaction effect caused
by lateral loading is weak or negligible. Thus, the overpres-
sure of tectonic compression origin features interval transit
time, resistivity, and density curves are in line with the normal
compaction trend, or slightly stronger than normal compaction.
In comparison, the overpressure of smectite to illite transfor-
mation origin is characterized by an increase in interval transit
time or a decrease in sonic velocity and an increase in density.
2.4.1.2. Origin of overpressure in the west slope and
central area of Mahu Sag
Overpressure in the west slope and central area of the sag
mainly occurs in the T2k to the P2w in the second normal
compaction stage (at burial depth of over 3000 m). The over-
pressure section shows a slight decrease in resistivity and
constant or slight deviation of the interval transit time and
density from the normal compaction trend (Fig. 4). These
characteristics of logging curve combination are similar to
those of overpressure resulted from fluid expansion/pressure
transfer described above, but obviously inconsistent with
those of overpressure caused by disequilibrium compaction.
2.4.2. Bowers method and sonic velocity–density
cross-plot method
Comparing the differences in formation mechanisms of
 733 
overpressures[1516, 1920, 24, 43] of different origins shows that
the loading curve in the two-stage linear compaction model
consists of two segments, of which, the first segment is simi-
lar to the exponential compaction model, with the increase of
sonic velocity, vertical effective stress and density increase. In
the second segment, with the increase of vertical effective
stress, the sonic velocity remains constant and shows a "plat-
form". In the sonic velocity-density cross plot chart, the sonic
velocity and density stagnate at (near) the transition point of
the linear decrease segment and the constant segment (Fig. 8).
Disequilibrium compaction will cause the preservation of a
large number of pores and a significant reduction in sonic
velocity. Although overpressure caused by disequilibrium
compaction occurs in the second stage, the intersection points
in vertical effective stress-sonic velocity and density-sonic
velocity will be located in the first stage rather than the sec-
ond stage. Overpressure resulting from fluid expan-
sion/transfer is still on the unloading curve. It should be noted
that the unloading curve and the loading curve in the second
stage of normal compaction are often close to each other or
even coincide, hence, it is easy to mistake the overpressure
caused by non-disequilibrium compaction on the unloading
curve of the second stage as overpressure caused by disequi-
librium compaction (Fig. 8). The location of overpressure due
to non-disequilibrium compaction, such as fluid expan-
sion/transfer on the unloading curve, depends on the intensity
of the overpressure. When the sum of the excessive pressure
and the hydrostatic pressure of the AC section is less than the
formation pressure generated by the AC section, the over-
pressure point will fall in the second stage of normal compac-
tion. In the sonic velocity-density cross plot, overpressure
caused by non-disequilibrium compaction, such as fluid ex-
pansion/transfer, is similar to the exponential compaction
model, with density remaining basically constant and sonic
velocity decreasing to some degrees depending on the genesis
of the overpressure (Fig. 8).
 LI Jun et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2020, 47(4): 726–739

Fig. 8. Loading curve-unloading curve features and overpressure origin identification under two-stage linear compaction model.
A—Transition point of linear decrease stage and constant stage of porosity; B—Occurrence depth of overpressures of different origins;
C—Normal compaction/normal pressure; D—Equivalent depth of disequilibrium compaction.

Fig. 9. Overpressure origin identification charts by Bowers method and sonic velocity–density cross-plot method for Well MH2 in the
west slope and Well M18 in the central area of the Mahu Sag.

Well MH2 in the western slope area and Well M18 in the expansion/pressure transfer (Fig. 10).
central area of the sag are taken as examples to illustrate. In
3. The causes and control factors of overpressure
the vertical effective stress-sonic velocity (Bowles method) and the effects of overpressure on hydrocarbon
and vertical effective stress-density cross plots, the overpres- accumulation
sure points fall on the unloading curve section of the second
stage of normal compaction (constant porosity section), which The identification of the above empirical methods shows
is close to or coincides with the loading curve (Fig. 9). Ac- that the overpressure in the main hydrocarbon-bearing series
cording to the identification basis for overpressure origin dis- in the large conglomerate oil province in the Mahu Sag
cussed above, overpressures in these two wells are identified
as fluid expansion/pressure transfer origin, rather than dis-
equilibrium compaction. In the density-sonic velocity cross
plot, the overpressure points in wells MH2 and M18 fall on
the trend of fluid expansion/transfer overpressure outside the
loading curve (Fig. 9). Comprehensive analysis suggests that
the overpressure in the west slope and central area of the sag
is transfer overpressure.

