Starch/Stärke 52 (2000) 439–449 439

Klanarong Srirotha, Cassava Starch Technology: The Thai Experience

Kuakoon Piyachomkwanb,
Sittichoke Wanlapatitc, Cassava starch is an important export commodity of Thailand, about 2 × 106 t are
Christopher G. Oatesd expected annually. Initially, cassava was mainly processed to meal and flour. Due to
the high market demand for cassava products, the Thai cassava starch industry was
established and has developed from small to large-scale with improved processing
a Department of Biotech- technology. At present, a production capacity of one factory is, on average, 200 t starch
nology, Faculty of Agro- per day. Transition from small to large-scale production was accompanied by varietal
Industry, Kasetsart development of root having high starch yield and technological improvement of starch
University, Bankok 10900,
production with shorter processing time and better starch quality. Most process tech-
Thailand
b Cassava and Starch nologies are still imported and adopted from those of other starches. The Thai cassa-
Technology Research va starch industry still encounters impediments, including high production cost, high re-
Unit, National Center for source consumption, starch loss, and adverse environmental impact especially sulfur,
Genetic Engineering and cyanide, solid and liquid waste. This industry continues to develop, in order to remain
Biotechnology (BIOTEC), internationally competitive.
Bangkok, Thailand
c Kasetsart Agricultural and Keywords: Cassava starch; Starch processing; Production figures
Agro-Industrial Product
Improvement Institute
(KAPI), Kasetsart
University, Bangkok
10900, Thailand
d Agro Food Resources
(Thailand), Co., Ltd.,
Bangkok, Thailand

1 Introduction large-scale starch processing industry. Transition from

Cassava or tapioca (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is the
third most important crop in Thailand after rice and sugar-
cane (total production of 24, 47 and 16 × 106 t with the
farm value of 4320, 630 and 520 million US $ for rice,
sugarcane and cassava, respectively in 1998; [1]). Cas-
sava was introduced to South Thailand from Malaysia
during the period 1786 to 1840, after this time it was grad-
small to large-scale processing was an evolutionary
process, but along the way, many small and medium-
scale cassava flour factories were lost. The few who sur-
vived the transition are now large-scale modern factories.
The combined starch production capacity of the 56 facto-
ries (48 are registered with the Thai Tapioca Flour Indus-
tries Trade Associations) in 1999 was 1.8 × 106 t, or 5% of
the global total (35 × 106 t) for all starches [2]. The struc-

ually distributed throughout the country. This crop is now
mainly cultivated in the Northeast, primarily in Nakhon
Ratchasima (57% of total root production), followed by
the Central plains (31% of total root production).
The first wave of cassava processing technology, from
Malaysia and Singapore, was for small-scale production
of meal and flour. Meal was prepared by dry milling sun-
dried cassava chips followed by sieving. Production of
cassava flour (also known as tapioca flour) involved wet
milling with a saw-tooth rasper, sedimenting the slurry on
a starch table, or in starch ponds, and sun drying. From its
inception, demand for cassava flour increased rapidly.
This was the main driving force for the formation of a
Correspondence: Klanarong Sriroth, Department of Biotech-
nology, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University, Bang-
kok 10900, Thailand. Phone/Fax: +662-940-5634; e-mail:
aapkrs@ku.ac.th
Reviews
tural changes of the Thai cassava industry are typical of
the development of this sector. Ultimately, this process
creates a processing capability that possesses all of the
advantages endowed by economies of scale. Processing
time has been reduced from 10 days to half an hour. Yet,
product quality is increased. This paper presents a review
of the cassava starch processing industry from the tech-
nology perspective.
2 Raw Material
Cassava is suited to the agronomic conditions of the pro-
duction areas in Thailand. Particularly, the excellent
drought tolerance of this plant allows it to be planted in al-
most all the soil types found in Thailand. Drought toler-
ance, together with a low input requirement, are responsi-
ble, in part, to the rapid expansion of the cassava planting
area from only 0.4 × 106 hectares in 1973 to 1.5 × 106
hectares in 1990 (with a shift of total fresh root production

© WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH, 69451 Weinheim, 2000 0038-9056/2000/1212-0439 $17.50+.50/0

440 Sriroth et al. Starch/Stärke 52 (2000) 439–449

Tab. 1. Global planting area and productivity of cassava from 6.3 to 20 × 106 t [3]). At present, 17 × 106 t of cassa-
in 1999. va root (10% of the global total; Tab. 1 [4]) is produced by
Countries Planting Total Yield per the combined efforts of three million farmers, who individ-
acreage production hectare ually own only a small plot of land (about 0.5 to 2 hectares),
[hectares] [t] [t/hectare] collectively this totals 1.1 × 106 hectares [5].

World 16,601,523 165,986,471 10.00 In Thailand, cassava is planted either November to Janu-
ary – “late rain crop” or February to April – “early rain
Asia 3,366,398 45,767,700 13.60
crop”. Weeds are controlled for the first 2 to 3 months,
China 230,065 3,650,903 15.87 and fertilizer (N-P-K = 15-7-18) is applied at the rate of
India 250,000 6,000,000 24.00 625 kg/hectare. Harvest is either during the early or late
rain period when roots are about 10 to 12 months old.
Indonesia 1,205,330 14,728,292 12.22
However, in practice, harvesting is either delayed or ad-
Philippines 210,000 1,786,710 8.51 vanced, a decision based on the prevailing root price.
Thailand 1,150,000 16,930,200 14.72 Fluctuation in cassava price is a common occurrence
governed by root supply and the world price for maize.
Vietnam 231,700 1,783,400 7.70
The average root price after currency devaluation in
Africa 10,851,947 91,285,877 8.41 1997/98 until present is about 0.85 Baht/kg (1 US $ = 39
Congo 2,260,000 17,891,000 7.91 Baht). Roots, after harvesting are transported to the fac-
tory, one half for chip/pellet and the other half for starch
Ghana 629,680 7,171,450 11.39 production. Transportation is usually undertaken by mid-
Mozambique 1,015,000 5,639,000 5.56 dlemen, farmers do not have the resources to transport
Nigeria 3,050,000 33,060,000 10.84 roots. Delivery is within one day. As root prices are fluctu-
ating daily, the farmer’s decision to harvest is based on
Tanzania 693,190 6,128,000 8.84
prevailing root price, transportation cost and their need to

Tab. 2. Factors influencing starch productivity and quality.

