Landing Gear

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Materials and material requirements

for aerospace structures and engines
In Introduction to Aerospace Materials, 2012

3.2.4 Landing gear

The landing gear, which is also called the undercarriage, is a complex system con-
sisting of structural members, hydraulics, energy absorption components, brakes,
wheels and tyres (Fig. 3.9). Additional components attached to and functioning with
the landing gear may include steering devices and retracting mechanisms. Of the
many components, it is the structural members that support the heavy landing loads
and stop the landing gear from collapsing under the aircraft weight. The materials
must be strong enough to support heavy take-off weight when an aircraft has a full
load of fuel and the high impact loads on landing. Landing gear materials must
therefore have high static strength, good fracture toughness and fatigue strength,
and the most commonly used materials are high-strength steel and titanium alloy.
3.9. Main-wheel bogie.(from S. Pace, North American Valkyrie XB-70A, Aero Series
vol. 30, Tab Books, 1984)

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Suspension and landing gear failures

Edgar A. Ossa, Marco Paniagua, in Handbook of Materials Failure Analysis with Case
Studies from the Aerospace and Automotive Industries, 2016

Cases of Suspension and Landing Gear Systems Failures 172

4.1 Processing and Design Failure of a Car Suspension System Ball Joint 1724.1.1-
Fractographic Study 1734.1.2Metallographic Analysis 1744.1.3Finite Elements
Analysis 1754.1.4Conclusion and Recommendations 176
4.2 Failure of a Landing Gear Due to Overload 1774.2.1Fractographic Analysis
1774.2.2Estimation of Failure Load 180
4.3 Discussion 181

4.4 Failure of a Nose-Landing Gear AFT Lock-Link 1814.4.1Fractographic Analysis

1814.4.2Metallographic Analysis 1844.4.3Analysis 185
4.5 Failure of the Rear Cantilever Spring Landing Gear of a Fumigation Aircraft
185
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Application of nanofibers in aerospace

industry
Ajit Behera, Priyabrata Mallick, in Fiber-Reinforced Nanocomposites: Fundamentals
and Applications, 2020

20.2.6 Landing gear

The landing gear is a complex system consisting of structural members, hydraulics,
energy absorption components, brakes, wheels, and tires. Additional components
attached to and functioning with the landing gear may include steering devices and
retracting mechanisms. Of the many components, it is the structural members that
support the heavy landing loads and stop the landing gear from collapsing under the
aircraft weight. The materials must be strong enough to support heavy takeoff weight
when an aircraft has a full load of fuel and the high impact loads on landing. Landing
gear materials must therefore have high static strength, good fracture toughness,
and fatigue strength, and the most commonly used materials are high-strength steel
and Ti-alloy. It is possible to design a landing gear with still better energy absorption,
but somewhere a compromise must be found, if the pilot can walk away without a
painful back from an unintended very hard landing (Fig. 20.7) [24].

Figure 20.7. Landing gear, wheels.

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Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in aero-

space vehicles
R.J.H. Wanhill, ... C.L. Smith, in Stress Corrosion Cracking, 2011
Helicopter MLG drag beam
In February 2007 a helicopter MLG drag beam failed during a routine landing.
Figure 16.24 shows the type of helicopter and the drag beam location. The drag
beam was ultrahigh strength 300M steel, and investigation showed that it failed
from the tie-down bolt hole (see Fig. 16.25), owing to corrosion pitting followed by
SCC.

Fig 16.24. The helicopter type, showing the location of the left-side MLG drag beam.

Fig 16.25. Cracking (white arrows) at the tie-down bolt hole of the drag beam: 300M
steel.

Figures 16.26-16.28 give macroscopic views of the cracking, pointing out the overall
fracture characteristics. Despite having been cadmium plated, the tie-down bolt hole
was severely corroded and there was rust on much of the SCC fracture surfaces.
This suggested that the local environmental conditions were severe and that the
drag beam could have been cracked for a long time. Figures 16.29 and 16.30 are
SEM fractographic details of one of the cracks. These show that SCC started from a
corrosion pit and that the non-rusted SCC fracture was classically intergranular.