2.4.3. Porosity comparison method

The analysis results show that the overpressure in the west

slope and central area has not changed the volume attributes
of the shale layers and reservoirs where it occurs significantly,
but obviously changed conductivity attributes of the shale
layers and reservoirs. Accordingly, the identification results of
the porosity comparison method also confirm that the over- Fig. 10. Overpressure origin identification chart by porosity
pressure in the west slope and central area is caused by fluid comparison method for Well M18.

 734 
 LI Jun et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2020, 47(4): 726–739
originates from pressure transfer. For overpressure originating
from pressure transfer, it is critical to find out the source of
pressure transfer (the mechanism of pressure generation)[11, 25, 32].
Previous studies have shown that the possible sources of
overpressure in the Junggar Basin where the Mahu Sag is
located are: disequilibrium compaction, tectonic compression,
and hydrocarbon generation[2, 7, 33]. In this study, the causes of
overpressure and the controlling factors of its formation were
investigated from these three aspects, and the effects of over-
pressure on hydrocarbon accumulation were discussed.
3.1. Relationship between disequilibrium compaction and
overpressure
Abnormal porosity resulted from well preservation of large
amount of primary pores is a major evidence of the existence
of disequilibrium compaction. Analysis results of shale com-
paction profiles of key wells in the Mahu Sag show that the
density logging curves of the overpressure sections and the
calculated porosities do not significantly deviate from the
normal compaction trend (Figs. 3 and 4). Analysis of reservoir
characteristics shows that the T1b, P3w and P2w have poor
physical properties and are low permeability-tight reservoirs,
with secondary pores accounting for a large proportion of the
reservoir space[35, 7]. Consequently, there is no evidence of
abnormal high porosity caused by disequilibrium compaction
in the Mahu Sag.
The commonly used pressure prediction method with equi-
librium depth is mainly based on the theory of disequilibrium
compaction. Xu et al.[51] predicted the overpressure of the
Permian and Triassic in the Manan slope area using the equi-
librium depth method, but the prediction results had large
errors when compared with the measured pressure. Particu-
larly in the main overpressure series of strata below the T3b,
the predicted pressure coefficients are much larger than the
measured pressure coefficients. The prediction results confirm
beyond doubt that the formation and distribution of overpres-
sure in the Mahu Sag is not in accord with the law of disequi-
librium compaction.
Overpressure of disequilibrium compaction origin usually
turns up in Meso-Cenozoic fine-grained sediments formed in
fast sedimentation and subsidence. But there was no high
sedimentation and subsidence rates leading to disequilibrium
compaction in the Mahu Sag. The sedimentation rate of Well
MH3 in the center of the sag is 50–170 m/Ma[2] and the sedi-
mentation rate at the slope and margin of the sag is even lower,
significantly lower than those of other basins, such as the
Yinggehai Basin[52] and Bohai Bay Basin[53], etc. which have
typical disequilibrium compaction. Even in these basins with
high sedimentation rates, analysis results from empirical
methods in recent years indicate that the overpressure in them
is not entirely caused by disequilibrium compaction[44].
In summary, there is little possibility that the overpressure
of the reservoirs in the large conglomerate oil province of the
Mahu Sag is the result of pressure transfer due to disequilib-
 735 
rium compaction.
3.2. Relationship between tectonic compression and
overpressure
Lateral loading formed by tectonic compression is also an
important pressurization mechanism[11, 2526, 28, 50]. Comprehen-
sive analysis has shown that, despite strong tectonic compres-
sion in the northwestern margin of the Junggar Basin where
the Mahu Sag is located, the overpressure of the T1b, P3w and
P2w reservoirs in the large conglomerate oil province in the
Mahu Sag is unlikely to be the result of overpressure transfer
caused by tectonic compression. Firstly, the above empirical
method has confirmed that there is no tectonic compres-
sion-type overpressure; and secondly, the distribution law of
the measured pressure coefficients is opposite to the distribu-
tion law of the strength of tectonic compression. Tectonic
compression is strongest in the fault zone on the northwestern
margin, gradually weakens towards the margin and slope area
of the Mahu Sag, and is weakest in the center of the sag. The
pressure coefficient of the main productive reservoir (the T1b)
gradually increases from the fault zone on the northwestern
margin and the margin of the Mahu Sag to the center of the
Mahu Sag. For instance, the pressure coefficient of Well MH2
in the slope margin is 1.35, 1.53 in Well MH1 in the slope
area, and over 1.6 in Well M18 in the center of the sag.
3.3. Relationship between hydrocarbon generation and
overpressure
3.3.1. Overpressure depth is consistent with the depth of
mass hydrocarbon generation and expulsion of the source
rock
The P1f is the main source rock formation in the Mahu Sag,
and part of the P2w also has some hydrocarbon generation
potential[7, 34]. The P1f is generally 1000 m deeper than the T1b,
and at 4000 m deep at maximum. The top interface of over-
pressure is consistent with the depth of mass hydrocarbon
generation and the expulsion of the source rock. Taking the
Mabei slope as an example, the top interface of overpressure
of the T1b is at a burial depth of about 3000 m, and the corre-
sponding burial depth of source rock is greater than 4000 m.
The maturity profile of the source rock shows that the Ro val-
ue corresponding to the burial depth of about 4000 m is about
1.0% (Fig. 11), indicating that the source rock is already in a
stage of mass hydrocarbon generation. This suggests that the
development of overpressure may be related to mass hy-
drocarbon generation of source rock.
3.3.2. Overpressure intensity is mainly controlled by
maturity of source rock
In-depth analysis of the relationship between overpressure
distribution and the major source rock of the P1f shows that
the intensity of overpressure is mainly controlled by factors
such as the thickness and maturity of the source rock. The
 LI Jun et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2020, 47(4): 726–739

