Relational Query Languages

Chapter 4
Yonas Y.
Outline
The Relational Algebra
The Tuple Relational

Calculus
Domain Relational
Calculus
Chapter 4
Formal Relational Query Languages
Yonas Y.
Addis Ababa Institute of Technology
yonas.yehualaeshet@aait.edu.et
AAiT - SECE 1
Chapter 4
Yonas Y.
Outline

The Relational Algebra Calculus
Domain Relational
Calculus
The Tuple Relational Calculus
Domain Relational Calculus
AAiT - SECE 2
Chapter 4
Relational Algebra Yonas Y.
Outline

The relational algebra is a procedural query language. The Tuple Relational
Calculus
Six fundamental basic operators
Domain Relational
Calculus
I select: σ
Q
I project:
I union: ∪
I set difference: −
I cartesian product: ×
I rename: ρ
The operators take one or two relations as inputs and produce a

new relation as a result.
AAiT - SECE 3
Chapter 4
The Select Operation Yonas Y.
Outline

The select operation selects tuples that satisfy a given predicate.
Calculus
I Notation: σp (r )
Domain Relational
I p is called the selection predicate. Calculus
I Defined as:
σp (r ) = {t | t ∈ r and p(t)}
Where p is a formula in propositional calculus consisting of

terms connected by : ∧ (and), ∨ (or), ¬ (not).
I Each term is one of:

< attribute > op < attribute > or < constant >
where op is one of: =, 6=, >, ≥, <, ≤.
AAiT - SECE 4
Chapter 4
Yonas Y.
Outline

Example: To select those tuples of the instructor relation where
the instructor is in the ”Electrical Engineering” department, we Calculus
write: Domain Relational

Calculus
σdept name=”Elec.Eng .” (instructor )
Example: To find the instructors in Electrical Engineering with a

salary greater than 90,000, we write:
σdept name=”Elec.Eng .”∧salary >90,000 (instructor )
AAiT - SECE 5
Chapter 4
The Project Operation Yonas Y.
Outline

The project operation is a unary operation that returns its
argument relation, with certain attributes left out. Calculus
Domain Relational
I Notation: Calculus
Q
A1 ,A2 ,··· ,Ak (r )
I
where A1 , A2 are attribute names and r is a relation name.

I The result is defined as the relation of k columns obtained by
erasing the columns that are not listed.
I Duplicate rows removed from result, since relations are sets.
Example: To eliminate the dept name attribute of instructor

Q
ID,name,salary (instructor )
AAiT - SECE 6
Chapter 4
The Union Operation Yonas Y.
Outline
I Notation: r ∪ s The Relational Algebra

I Defined as: Calculus
r ∪ s = {t | t ∈ r or t ∈ s} Domain Relational
Calculus
For r ∪ s to be valid.
1. r , s must have the same arity (same number of attributes)

2. The attribute domains must be compatible (example: 2nd
column of r deals with the same type of values as does the
2nd column of s)
Example: To find all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, or

in the Spring 2010 semester, or in both.
Q
(σsemester =”Fall”∧year =2009 (section)) ∪
Qcourse id
course id (σsemester =”Spring ”∧year =2010 (section)).
AAiT - SECE 7
Chapter 4
The Set-Difference Operation Yonas Y.
Outline
The set-difference operation, allows us to find tuples that are in The Relational Algebra
one relation but are not in another. The Tuple Relational

Calculus
I Notation: r − s Domain Relational
Calculus
I Defined as:
r − s = {t | t ∈ r and t ∈
/ s}
Set differences must be taken between compatible relations.
1. r , s must have the same arity.

2. The attribute domains must be compatible.
Example: To find all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester,

but not in the Spring 2010 semester.
Q
(σsemester =”Fall”∧year =2009 (section)) −
Qcourse id
course id (σsemester =”Spring ”∧year =2010 (section)).
AAiT - SECE 8
Chapter 4
Set-Intersection Operation Yonas Y.
Outline

Calculus
I Notation: r ∩ s
Domain Relational
Calculus
I Defined as:
r ∩ s = {t | t ∈ r and t ∈ s}
Check compatibility.
1. r , s must have the same arity.