Fig 16.26. Macroscopic view of two cracks growing from the tie-down bolt hole:
optical fractograph.

Fig 16.27. Close-up view of crack 1: optical fractograph.

Fig 16.28. Close-up view of crack 2: optical fractograph.

Fig 16.29. Origin of crack 2: SEM fractograph.

Fig 16.30. Non-rusted intergranular SCC fracture surface of crack 2: SEM fracto-

graph.

Additional investigation showed that the cadmium plating in the bore of the
tie-down hole had disappeared and that it was also degrading on the outside of
the hole. Besides replacement of the failed drag beam, it was recommended to
(a) inspect all other drag beams in the fleet at regular intervals, (b) replace any
cracked ones, and (c) check the feasibility of refurbishing uncracked but corroded
drag beams.

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Metal Matrix Composites

Phillip J. Doorbar, Stephen Kyle-Henney, in Comprehensive Composite Materials II,
2018

4.19.3.2 Non-Aeroengine Applications

Terrestrially these applications have tended to arise from the airframe and landing
gear areas where there is a strong drive to reduce the weight of large components.
Space requirements tend to be more varied with applications potentially providing
more low-rate and niche opportunities for MMCs.3

Landing gear is between 3 and 5% of an aircraft’s dry mass, lighter weight compo-
nents therefore provide a significant drive for the use of TiMMCs. United States
based MMC programs explored the manufacture and testing of various landing gear
components in the 1980s and 1990s. This experience lead on to the first successful
flight demonstration by SP aerospace (now GKN) in the Netherlands, who developed
a TiMMC lower drag brace for an F16 fighter landing gear in 2003. The composite
part produced by SMI (formally Textron specialty materials) in the United States
using the plasma spray process26 was machined and flight tested in the Netherlands.
Overall six landings were made by the Royal Netherlands Air Force reported to
be from soft to very hard with the MMC part behaving as expected.30 The weight
savings were reported to be around 40–45% when compared to a conventional steel
component, however, costs were about three times higher.31,32

Lighter weight landing gear also reduces structural loads on the wings and wing
box of an aircraft allowing further mass reduction. Component development work
continued in the United Kingdom through the integrated wing program (2007–12)
aimed at Airbus A320 applications. This was co-funded by the Technology Strategy
Board (now Innovate United Kingdom) and led by Messier-Dowty (now Safran-Land-
ing-Systems) and Airbus United Kingdom. This program focused on two component
types, hydraulic actuator piston rods and side stays, both of which were successfully
manufactured in titanium composite by TISICS (Figs. 29 and 30).

Fig. 29. Lower side stay component for Airbus A320 (integrated wing program).
Fig. 30. Nose landing gear component for the Airbus A320 (integrated wing pro-
gram).

These components have been manufactured using the fiber foil process route under
clean room atmosphere controlled conditions for the critical assembly stages of the
process. The overall process route is outlined in Fig. 31.

Fig. 31. Outline of TISICS TiMMC landing gear tube manufacturing process.

The piston rods are currently steel to carry the tensile, compressive and pressure
loads with chrome plating for wear and corrosion resistance. TiMMC was able to
provide the performance as well as the corrosion resistance needed for this appli-
cation. Static load tests of the main gear piston rod successfully met expectations
and fatigue testing of the reinforced bearing eye achieved three times the life
requirement. In addition the lower side stay work also considered new component
geometries to address issues such as wind noise from the baseline I-beam de-
sign. A tubular design was conceived and produced, incorporating near net shape
manufacturing techniques into the process. Overall a mass reduction of 20% was
achieved for an equivalent geometry design but up to 40% reduction was predicted
for a fully optimized design. Similar weight benefits were also demonstrated by SPP
(Sumitomo Precision Products) in Japan in a study to manufacture prototype landing
gear parts.33 They showed a 32% weight saving could be made against a conventional
300M component but production cost predictions were twice that of the steel part.