Factor Influence on Reference
1. Genotype factor root yield 6, 14
root starch content 6, 14
root cyanide content 14, 36
amylose content 37
swelling power 37
2. Environmental factor
– Rainfall root yield 9, 14, 38, 39
root starch content 11, 12, 14, 39
root cyanide content 12, 14, 36, 40
granule size distribution 7, 11, 12, 17
swelling power 7, 11, 12
paste viscosity 13, 14, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44
pasting temperature 11, 12, 13, 14, 41, 43, 44
gelatinization temperature 39, 45
– Soil characteristic root yield 46
root cyanide content 36
– Soil temperature amylose content 17
gelatinization temperature 39
3. Farm management
– Irrigation root yield 47
cyanide 36
– Fertilizer application root yield 47, 48, 49
cyanide 15, 40
– Intercropping system root yield 47, 50
– Weed control root yield 47, 49, 50
Starch/Stärke 52 (2000) 439–449 Cassava Starch Technology: The Thai Experience 441

repay loans. As a rule, roots delivered to starch factories Tab. 3. Quality standards of Thai cassava starch estab-
are in areas where transportation distances (and costs) lished by Ministry of Industry.
are low, this ensures raw material freshness.
Qualifications Grade
Productivity (root yield and root starch content) in fresh 1 2 3
roots is variable and influenced by many factors (Tab. 2).
Varietal characteristics, in part, can govern starch produc- Moisture content
tivity. Hence, the main purpose of cassava varietal im- [% maximum] 13 14 14
provement in Thailand is to increase starch yield. Other Starch [% minimum by
selection criteria for varietal improvement include early polarimetric method] 97.5 96 94
harvest time, stake quality, root shape with white flesh Ash [% maximum] 0.15 0.3 0.5
and tolerance to pests and diseases. Initially, little varietal Acid insoluble ash
improvement was practiced as cassava was grown only [% maximum] 0.05 0.10 0.15
in a limited area. As the planting area and importance of Protein [% maximum] 0.3 0.3 0.3
cassava increased, varietal improvement became impor- Fiber [cm3 in 50 g starch
tant. Parent stock was derived mainly from local collec- before drying] 0.2 0.5 1.0
tions and clonal selection. In 1975, the cassava variety pH 4.5 to 7 3.5 to 7 3.0 to 7
Rayong 1 was officially released [6]. The second phase of
Residue on 150 µm sieve
cassava varietal improvement was mostly with local hy- [% maximium] 1 3 5
bridization. This work was carried out in collaboration be-
tween Rayong Field Crops Research Center in the De-
partment of Agriculture, Kasetsart University and the Thai mediately prior to harvest, this is because cyanogenic
Tapioca Development Institute. Between 1975 and 1994, compounds become concentrated in times of water
seven improved varieties with desired characteristics stress. Soil fertility influences cyanide content as well as
were released for industrial use, these included Rayong root production. Application of potassium fertilizer is
1, Rayong 3, Rayong 5, Rayong 60, Rayong 90, Sriracha advantageous to root quality, stimulating dry matter and
1 and Kasetsart 50 [6–7]. Thailand has an efficient exten- starch content, whilst decreasing the cyanogenic content
sion service, which ensures the new varieties are dissem- and thus the bitterness of the roots [15]. Other environ-
inated to farmers to replace the traditional local variety. mental factors such as temperature, air humidity and light
Rayong 5 and Kasetsart 50 are the varieties recommend- intensity are reported to affect root quality [16–17]. Vari-
ed to farmers for industrial purposes. There has been no ability in root quality and the physico-chemical properties
genetic manipulation of cassava in Thailand. of extracted starch ultimately influence the quality of
starch-made products, this is a constraint for industrial
users of cassava starch. Understanding and knowing the
3 Cassava Starch Quality history of the raw material is important, therefore collect-
Thai cassava starch is traded based on quality which is ing planting data and monitoring the management of the
classified to various levels and specified by customer’s crop is suggested as a means to upgrade cassava starch
need. The standard of cassava starch quality for each quality.
grade was established in 1978 by the Ministry of Industry
(Tab. 3; [8]). As each of the quality grades has its own 4 Manufacturing Process
market, the standard has not included viscosity and 4.1 Root preparation
microbial analysis. The most important quality standard is
that cassava starch contains no color, no odor nor any of Despite the introduction of mechanization, roots are
a few other impurities. Starch paste provides high viscos- mainly manually harvested – a legacy of the small farm
ity with transparent appearance. sizes. Roots are transported to factories by small trucks
or trolleys. At the factory gate 5 kg-samples are weighed
Quality of cassava starch is variable, being affected by in water using a Rieman balance, a method adopted from
many factors (Tab. 2). Both starch quantity and quality are the potato industry for estimating root starch content [18].
sensitive to the conditions at and immediately after plant- A Rieman balance, in fact, measures root apparent densi-
ing. Drought during the early establishment period results ty from root weight in air and in water. The relationship be-
in roots with low dry weight and starch content [9]. Also tween apparent density and starch content in cassava
important for starch quality are the conditions immediate- root is highly correlated, this has been verified using roots
ly prior to harvest. Onset of rain after an extended dry pe- produced under different growth conditions; Colombia
riod results in starch with different characteristics [11–14]. [19] and Thailand [20]. Note there is still disparity between
Root toxicity is also influenced by growth conditions im- the different methods for measuring starch content [21].
442 Sriroth et al.
For trading purpose, root price is based on root starch
content. Root purchasing using this system is well ac-
cepted, as the farmers are rewarded for high root starch
content. Starch content above 25% is rewarded; each 1%
increase leads to a 5% higher payment. Unfortunately, for
the farmer, for each 1% drop in starch content a 5% price
reduction is imposed. In general, root starch content
varies in the range of 20 to 30%, as estimated by the bal-
ance. On arrival at the factory, roots are deposited onto a