2. The attribute domains must be compatible.
Note: r ∩ s = r - (r - s).
AAiT - SECE 9
Chapter 4
The Cartesian-Product Operation Yonas Y.
Outline

The Cartesian-product operation, allows us to combine Calculus
information from any two relations. Domain Relational

Calculus
I Notation: r × s
I Defined as:
r × s = {t q | t ∈ r and q ∈ s}
Assume that attributes of r (R) and s(S) are disjoint. (That is,
R ∩ S = ∅).
I If attributes of r (R) and s(S) are not disjoint, then renaming

must be used.
AAiT - SECE 10
Chapter 4
The Rename Operation Yonas Y.
Outline

Allows us to name, and therefore to refer to, the results of
relational-algebra expressions. Calculus
Domain Relational
I Allows us to refer to a relation by more than one name. Calculus
Example:
ρx (E )
I returns the expression E under the name x.
If a relational-algebra expression E has arity n, then
ρx(A1 ,A2 ,··· ,An ) (E )
returns the result of expression E under the name x, and with the
attributes renamed to A1 , A2, · · · , An .
AAiT - SECE 11
Chapter 4
Yonas Y.
Outline
Example: Consider the query ”Find the highest salary in the
university.”
Calculus
1. Step 1: Compute first a temporary relation consisting of
Domain Relational
those salaries that are not the largest. Calculus
Q
instructor .salary (σinstructor .salary <d.salary (instructor ×
ρd (instructor )))
2. Step 2: The query to find the largest salary in the university

can be written as:
Q
(instructor ) -
Qsalary
instructor .salary (σinstructor .salary <d.salary (instructor ×
ρd (instructor )))
AAiT - SECE 12
Chapter 4
The Tuple Relational Calculus Yonas Y.
Outline
A nonprocedural query language, where each query is of the form Calculus
Domain Relational
Calculus
{t | P(t)}
I It is the set of all tuples t such that predicate P is true for t.

I t is a tuple variable, t[A] denotes the value of tuple t on
attribute A.
I t ∈ r denotes that tuple t is in relation r .
I P is a formula similar to that of the predicate calculus.
AAiT - SECE 13
Chapter 4
Predicate Calculus Formula Yonas Y.
Outline

1. Set of attributes and constants. Calculus
Domain Relational
2. Set of comparison operators: (e.g., <, ≤, =, 6=, >, ≥). Calculus
3. Set of connectives: and (∧), or (∨) not (¬).

’
4. Implication (⇒): x ⇒ y , if x is true, then y is true.
x ⇒ y ≡ ¬x ∨ y
5. Set of quantifiers:
I ∃t ∈ r (Q(t)) ≡ ”there exists” a tuple t in relation r such
that predicate Q(t) is true.
I ∀t ∈ r (Q(t)) ≡ Q is true ”for all” tuples t in relation r .
AAiT - SECE 14
Chapter 4
Yonas Y.
Example: Find the ID, name, dept name, salary for instructors Outline
whose salary is greater than 80,000. The Relational Algebra

Calculus
{t | t ∈ instructor ∧ t[salary ] > 80000}
Domain Relational
Calculus
I Notice that a relation on schema (ID, name, dept name,
salary ) is implicitly defined by the query.
Example: As in the previous query, but output only the ID

attribute value.
{t | ∃s ∈ instructor (t[ID] = s[ID] ∧ s[salary ] > 80000}

I Notice that a relation on schema (ID) is implicitly defined by
the query.
AAiT - SECE 15
Chapter 4
Yonas Y.
Example: Find the names of all instructors whose department is Outline
in the Watson building. The Relational Algebra
{t | ∃s ∈ instructor (t[name] = s[name] ∧ ∃u ∈ Calculus
department(u[dept name] = s[dept name] ∧ u[building ] = Domain Relational

Calculus
”Watson”))}
Example: Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009
semester, or in the Spring 2010 semester, or both.
{t | ∃s ∈ section(t[course id] = s[course id]∧

s[semester ] = ”Fall” ∧ s[year ] = 2009)
∨ ∃u ∈ section(t[course id] = u[course id]∧
u[semester ] = ”Spring ” ∧ u[year ] = 2010)}
AAiT - SECE 16
Chapter 4
Universal Quantification Yonas Y.
Outline

Calculus
Domain Relational
Calculus
Example: Find all students who have taken all courses offered in
the Biology department.
{t | ∃r ∈ student(t[ID] = r [ID]∧
(∀u ∈ course(u[dept name] = ”Biology ” ⇒ ∃s ∈
takes(t[ID] = s[ID] ∧ s[course id] = u[course id]))}
AAiT - SECE 17
Chapter 4
Safety of Expressions Yonas Y.
Outline
It is possible to write tuple calculus expressions that generate The Tuple Relational
Calculus
infinite relations. Domain Relational