An excellent overview of the variety of space applications for MMCs up to 2001 is

given by Suraj Rawal of Lockheed Martin in his Journal of Metals article.3 This includes
details of the early boron/aluminum Space Shuttle struts, the graphite aluminum
(P100/6061Al) Hubble space telescope high gain antenna boom and also fabrication
trials of reinforced magnesium alloy (P100/AZ91C) tubes.
Overall commercial work has been focused on space systems where both mass and
component size impact costs. Launch costs of £20 k to £50 k/kg are typical. Smaller
and lighter satellites may, enable the use of smaller cheaper launchers, allow multiple
satellites on one launcher, or simply reduce fuel burn to extend mission life. All of
these have the potential to enhance profitability for end users and therefore provide
a drive to adopt new technology.

Some of the recent developments are also addressing the requirements provided by
the latest round of reusable space vehicles. The reaction engines Skylon space plane
concept (Fig. 32) uses a truss structure fuselage frame around the fuel tanks and
payload bay. This structure is over 80 m long and 6 m in diameter and uses rings
with diagonal shear members between each ring (Fig. 33).

Fig. 32. Illustration of Skylon space plane on takeoff (courtesy of Reaction Engines
Ltd.).

Fig. 33. Skylon fuselage structure (courtesy of Reaction Engines Ltd.).

The key requirements are low mass and size to maximize fuel and payload space.
Reaction engines have successfully tested a series of thin walled TiMMC truss tubes
(Fig. 34, typically 20 mm diameter×0.6 mm wall thickness) to loads of up to 5000 kg
before failure. Recent cost reduction and modeling work in the TICCRAMM program
has provided confidence that the 171,000 truss tubes required for each plane could
be made economically in the future.

Fig. 34. Thin walled TiMMC Skylon TiMMC test truss struts (courtesy of Reaction
Engines Ltd.).

Developments for use on satellites are also underway and the high mechanical
strength of fiber reinforced titanium and aluminum composites offer potential for
use in pressurized tanks. SiC fiber reinforced titanium composite xenon gas tanks
(Fig. 35) have been designed, manufactured and tested in a short 6 month evaluation
program between TISICS and SSTL (Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd.).
Fig. 35. TiMMC satellite propellant tanks, (a) as produced and (b) after pressure
testing.

The 480 bar target minimum burst pressure was exceeded (>535 bar achieved) and
failure was by a rupture mechanism resembling normal metal tank failure rather
than by a fragmented burst typical of a polymer composite tank. Further trials with
manual layup of both fiber reinforced aluminum and titanium matrix systems are
showing good correlation between FEA predictions and physical test results. Rig
testing continues to show rupture via a “leak-before-burst” failure mechanism which
is considered safe for satellite systems.

The use of a metal composite in this pressure vessel application also has the
advantage that the matrix forms a hermetic seal for the contents removing the need
for a separate liner as is used in other composite overwrapped pressure vessels
(COPVs). The potential to incorporate inlet/outlet ports and mounting fixtures by
diffusion bonding as an integral part of the MMC processing provides additional
fabrication benefits over both conventionally forged metal and COPV tanks.

Robotic arms are also an area receiving interest as the high stiffness and lighter
weight from use of an MMC means improved reach and more precise operation
can be achieved. Prototype parts have been produced by TISICS (Fig. 36) leading up
to demonstration in the lightweight advanced robotic arm demonstrator (LARAD)
project (Fig. 37). LARAD is a UK Space Agency project led by Airbus Aerospace
and Defense Ltd. The incorporation of ALM titanium joints in the design, allowed
optimization of the load path, thereby improving strength whilst minimizing mass.
Demonstration trials started at Harwell in autumn 2015.34

Fig. 36. TiMMC robot arm tube and end fitting trial ahead of lightweight advanced
robotic arm demonstrator (LARAD) demonstration.
Fig. 37. Lightweight advanced robotic arm demonstrator (LARAD) robot arm.

Titanium composites provide a high strength and stiffness material for robotic arms.
Diffusion bonding allows hinge joints to be integrated maintaining parent metal
strength with short, low volume, and low mass interface regions. The titanium outer
surface offers benefits where there is a risk of moisture, elevated temperature, or
surface damage. In some applications electrical conductivity and a nonmagnetic
surface offer additional functionality.