cement floor for short-term storage. Generally, factories
will only purchase sufficient roots to fulfill a daily crushing
capacity of 600 to 800 t.
Roots are presented for processing by transferring to a
root hopper (5 m3). The roots are moved onto chain con-
veyors and transported with a velocity of 20 to 40 m/min.
Each conveyor set has a carrying capacity of about 15 to
20 t of roots per hour. Soil and sand are removed as the
roots (15 to 20 t/h) pass through a cylindrical root sieve,
dimensions (W × L × H) of 1.20 × 1.50 × 40 m, rotating at
10 to 15 rpm. Soil, sand, pieces of broken peels and im-
purities pass through the sieve. Roots after sieving are
transported into a water chamber where they are washed
and moved by a paddle blade rotating at 10 rpm. Water
used for washing is re-circulated from later processing
stages. Capacity of washing is 15 to 20 t of roots per hour.
Consequently, for a standard sized factory with a starch
capacity of 200 t per day (requiring 700 to 800 t of roots),
two sets of root hopper, root sieve and washers must be
installed.
4.2 Rasping
Washed roots are chopped with a cutting blade running at
250 rpm, driven by a 10 HP electric motor. The small root
pieces are gravimetrically fed to the raspers. Popular are
simple local made saw-tooth raspers, which consist of a
drum (diameter 77.5 cm) with 144 blades on its surface;
210 teeth are distributed along the 30 cm length of the
blade. Attempts have been made to optimize the drum
speed, but usually 1,000 rpm is adopted by most factories
in Thailand. The domestically produced rasper operates
at a capacity of 5 to 6 t of chopped roots per hour. About 6
to 8 raspers are installed to support each chopper. Nei-
ther oxidation nor discoloration takes place during rasp-
ing. Liquid recycle from the process is fed along with
chopped root into the rasper.
As factories prepare to move up the quality ladder, some
are planning to install higher speed and capacity raspers
such as HOVEX (HOVEX Engineering, Veendam, the
Netherlands). Some are trying with the local modified
higher speed raspers.
4.3 Extraction
Early in the modernization phase, cassava starch proces-
sors commonly incorporated a single stage decanter for
Starch/Stärke 52 (2000) 439–449
fruit water separation; this was adopted from the potato
starch processing industry. However, many processors
(about 50%) believe that the levels of protein and other
impurities are too low to warrant the use of a decanter.
The decanters commonly installed in factories are Alfa
Laval NX-418 (Alfa Laval Co., Ltd., Sweden) and Koku-
san Seiko SD-16DSE (Kokusan Seiko Co., Ltd., Japan).
The fruit water is used for root washing or is directly dis-
charged as wastewater. The material balance and flow
diagrams of a starch factory working with and without a
decanter are presented in Figs. 1 and 2. Fresh rasped
root slurry from the rasper (if no decanter) is pumped
through a series of extractors, from coarse to fine. The
extractors are continuous centrifugal perforated baskets,
dimensions (W × L × H ) of 1.14 × 1.36 × 2.10 m, operat-
ing at 800 rpm. The capacity of this stage is 0.75 to 1.50 t
dry solid per hour. Pulp from the coarse extractor is re-
peatedly re-extracted using the same screen aperture (35
to 40 mesh or 355 to 425 µm) as in the first pass, until
minimal starch content of the pulp is achieved. Moisture
content of the pulp is then reduced by a screw press and
the pulp finally discharged out of the process. The mois-
ture content of pressed pulp is about 60 to 70% and
starch content about 45 to 55% (dry basis). High starch
content of the pulp reflects both low efficiency of the rasp-
ing stage and composition of the cell membrane and cell
walls. Composition of polysaccharides, pectic substances
and non-starch polysaccharides are in turn influenced by
variety and environmental factors. Fig. 3 shows starch
granules trapped in a ruptured cell, present in discharged
pulp [22].
Fig. 3. Starch granules trapped in discharged pulp of cas-
sava starch process.
Starch slurry exiting the coarse extractor contains a large
amount of fine fiber which must be removed in the fine ex-
tractor. The extractors are equipped with a filter cloth and
screen with an aperture of 100 (150 µm) to 120 (125 µm)
mesh. Fine extraction is repeated with a finer screen
aperture (140 to 200 mesh). The extraction is normally
completed by a series of coarse and fine extractors. Ex-
Starch/Stärke 52 (2000) 439–449
traction is a continuous process; fresh pulp slurry is fed
into the top of the first extractor together with water and
SO2 water (for fine extractors). In some factories, extra
screening equipment, such as a vibrating screener (150
to 250 mesh screen or 63 to 106 µm screen) from
SWECO Co., Ltd. (USA) or local manufacturers (Bangna
Steel Work Ltd. and S.W. Multitech Starch Co., Ltd.), are
installed to remove fine fiber from the slurry. During trans-
port to each extraction stage starch slurry is passed
through a hydrocyclone to ensure complete removal of
sand. Extra filtration equipment, such as rotary brush
strainer, is installed to protect from the passage of a
starch clump. Strainers from Westfalia Separator Industry
GmbH, Germany (SBB100 and BSB200) and S.W. Multi-
tech Starch (Thailand) are commonly used in Thai facto-
ries.
Cassava Starch Technology: The Thai Experience 443
Fig. 1. Mass balance of cassava starch
manufacturing process in a starch factory
with a decanter [unit:t/d].
4.4 Starch separation and dewatering
Starch slurry received from fine extraction (with or without
vibrating screener) has a concentration of 10 to 17 °Bé.
Water is then separated from the starch slurry, increasing
the concentration to 18 to 20 °Bé, using a separator.
The common separators are of the two-phase nozzle type
such as TX 310 or TX 612 from Alfa Laval (Sweden) or
DA30 or SDA 70 from Westfalia Separator Industry
GmbH (Germany). Separators from Chinese and Japan-
ese manufacturers are also installed in some factories. To
increase the concentration from 10 to 17 °Bé up to 18 to
20 °Bé, either two stages of separation or re-circulation
are required. The installation of the first separation stage
between the fine extractors is also normally practiced in
Thai factories (Fig. 1).
444 Sriroth et al. Starch/Stärke 52 (2000) 439–449

Fig. 2. Mass balance of cassava

starch manufacturing process in a
starch factory without a decanter [unit:
t/d].