trending strike-slip faults with adjustment property in the

Fig. 11. Overpressure top and source rock maturity in the Ma-
bei slope.
control effect of maturity is the most obvious, namely, forma-
tion pressure coefficient increases with the increase of source
rock maturity. It should be noted that, due to the large burial
depth, the source rock of the P1f in the Mahu Sag has not been
encountered in most wells, so measured maturity data of the
source rock of the P1f in the sag and central area are therefore
unavailable. However, maturity parameters such as gas-oil
ratio, density and viscosity crude oil of the T1b (consistent
with the distribution and thermal evolution of source rock and
less secondary alteration) are in good agreement with the dis-
tribution of overpressure intensity. In the eastern and southern
uplift areas, the source rocks are characterized by high matur-
ity, the oil is light in quality, and the pressure coefficient is
high[3, 7], reflecting that the intensity of overpressure is closely
connected with the distribution and thermal evolution of the
source rock. On the other hand, the basin simulation shows
that, from the west slope area to the central area of the sag and
the eastern uplift area, the source rocks change from mature to
high-over-mature and the excessive pressure of the T1b gradu-
ally increases from less than 20 MPa to about 50 MPa[2].
Mahu Sag[5]. These strike-slip faults are characterized by
small fault displacement and steep fault planes. Most of these
faults cut the Permian-Triassic T1b. These faults are large in
number, in rows and belts on the plane, and accompanied with
the main faults. Directly communicating with the lower
source rock, these faults are the main paths for oil and gas
generated by the source rock of the P1f in the Mahu Sag to
migrate vertically into the reservoirs of the T1b, P3w and
P2w[47, 55]. The normal faults formed in the middle Yanshanian
period primarily control the migration and accumulation of
Jurassic oil and gas and has little impact on the formation and
distribution of the Permian-Triassic oil and gas reservoirs.
The pressure systems of oil and gas reservoirs associated
with diverse types of faults show that the distribution of over-
pressure is closely related to the distribution of the nearly EW,
NW-SE trending strike-slip faults formed in the Indosin-
ian-Himalayan period (Fig. 12). This suggests that this type of
fault may not only be the main pathways for the vertical mi-
gration of oil and gas from the P1f into the reservoirs of the
T1b, P3w and P2w, but also provide the vertical pressure trans-
fer pathways for overpressure caused by hydrocarbon genera-
tion of the P1f source rock, which is an important manifesta-
tion that overpressure caused by hydrocarbon generation pro-
vides the main driving force for the vertical migration of oil
and gas along faults.
The formation of overpressure in the reservoirs of the T1b,
P3w and P2w in the Mahu Sag is most likely related to hydro-
carbon generation.

3.3.3. Distribution of overpressure is closely related to

the distribution of faults connecting the source rock during
the main accumulation period

There are three types of faults in three stages developed in

the Mahu Sag: Hercynian-Indosinian reverse faults, Indosin-
ian-Himalayan strike-slip faults, and Middle Yanshanian nor-
mal faults[5, 54]. The Hercynian-Indosinian reverse faults
mainly control the distribution of paleo-uplifts and fault steps,
cut horizons from the Carboniferous to the Triassic, and are
mainly distributed in the thrust fault zone on the northwestern
margin of the basin and in the Xiayan and Dabasong uplifts.
Affected by thrusting in the piedmont of the basin margin
during the Hercynian-Himalayan, particularly in the Indosin- Fig. 12. Features of pressure systems in different fault related
ian-Himalayan, there develop a series of nearly EW, NW-SE reservoirs of the Mahu Sag.