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Wear
Kannadi Palankeezhe Balan, in Metallurgical Failure Analysis, 2018

11.3.1 Background
During routine sortie of an aircraft the port main wheel came out from the main
landing gear assembly. Due to the dislodgement of the wheel the brake unit had
sustained the entire landing load on the port side.
The components of the main landing gear assembly viz. the wheel hub, the axle
(oleo), and the brake unit were received for failure investigation. The assembly had
completed 426 h of service after last overhaul, while its total technical life was not
mentioned. After last lubrication, the assembly had completed 31 landings and 7 h
flying.

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Design and Applications

Ric Abbott, in Comprehensive Composite Materials, 2000

6.09.12 Crashworthiness
Safety in the event of an emergency landing has proven to be outstanding. A
nose landing gear collapsed during a landing of one of the Starship test airplanes;
the airplane was flown home, repaired, and was returned to service in 10 days.
The repairs were made by procuring blank parts from the factory, cleaning out
the damaged areas, and splicing replacement sections into place by bonding and
riveting.

An even more spectacular event in occurred in Denmark in February 1994. Starship

number 35 ran off the runway into a snow bank at approximately 130 mph. The right
hand main gear collapsed, the other main gear and the nose gear were sheared off (
not torn out, but the aluminum forgings severed) from the force of hitting the snow
bank at high speed. The right hand wing was dragged along the ground and, as a
result, suffered damage to the flaps, vertical stabilizer, and rudder. The nose section
was damaged by the nose gear being severed and forced upward into the structure.
The cabin underbelly was crushed through skidding along without the landing gear.
Crew and passengers were, of course, well shaken, but were otherwise unhurt. No
fuel was spilled, no seats came loose, no windshield or window glass was broken,
or even cracked, and the cabin was undistorted enabling the cabin door to open
normally. The crew and passengers unbuckled their seat belts and walked away.

A team was sent to survey the damage and list the replacement parts needed. Later
the airplane was repaired on-site by a crew of five technicians plus one engineer, one
inspector, and one service manager. Some parts with localized damage were repaired
using techniques published in the SRM which allows damage to be repaired on-site
by trained service staff. For more extensive damage, blank parts were delivered
from the factory and were used as stock from which to cut replacement panels that
were then bonded and/or mechanically fastened into place. Aircraft systems such as
landing gear, propellers, hydraulics, antennae, etc., were replaced with factory parts.
The repairs were finished and the airplane rolled out for flight test in July 1994, much
to the surprise of the insurance company and the Danish aviation authorities who
were convinced that a metal airplane would have totaled by such an incident.

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Ultrahigh Strength Steels

Krishnan K. Sankaran, Rajiv S. Mishra, in Metallurgy and Design of Alloys with
Hierarchical Microstructures, 2017

6.1 Ultrahigh Strength Steels for Airframe Structures

The performance requirements for components such as gears in helicopter trans-
missions, engine bearings, and airplane landing gear cylinders can generally be
satisfied in a structurally efficient and cost-effective way only by ultrahigh strength
(UHS) steels. These materials are also used in aircraft for flap tracks, actuating
components, fasteners, and high-pressure hydraulic tubing. These critical appli-
cations require very high strength materials for structures often designed with
severe space constraints. Landing gear structures need materials with high static
and fatigue strength, high stiffness, good toughness, and resistance to environment
and wear while also meeting the need for low cost and weight [1]. Components
requiring materials with the highest strength generally use the medium carbon,
low alloy steels 4340 and 300M, which can be heat treated to tensile strength levels
approaching 2000 MPa ( 300 ksi), although they are typically used at lower strength
levels and higher toughness.

The use of steels in commercial airplanes is primarily for landing gear components
and shows a small decrease for the 777 and 787 compared with earlier planes and
a larger decrease for the Airbus A350 (see Table 4.1). As discussed in the previous
chapter, near- titanium alloys have begun to replace UHS steels in many landing
gear parts beginning with the Boeing 777. Ti–10V–2Fe–3Al with a minimum tensile
strength of 1193 MPa (173 ksi) replaced several parts using 4340M with a strength
of about 1930 MPa (280 ksi), thereby saving 580 kg (1279 lbs) per plane in addition
to providing superior corrosion resistance and lower maintenance costs [2]. The cost
of substitution arising from the higher cost of titanium alloys needs to be justified
for the weight saving benefits. The 787 uses Ti–5Al–5V–5Mo–3Cr due to its slightly
higher strength and processing advantages.