Three-phase separators such as SDA 60 and SDA 130 of circulating liquid, the probability of acid formation due to
Westfalia Separator Industry GmbH (Germany) have microbial activity is increased. An alternative process of
been introduced into some factories. Three-phase sepa- dewatering, namely high-pressure filtration has been
rators help to reduce the number of processing stages and
water consumption [18]. Only two factories in Thailand Tab. 4. Performance of starch slurry dewatering by a con-
are using a hydrocyclone series for starch separation. ventional centrifuge from a typical cassava starch factory.
Measurement Value (a)
4.5 Dewatering
Quantity of filtrate [L] 235.0 ± 46.0
Normally dewatering is done by a horizontal centrifuge, Dry solid in filtrate [kg] 26.51 ± 10.42
with baskets of 1.20 m diameter and 0.65 m length, oper- Dry solid in circulation [%](b) 14.63 ± 3.43
ated at 900 rpm. The capacity of a typical centrifuge is Filtration rate [kg m–2h–1] 363.65 ± 32.09
1.5 t dry solid per hour. The filter cloth has a specific Cake weight [kg] 239.0 ± 33.0
weight of 2,440 g/m2 and total filter area of about 2.45 m2. Dry solid in cake [%](c) 85.37 ± 3.43
One cycle (about 10 min.) of dewatering discharges about
Cake moisture [%] 37.87 ± 2.06
240 kg cake. Moisture content in the starch cake is about
(a) Values are the mean ± S.D. of four determinations.
35 to 40%. A typical factory with capacity of 200 t starch
(b) Values are the ratio of dry solid in the circulating filtrate to total
per day needs about 8 to 10 dewatering centrifuges. The
dry solid of starch slurry having entered the dewatering cen-
performance of a typical dewatering centrifuge is shown trifuge.
in Tab. 4. In a conventional system, the dry solid content (c) Values are the ratio of dry solid in starch cake to total dry
in the filtrate is high (Tab. 4). Thus, by using the filtrate as solid of starch slurry having entered the dewatering centrifuge.
Starch/Stärke 52 (2000) 439–449 Cassava Starch Technology: The Thai Experience 445