 736 
 LI Jun et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2020, 47(4): 726–739
3.4. Effects on hydrocarbon accumulation and
significances in exploration
In summary, the source of overpressure in the large con-
glomerate oil province in the Mahu Sag is mainly caused by
hydrocarbon generation. The formation of overpressure is the
geological response to oil and gas migration and accumulation
driven by overpressure caused by hydrocarbon generation.
The development of overpressure is closely related to the ac-
cumulation of oil and gas in this area. The large pressure coef-
ficient reflects that the region has experienced intensive oil
and gas charge and that the accumulated oil and gas has been
well preserved. For example, exploration practices of the T1b
in the Manan slope area show that the overpressure well MH1
produced 39.4 t of oil and 2500 m3 of gas per day, the adjacent
well MH2 also had evidence of oil and gas charging and ac-
cumulation; but Well MH3 with normal pressure had poor oil
and gas shows. It is inferred through analysis that low oil and
gas charging intensity or even a lack of charging is the main
reason of failure in Well MH3[3, 55]. The results of drill stem
test in the Mahu Sag show that, as the pressure coefficient
increases, the water-oil ratio of the oil and gas reservoir
gradually decreases; when the formation pressure coefficient
is greater than 1.4, the fluid produced in the test is basically
water free (Fig. 13), indicating that hydrocarbon abundance in
the reservoirs increases with the increase of overpressure and
charging intensity.
The research results will help break the previous under-
standing of "source-reservoir neighborhood" accumulation
model of large-scale tight oil and gas reservoirs, open up an
above-source cross-formation large-area accumulation model
of tight oil and gas, and expand the field of tight oil and gas
exploration. Faults developed in multiple stages connecting
source rocks provide efficient migration channels between
deep source rocks and above-source reservoirs. Overpressure
caused by hydrocarbon generation is a crucial driving force
for upward cross-formation migration of oil and gas. Thus,
driven by overpressure, the hydrocarbon from the Permian
main source rock migrated upward crossing several forma-
Fig. 13. Reservoir pressure coefficient vs. water-oil ratio of wells
in the conglomerate oil province in the Mahu Sag.
 737 
tions and formed large-scale reservoirs in the widely distrib-
uted fan-delta sedimentary reservoirs. These research results
provide a basis for searching large-scale above-source re-
serves in the development zones of faults connecting source
rocks in hydrocarbon-rich sags, and also make profitable ex-
ploration of medium and shallow layers in sags with deep
source rocks possible. In addition to the major oil-bearing
formations, such as the T1b and P3w, the P2w and other
above-source strata series in the Mahu Sag are expected to
have great exploration potential. These research results also
provide a reference for exploration of other hydrocarbon-rich
sags in the Junggar Basin and above-source oil and gas accu-
mulation in other basins. Identifying the cause and distribu-
tion of overpressure may be the key to the exploration and
development of hydrocarbon accumulations far from source
formation.
4. Conclusions
The characteristics of normal compaction of shale in the
large conglomerate oil province in the Mahu Sag of the Jung-
gar Basin vary in different regions, and at least two normal
compaction models can be identified. The Xiayan and Daba-
song uplifts conform to the common exponential compaction
model, while the west slope and central area of the sag accord
with the two-stage linear compaction model. The identifica-
tion methods for various overpressure origins under the
two-stage linear compaction model have been summarized,
including the multi-logging combination method, Bowers
method and sonic velocity–density cross-plot method.
Overpressure in the large conglomerate oil province reser-
voirs in the Mahu Sag is primarily caused by pressure transfer.
The overpressure source is overpressure formed by fluid ex-
pansion of the main source rocks (the P1f) caused by hydro-
carbon generation. The formation and distribution of over-
pressure are mainly controlled by the thickness and maturity
of the source rock and the strike-slip faults connecting the
source rock in the Indosinian-Himalayan period. Driven by
overpressure caused by hydrocarbon generation, oil and gas
generated by the source rock migrated along faults and other
pathways into the reservoirs to accumulate, thereby forming
the Permian/Triassic overpressure reservoirs.
Overpressure is the main driving force for the migration of
long-span separation reservoirs of source-reservoir in the large
conglomerate oil province in the Mahu Sag. The formation
and distribution of above-source oil and gas reservoirs are
closely associated with the development of overpressure.
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