Steels with tensile strength levels greater than about 1400 MPa ( 200 ksi) are con-
sidered the UHS type, with many having tensile strength as high as about 2400 MPa
(350 ksi). As seen by their replacement with titanium alloys, many landing gear parts
do not require materials with such high strength and for which steels such as Hy-Tuf
with strengths lower than 1400 MPa (200 ksi) can be used. UHS steels can reduce
component profile and space requirements and when used in flap tracks, carriages,
and actuating components can contribute to optimizing wing shape and improving
airplane performance [3]. For demanding applications in landing gear components,
for example, in naval aircraft operating in a carrier environment, the medium carbon,
low alloy steels (MC-LA) do not possess adequate toughness and resistance to
environment, and high alloy steels like Aermet 100 with better properties are used.
However, these high alloy steels are not the stainless type and require corrosion
protection coatings like the MC-LA steels. The in-service performance of these steels
is improved by surface treatments and cold working, which are often tailored for
individual components and are not discussed in this chapter. The focus of this
chapter is on the metallurgy of alloys in current use in airframes and those being
developed with better properties, particularly by computational design.

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Fatigue failures of aeronautical items

Manuele Bernabei, ... Mikael Amura, in Handbook of Materials Failure Analysis with
Case Studies from the Aerospace and Automotive Industries, 2016

1 Introduction
The incident aircraft is a single-engine, fighter bomber, and reconnaissance airplane.
In particular, its landing gear has two main wheels and one nose wheel. During a
pre-flight taxiing, one of the main wheels of landing gear failed. Following inspec-
tions revealed a crack located at the hub housing of the main wheel (Figure 5.19).
The wheel is made of 2014-T6 aluminum alloy forging containing a cold-mounted
bearing. A nut fitted at the prescribed torque value tightens the wheel assembly.
The log-card of the assembly recorded a total life of 299 landings. It also reported
that the last eddy current inspection had been conducted at 241 landings. Evidence
was collected by visual examination (eye and optical microscopy), materials identi-
fication (chemical analysis, hardness testing, and metallography), and fracture sur-
faces microanalysis based on field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM)
equipped with an X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). Furthermore, finite
element analysis (FEA) and fatigue life assessment was carried out to confirm the
origin of fracture and to quantify the number of cycles to failure as well as the stress
acting at the time of fracture. Finally, all the recorded data were analyzed to improve
nondestructive technique (NDT) inspections by using ultrasounds instead of eddy
currents. Failure initiated at the bearing cup housing edge and propagated along the
hub housing. The crack grew to 30 mm in length and 10 mm in depth. No evidence
of material abnormal properties or maintenance defects was found. However, flaws
in the installation procedure were detected, as plastic deformations in the initiation
area showed. This acted as a stress concentration raiser when routine operative loads
were performed. Main wheel maintenance was based on eddy currents inspections
which were carried out at every third tyre replacement to minimize the risk of failure.
Nevertheless, the failure described here revealed that the NDTs were not reliable [3].

Figure 5.19. Fatigue crack in the AA2014 T6 AMX main wheel.

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Modeling of Processing–Microstruc-
ture–Properties Relationships
Krishnan K. Sankaran, Rajiv S. Mishra, in Metallurgy and Design of Alloys with
Hierarchical Microstructures, 2017

2.1.1 Physical Properties

Density is the most important physical property for material selection, unless pre-
cluded by constraints such as volume as in landing gear components, high cost,
or lack of acceptable levels of other properties as in magnesium alloys. Physical
properties such as heat and thermal conductivities and coefficients of thermal
expansion become important considerations, particularly for structural assemblies
made up of multiple material families. This is illustrated by the recent development
 of a high strength aluminum alloy with a higher value of electrical conductivity than
those of current alloys, for compatibility with carbon-reinforced polymer composite
materials in airframe structures [1].

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