studied [23]. The results are promising. The high-pres- storage time for starches are different, influence of sulfur
sure filtration (Larox Oy, Finland) is now applied in some dioxide content is well described by a non-linear regres-
modified starch factories. sion model (R 2 ≥ 0.95). Starch with extremely high level of
sulfur dioxide (190 mg/kg), after seven month of storage,
4.6 Drying presented a peak viscosity reduction from 417 to 360
RVU (3 g starch at 14% moisture content in 25 mL water).
A pneumatic conveying dryer, known as flash dryer, is
commonly used in Thai starch factories. There are two
groups of operation depending on the source of thermal
6 Energy and Water Consumption
energy, namely simple hot air or thermo-oil. Using the hot 6.1 Energy Consumption
air as a heat exchanger is causing problems in terms of
There are two main sources of energy consumed in a
temperature fluctuation, therefore many factories are
starch factory, electrical and thermal energy. The con-
switching to use thermo-oil as a heat exchanger. The in-
sumption of the two is 25 and 75%, respectively. The re-
stalled thermo-oil boilers are from Scherrer (Germany),
quirement of electrical and thermal energy for production
Konus Keisel (Germany), Fr. K. Bay GmbH (Germany)
of 1 kg starch is in the range of 0.320 MJ to 0.939 MJ and
and S.W. Multitech Starch Co., Ltd. (Thailand). Normally,
1.141 MJ to 2.749 MJ, respectively. The average total
about 100 t/h of hot air (170 to 200 °C) is blown into the
energy consumption for production of 1 kg starch is
drying tube of the flash dryer. Starch cake with a moisture
2.125 MJ [28]. In 1995, the National Energy Policy Office
content of about 38% is blown with hot air and dried to
of Thailand (NEPO) commissioned Energistics (Australia)
12% moisture within 6 s. The throughput of one normal
Pty Ltd. to investigate the energy consumption in Thai
dryer is 8 to 10 t dried starch per hour. Temperature fluc-
cassava starch factories operating in the milling season
tuation remains a problem, often due to variation in the
(1995/96). The report (Job No. 615) is summarized in
moisture content and feeding rate of cake entering the
Tab. 5 [29].
dryer. At this range of moisture and temperature, heat-
moisture treatment can be a problem. Starch quality ulti- Tab. 5. Electrical energy consumption in cassava starch
mately is affected. Loss through the two cyclones is also manufacturing process.
problematic. Venturi scrubbers to trap this loss have been
installed in some factories, 37.5% of the starch loss, or Electrical energy
consumption [%]
2.7% of total starch produced, can be recovered [24].
Group I (a) Group II (b)
5 Storage Washing chopping at rasping 27 30–32
Starch discharged out of the dryer is of low moisture con- Drying 16 8–10
tent, about 9 to 12%. It is also dusty. Cassava starch is Extraction units 15 12–15
packed into 30 or 50 kg double layer polyethylene bags or Dewatering units 15 15–18
linen cloth jumbo size (600 kg). The 50-kg starch bags are Separation units 13 13–15
laid on each other in the storehouse. A pile of bags up to Pulp screw press 5 4– 5
4 to 5 m (20 to 30 bags) causes no problem for storage in
Decanter 5 –
short time.
Process water treatment 4 n.a.
Effects of storage of cassava starch for three weeks un- (a)Manufacturing process with a decanter.
der different conditions of temperature (20 and 30 °C) and (b)Manufacturing process without a decanter.
relative humidity (22, 52 and 93%) has been studied [25]. n.a. = not applicable.
Relative humidity seems to negatively influence the flow
properties of the starch. Total water uptake and crystallini-
6.2 Water consumption
ty are apparently not affected. Storage of cassava starch
for four weeks at 22, 50, 52, 80 and 92% relative humidi- Water consumption is a serious problem for the cassava
ty and 30 ± 2 °C has been investigated [26]. Paste viscos- starch manufacturers. Because of the need of processors
ity values of all samples were the same. However, pro- to be close to cassava production areas, and that these
longed storage (0 up to 7 months) under ambient condi- areas are at high elevations and subjected to long
tion (30 °C and 53% relative humidity) of cassava starch drought periods, water supply becomes a critical factor.
that contains sulfur dioxide (0, 153 and 190 mg sulfur Processors often resort to using surface and ground wa-
dioxide/kg starch) led to a decrease in peak viscosity, ter. Before use, water is treated by passing through a
which varied depending on sulfur dioxide content in sand filter and suspended solids are sedimented with
starch [27]. Changes in peak viscosity as a function of alum. A routine check is done in some factories, but only
446 Sriroth et al.
for turbidity and water hardness. No problem with water
quality has been reported. Sulfur dioxide water is used in
the extraction process. It is prepared by burning sulfur
(about 2.50 kg per ton starch) and spraying the process
water on the sulfur smoke. Sulfur dioxide in starch alters
the granule stability, especially to enzyme hydrolysis [30].
The amount of water used for the production of 1 t of
starch is about 10 m3 (Fig. 1 and 2). However, a range of
10 to 30 m3 of process water utilization for one ton of
starch is common. It is obvious that more washing (i.e.
more water), improves the starch quality.
7 Production Cost
The production cost for 1 t of cassava starch, in most
starch factories, varies depending on processing technol-
ogy. In general, costs are mainly from raw material, this
accounts for as much as 80% of the total production cost.
The remainder of the costs is for energy, labor and other
operational expenses as detailed in Fig. 4 [31]. Except
raw material, production cost of cassava starch is largely
determined by electricity and thermo-oil expenses for the
drying process. Furthermore, production cost of cassava
starch is also dependent on the desired quality of the fin-
ished product; this is dictated by the customer. Starch
used in non-food or the fermentation industry can have
low peak viscosity or low purity whereas the modified
starch industry as well as the food and pharmaceutical in-
dustries require starch of high peak viscosity or high puri-
ty. The higher the demanded purity of starch the greater
are the resources required in its production. Production of
Fig. 4. Production cost, excluding the raw material cost,
of cassava starch.
Starch/Stärke 52 (2000) 439–449
cassava starch with no cyanide content must use a de-
canter for fruit water removal, a large amount of process
water for the extraction and a drying process at higher
temperature to remove free cyanide residues. This is
reflected in higher production cost per ton of starch.
8 Current Problems in Thai Cassava
Starch Processing
8.1 Resource consumption
High water consumption is critical to cassava starch ex-
traction process, which is especially problematic in arid
regions. Typically, harvested roots are contaminated with
mud, soil and dirt, water is then required for initial root
cleaning prior to starch extraction. In the starch extraction
process, water is further used as the extracting medium
during grinding and washing. Hence, large quantities of
water, consumed in the extraction process, are converted
to wastewater. This must be treated before release to the
environment. After extraction and separation, starch is
still moist (35 to 40%) and must be dried. This process re-
quires a large amount of energy. To improve production
efficiency the high costs incurred from wastewater treat-
ment and energy must be reduced.
8.2 Starch loss
Maximal recovery of starch from the roots is the ultimate
goal of all starch factories. However, during processing a
significant amount of starch is lost. In their natural state,
starch granules in the plant cell are associated with a fi-
brous matrix, because of this it is difficult to liberate them.
The holding matrix must first be destroyed. In starch pro-
duction, a mechanical force is generally applied to disrupt
the fibrous matrix thereby facilitating starch liberation.
Even when mechanically rasped, the fibrous matrix is not
completely disrupted and some starch granules (up to
20% of total starch in roots) remain trapped inside [22].
This starch is not recovered and is discarded in the solid
waste. Starch contents as high as 15% are also lost in the
liquid phase after the separation process. This water is
usually recycled [23]. Appearance of starch in both liquid
recycle and waste can promote microbial contamination
that adversely affects production efficiency and environ-
mental pollution. Starch loss through the cyclone during
flash drying (1%) also occurs.
8.3 Impact to environment
8.3.1 Cyanogens
Cyanogenic glucosides are synthesized in the leaf and
stored in all tissues of the cassava plant, including the
root. Cyanoglucosides are not stable, they are easily de-
graded under high temperature or by enzyme activity
Starch/Stärke 52 (2000) 439–449 Cassava Starch Technology: The Thai Experience 447

[32–33]. Mechanical tissue damage leads to the break- Tab. 6. Characteristics of wastewater from representa-
down of the glucosides to free hydrocyanic acid (HCN). tives of cassava starch factories in Thailand.
Parameters Cassava starch factories
Arguedas and Cooke [34] have shown that in cassava
starch factories (sedimentation process) the total root 1 2 3 4 5
cyanide concentration of 400 to 680 ppm was reduced to
Production
only 1 to 4 ppm in the final starch product. Cyanide bal-
[t/d] 70 90 155 300 141
ance in the form of free cyanide (hydrocyanic acid) in a
Thai factory with capacity of 200 t starch per day shows Wastewater
that the input of cyanide is 33 kg/d and that discharged in [m3/d] 2,350 2,700 4,100 2,936 1,770
the wastewater 30 kg/d. Cassava starch as a final product Wastewater
contains about 0 to 1.4 ppm, the output of cyanide in [m3/t starch] 33.19 32.16 24.81 10.66 14
starch is therefore only 0 to 0.278 kg/d [35]. Max. capacity
[t/d] 200 100 200 300 150
8.3.2 Solid waste
Wastewater
Solid waste from the cassava manufacturing process is
pH 4.75 4.99 5.71 6.33 5.27
known as cassava pulp. The quantity of discharged pulp
(60 to 75% moisture content) is about 15 to 20% of the CODt [mg/L] 12,966 16,276 14,983 19,278 19,243
root weight (65 to 75% moisture content) being crushed. CODt
This is equivalent to about 1.5 to 2.0 × 106 t of pulp dis- [kg COD/d] 37,987 44,011 74,630 61,747 36,870
charged each year from the 10 × 106 t of root crushed. CODs [mg/L] 6,457 12,125 8,518 13,643 12,439
Discharged pulp still contains a high starch content
CODs
(around 50% dry basis). This is due to the inextricable
[kg COD/d] 18,918 32,786 42,428 43,685 23,833
starch that is trapped inside the cells (Fig. 3). Pulp is sun
dried to reduce the moisture content and used as filler in BODt [mg/L] 6,465 11,590 10,555 12,644 9,411
animal feed. Environmental problems from the solid BODt
waste occur only if the storage of pulp is badly managed, [kg BOD/d] 18,940 29,713 52,574 40,486 18,031
and it becomes exposed to rain. The usual scenario is
TS [mg/L] 13,209 16,413 12,549 19,844 18,047
that fermentation of the pulp is initiated causing the gen-
eration of obnoxious gases. TSS [mg/L] 7,445 7,965 5,790 6,993 7,826
CODt = Total COD. CODs = Soluble COD. BODt = Total BOD.
Utilization of pulp as a substrate for industrial fermenta- BODs = Soluble BOD. TS = Total solids. TSS = Total suspended
tion has been investigated, but to date there has been no solids.
success. An attempt to extract the starch from the pulp by
means of enzyme hydrolysis has been reported [22]. towns or villages, have had to improve their wastewater
Treatment of pulp with a mixture of cellulase and pecti- treatment process. These factories now employ closed-
nase increased starch recovery by 40%. type anaerobic reactors or an activated sludge process.
The composition of wastewater from five factories during
8.3.3 Liquid waste
the crushing year 1997 is shown in Tab. 6. Regulation of
Liquid waste is discharged from the factory at about 10 to the Ministry of Industry, Thailand, allows a BOD in dis-
30 m3 per ton of starch produced. This waste has a high charge wastewater of 20 mg/L.
biochemical and chemical oxygen demand (BOD and
COD) because of the carbohydrate content. In Thailand, 9 Conclusion
simple treatment of the wastewater is practiced, namely
degradation of the organic carbon loading in oxidation The prospective future of cassava in Thailand is still
ponds. The first stage of treatment is screening to remove promising with an increased demand of cassava starch
insoluble debris such as peel and woody parts. Waste- for industrial purposes. To remain internationally competi-
water is treated in an open type anaerobic pond followed tive, Thai cassava starch industries are still continuously
by oxidation ponds or aerated lagoons and finally a pol- developing in order to upgrade themselves in terms of
ishing pond before final discharge. Most of the factories processing technology and product quality. Production
prefer to build a “no discharge” system; this means more costs can be reduced using high performance rasping
ponds are prepared for retaining the treated wastewater. machinery, to increase throughput and reduce space and
A huge land area is required for wastewater because of maintenance. Starch content in the pulp is an indicator of
long retention time. Some factories, which are close to rasping efficiency; clearly, this needs to be improved. The
448 Sriroth et al.
extraction must be improved and water and sulfur dioxide
consumption decreased.
Bibliography
[1] Ministry of Agriculture and Co-Operatives (MOAC): Agricul-
tural Statistics of Thailand: Crop Year 1997/98. Agricultural
Statistics No. 31/2542. Center for Agricultural Information,
Office of Agricultural Economics, MOAC. G.N.T. Publisher
Ltd. Partnership, Bangkok 1999, 309p.
[2] H. DeBaere: Starch policy in the European Community.
Starch/Stärke 51(1999), 189–193.
[3] U. Cenpukdee, C. Thiraporn and S. Sinthuprama: Cassava
processing and utilization in Thailand, in: Product Develop-
ment for Root and Tuber Crops. Vol. I-Asia. Proceedings of
the International Workshop, held April 22–May 1, 1991 at
Leyte, Philippines. Eds. G. Scott, S. Wiersema, and P. I.
Ferguson, International Potato Center (CIP), Lima, Peru
1992, 384p.
[4] FAOSTAT: http://www.fao.org (1999).
[5] K. Sriroth, C. Rojanaridpiched, V. Vichukit, P. Suriyaphan,
and C. G. Oates: Present situation and future potential of
cassava in Thailand, in: The 6th Regional Cassava Work-
shop. February 21–26, 2000. Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam
2000.
[6] C. Rodjanaridpiched, A. Limsila, D. Supraharn, O. Boon-
seng, P. Poolsanguan, C. Tiraporn, and K. Kawano: Recent
progress in cassava varietal improvement in Thailand, in:
Cassava Breeding, Agronomy Research and Technology
Transfer in Asia. Proc. Fourth Regional Workshop held in
Trivandrum, India. November 2–6, 1993. Eds. R. H. Howel-
er, Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT),
Bangkok 1993, pp. 124–134.
[7] C. Rodjanaridpiched, S. Phongvutipraphan, P. Poolsan-
guan, K. Klakhaeng, V. Vichukit, and E. Sarobol: Varietal
improvement and dissemination by Kasetsart university, the
Thai Tapioca Development Institute, and the Dept. of Agri-
cultural Extension, in: Cassava Breeding, Agronomy and
Farmer Participatory Research in Asia. Proc. Fifth Regional
Workshop held in Danzhou, Hainan, China. November 3–8,
1996. Eds. R. H. Howeler, Centro Internacional de Agricul-
tura Tropical (CIAT), Bangkok 1996, pp. 55–68.
[8] Thai Industrial Standard Institute: Standard for Tapioca
Flour/Starch. UDC 664.272. Ministry of Industry, Bangkok
1978.
[9] J. R. Pardales and C. B. Esquibel: Effect of drought during
the establishment period on the root system development
of cassava. Jpn. J. Crop Sci. 65(1996), 93–97.
[10] I. Defloor, I. Dehing, and J. A. Delcour: Physico-chemical
properties of cassava starch. Starch/Stärke 50 (1998), 58–
64.
[11] K. Sriroth, K. Piyachomkwan, S. Chotineeranat, R. Chol-
lakup, V. Santisopasri, and C. G. Oates: Impact of drought
during early growth on cassava starch quality, in: Fourth In-
ternational Scientific Meeting Cassava Biotechnology Net-
work. November 2–6, 1998. Bahia, Brazil 1998.
[12] K. Sriroth, V. Santisopasri, K. Kurotjanawong, K. Piya-
chomkwan, and C. G. Oates: Comparison of varieties and
harvesting time on changes in extracted starch from cassa-
va roots, in: Agricultural Biotechnology: Laboratory, Field
and Market. Proceedings of the 4th Asia Pacific Conference
Starch/Stärke 52 (2000) 439–449
on Agricultural Biotechnology. Darwin. 13–16 July 1998.
Eds. P. J. Larkin. Canberra, UTC Publishing 1998,
pp. 391–394.
[13] K. Sriroth, V. Santisopasri, C. Petchalanuwat, K. Piya-
chomkwan, K. Kurotjanawong, and C. G. Oates: Cassava
starch granule structure-function properties : Influence of
time and conditions at harvest on four varieties of cassava
starch. Carbohydr- Polym. 38 (1999), 161–170.
[14] V. Santisopasri, K. Kurotjanawong, S. Chotineeranat, K.
Piyachomkwan, K. Sriroth, and C. G. Oates: Impact of water
stress on yield and quality of cassava starch. Industrial
Crops and Products. In press (2000).
[15] R. H. Howerler: Potassium nutrition of cassava, in: Potassi-
um in Agriculture. International Symposium in Atlanta, GA,
USA. July 7–10, 1985. ASA, CSSA, SSA., Madison, Wis-
consin, USA 1985, pp. 819–841.
[16] Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT): Cassa-
va Program Report 1987– 1989 (Working Document No.
91). Cali, Colombia 1993, 621 p.
{17] M. Asaoka, J. M. V. Blanshard, and J. E. Richard: Seasonal
effects on the physico-chemical properties of starch from
four cultivars of cassava. Starch/Stärke 43 (1991), 455–
459.
[18] W. Bergthaller, W. Witt, and H.-P. Goldau: Potato starch
technology. Starch/Stärke 51(1999), 235– 242.
[19] Z. Bainbridge, K. Tomlins, K. Wellings, and A. Westby:
Methods for Assessing Quality Characteristics of Non-Grain
Starch Staples (Part 2. Field Methods). Natural Resources
Institute, Chatham, UK 1996, 34 p.
[20] L. Neamfug, K. Piyachomkwan, and K. Sriroth: Simple
method in estimating starch content of fresh cassava and
sweet potato tuber (Technical Paper No. 009/1999). Cassa-
va and Starch Technology Research Unit, Bangkok 1999.
[21] L. Joshee: A study of analytical methods for the determina-
tion of total starch in fresh cassava and sweet potato. A
master thesis. Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok 1997,
57 p.
[22] K. Sriroth, R. Chollakup, S. Chotineeranat, K. Piyachomk-
wan, and C. G. Oates: Processing of cassava waste for im-
proved biomass utilization. Bioresource Technol. 71 (2000),
63–69.
[23] K. Sriroth, S. Wanlapatit, R. Chollakup, S. Chotineeranat, K.
Piyachomkwan, and C. G. Oates: An improved dewatering
performance in cassava starch process by a pressure filter.
Starch/Stärke 51 (1999), 383– 388.
[24] P. Meesapawong: Application of cost diagrams for tapioca
starch factory improvement. A master thesis. King
Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Bangkok
1995, 148 p.
[25] M. Nduele, A. Ludwig, and M. Van Ooteghem: Physico-
chemical properties of cassava starch stored at different
conditions of temperature and humidity. S.T.P. Pharma Sci-
ences 3 (1993), 362–368.
[26] K. Sriroth, S. Wanalapatit, and P. Wuttijamnong: Physico-
chemical changes in cassava starch stored at different hu-
midity and its sorption isotherm, in: Cassava, starch and
starch derivatives. Proceedings of the International Sympo-
sium held in Nanning, Guangxi, China. November 11–15,
1996. Eds. R. H. Howeler, C. G. Oates, and G. M. O’Brien.
Nanning, China 1996, pp. 181– 190.
Starch/Stärke 52 (2000) 439–449
[27] K. Sriroth, S. Wanlapatit, K. Piyachomkwan, and C. G.
Oates: Application of RVA to optimisation of sulfur dioxide
concentration in cassava starch manufacturing, in: Cereals
98. 48th Australian Cereal Chemistry Conference. August
17–20, 1998. Eds. L. O’Brien, A.B. Blakeney, A. S. Ross,
and C. W. Wrigley, Cairns, Queensland, Australia 1998, pp.
341–347.
[28] Anonymous: Processing of development in drying process
of cassava starch, in: Processing of development in drying
process of cassava starch, Faculty of Engineering, Chiang-
mai University. October 3, 1996. Sol Twin Towers, Bangkok,
Thailand 1996, 101 p.
[29] Anonymous: Energy cost saving opportunities in the tapio-
ca flour industry. Energetics Pty Ltd. (Australia), under com-
missioned of National Energy Policy Office, Thailand (Job
No. 615) 1995.
[30] K. Sriroth, S. Wanlapatit, K. Piyachomkwan, and C. G.
Oates: Improved cassava starch granule stability in the
presence of sulphur dioxide. Starch/Stärke 50 (1998),
466–473.
[31] The Thai Tapioca Flour Industries Trade Association: Per-
sonal communication (2000).
[32] G. Padmaja: Cyanide detoxification in cassava for food and
feed used. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
35 (1995), 299–339.
[33] M. A. Hughes, J. Hughes, S. Liddle, and Z. Keresztessy:
Biochemistry and molecular biology of cyanogenesis, in:
The Cassava Biotechnology Network Vol. II. Proceedings of
the Second International Scientific Meeting. August 22– 26,
1994. Bogor, Indonesia 1994, pp. 385–395.
[34] P. Arguedas and R. D. Cooke: Residual cyanide concentra-
tion during the extract of cassava starch. J. Food. Technol.
17 (1982) 251– 262.
[35] S. Wanlapatit, W. Chokchaipaisal, and K. Sriroth: Sulfur
dioxide and cyanide balances in cassava starch manufac-
turing process. Abstract in the 9th Annual Meeting of the
Thai Society for Biotechnology. November 18–19, 1997.
Nakhonratchasima, Thailand 1997, pp. 174.
[36] M. Bokanga, I. J. Ekanayake, A. G. O. Dixon, and M. C. M.
Porto: Genotype-environment interactions for cyanogenic
potential in cassava, in: Acta Horticulturae No. 375, Interna-
tional Workshop on Cassava Safety, held in Ibadan, Nige-
ria, March 1–4, 1994. Eds. M. Bokanga, A. J. A. Essers, N.
Poulter, H. Rosling and O. Tewe. P. J. Jansen b. v., Leiden,
The Netherlands 1994.
[37] S. N. Moorthy and T. Ramanujam: Variation in properties of
starch in cassava varieties in relation to age of the crop.
Starch/Stärke 38 (1986), 58–61.
[38] Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT): Cassa-
va Program 1980 Report. Cali, Colombia 1980, 93 p.
[39] I. Defloor, R. Swennen, M. Bokanga, and J. A. Delcour:
Moisture stress during growth affects the breadmaking and
gelatinisation properties of cassava (Manihot esculenta
Crantz) flour. J. Sci. Food Agri. 76 (1998), 233–238.
[40] Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT): Annual
Report 1990. Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical,
Cali, Columbia 1990.
[41] K. Kurotjanavong: Correlation of structure and properties of
cassava starch compared between varieties and harvesting
Cassava Starch Technology: The Thai Experience 449
date. A master thesis. Kasetsart Unviersity, Bangkok 1998,
146 p.
[42] C. G. Oates, V. Santisopasri, K. Kurotjanawong, C. Petcha-
lanuwat, and K. Sriroth: Influence of high rainfall at the time
of harvest on cassava starch properties. A paper presented
at International Conference on Biodiversity and Biore-
sources Conservation and Utilization held in Phuket, Thai-
land. November 23–27, 1997.
[43] C. Petchalanuwat: Effect of varieties, harvesting dates
rates of fertilizer on cassava yield and starch quality. A
Ph.D. dissertation. Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
1999, 117 p.
[44] C. Petchalanuwat, K. Sriroth, V. Vichukit, C. Rodjanarid-
piched, V. Pornpromprathan, and V. Vattananont: Effect of
variety and harvest time on yield, viscosity and solution
property of cassava starch. Thai Agricultural Research J. 14
(1996), 11–17.
[45] M. Asaoka, J. M. V. Blanshard, and J. E. Richard: Effects of
cultivar and growth season on the gelatinisation properties
of cassava (Manihot esculenta) starch. J. Sci. Food and
Agri. 59 (1992), 53–58.
[46] Z. Weite, L. Xiong, L. Kaimian, H. Jie, T. Yinong, L. Jun, and
F. Quohui: Cassava agronomy research in China, in: Cas-
sava Breeding, Agronomy Research and Farmer Participa-
tory Research in Asia. Proc. Fifth Regional Workshop held
in Danzhou, Hainan, China. November 3–8, 1996. Eds.
R. H. Howeler, Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical
(CIAT), Bangkok 1996, pp. 191–210.
[47] C. Sittibusaya, C. Tiraporn, A. Tongglum, U. Cenpukdee, V.
Vichukit, S. Jantawat, and R. H. Howeler: Recent progress
in cassava agronomy research in Thailand, in: Cassava
Breeding, Agronomy Research and Technology Transfer in
Asia. Proc. Fourth Regional Workshop held in Trivandrum,
India. November 2–6, 1993. Eds. R. H. Howeler, Centro
Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Bangkok 1993,
pp. 110–123.
[48] T. V. R Nayar, S. Kabeerathumma, V. P. Potty, and C. R. Mo-
hankumar: Recent progress in cassava agronomy research
in India, in: Cassava Breeding, Agronomy Research and
Technology Transfer in Asia. Proc. Fourth Regional Work-
shop held in Trivandrum, India. November 2–6, 1993. Eds.
R.H. Howeler, Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical
(CIAT), Bangkok 1993, pp.:61– 83.
[49] A. Tongglum, V. Pornpromprathan, K. Paisarncharoen, C.
Wongviwatchai, C. Sittibusaya, S. Jantawat, T. Nual-on,
and R. H. Howeler: Recent progress in cassava agronomy
research in Thailand, in: Cassava Breeding, Agronomy and
Farmer Participatory Research in Asia. Proc. Fifth Regional
Workshop held in Danzhou, Hainan, China. November 3–8,
1996. Eds. R.H. Howeler, Centro Internacional de Agricul-
tura Tropical (CIAT), Bangkok 1996, pp. 211–234.
[50] T. Phien and N. C. Vinh: Nutrient management for cassava-
based cropping systems in northern Vietnam, in: Cassava
Breeding, Agronomy Research and Farmer Participatory
Research in Asia. Proc. Fifth Regional Workshop held in
Danzhou, Hainan, China. November 3–8, 1996. Eds. R.H.
Howeler, Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical
(CIAT), Bangkok 1996, pp. 268 –279.
(Received: August 1, 2000)