Calculus
I For example, {t | ¬t ∈ r } results in an infinite relation if the

domain of any attribute of relation r is infinite.
I To guard against the problem, we restrict the set of allowable
expressions to safe expressions.
I An expression {t | P(t)} in the tuple relational calculus is
safe if every component of t appears in one of the relations,
tuples, or constants that appear in P.
I NOTE: this is more than just a syntax condition.
AAiT - SECE 18
Chapter 4
Yonas Y.
Outline

Example: Consider again that query to find all students who have
taken all courses offered in the Biology department. Calculus
Domain Relational
Calculus
{t | ∃r ∈ student(t[ID] = r [ID]∧
(∀u ∈ course(u[dept name] = ”Biology ” ⇒ ∃s ∈
takes(t[ID] = s[ID] ∧ s[course id] = u[course id]))}
Without the existential quantification on student, the above query

would be unsafe if the Biology department has not offered any
courses.
AAiT - SECE 19
Chapter 4
Domain Relational Calculus Yonas Y.
Outline

Calculus
Domain Relational
A nonprocedural query language equivalent in power to the tuple Calculus
relational calculus.
I Each query is an expression of the form:

{< x1 , x2 , · · · , xn >| P(x1 , x2 , · · · , xn )}
I x1 , x2 , · · · , xn represent domain variables.
I P represents a formula similar to that of the predicate
calculus.
AAiT - SECE 20
Chapter 4
Example Queries Yonas Y.
Outline

Example: Find the ID, name, dept name, salary for instructors
whose salary is greater than 80,000. Calculus
Domain Relational
{< i, n, d, s >|< i, n, d, s >∈ instructor ∧ s > 80000} Calculus
Example: As in the previous query, but output only the ID

attribute value.
{< i >|< i, n, d, s >∈ instructor ∧ s > 80000}
Example: Find the names of all instructors whose department is

in the Watson building.
{< n > ∃i, d, s(< i, n, d, s >∈ instructor ∧ ∃b, a(< d, b, a >∈

department ∧ b = ”Watson”))}
AAiT - SECE 21
Chapter 4
Yonas Y.
Outline
Example: Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009 The Relational Algebra
semester, or in the Spring 2010 semester, or both The Tuple Relational

Calculus
{< c >| ∃a, s, y , b, r , t(< c, a, s, y , b, r , t >∈ section ∧ Domain Relational

Calculus
s = ”Fall” ∧ y = 2009)
∨ ∃a, s, y , b, r , t(< c, a, s, y , b, r , t >∈ section ∧
s = ”Spring ” ∧ y = 2010)}
I This case can also be written as
{< c >| ∃a, s, y , b, r , t(< c, a, s, y , b, r , t >∈ section ∧

((s = ”Fall” ∧ y = 2009) ∨ (s = ”Spring ” ∧ y = 2010))}
AAiT - SECE 22
Chapter 4
Safety of Expressions Yonas Y.
Outline
The expression: The Relational Algebra
{< x1 , x2 , · · · , xn >| P(x1 , x2 , · · · , xn )} Calculus
Domain Relational
Calculus
is safe if all of the following hold:
1. All values that appear in tuples of the expression are values

from dom(P) (that is, the values appear either in P or in a
tuple of a relation mentioned in P).
2. For every ”there exists” subformula of the form ∃x(P1 (x)),

the subformula is true if and only if there is a value of x in
dom(P1 ) such that P1 (x) is true.
3. For every ”for all” subformula of the form ∀x(P1 (x)), the
subformula is true if and only if P1 (x) is true for all values x
from dom(P1 ).
AAiT - SECE 23
Chapter 4
Universal Quantification Yonas Y.
Outline

Calculus
Example: Find all students who have taken all courses offered in
Domain Relational
the Biology department. Calculus
{< i >| ∃n, d, tc(< i, n, d, tc >∈ student∧

(∀ci, ti, dn, cr (< ci, ti, dn, cr > course ∧ dn = ”Biology ” ⇒
∃si, se, y , g (< i, ci, si, se, y , g >∈ takes))}
Note that without the existential quantification on student, the

above query would be unsafe if the Biology department has not
offered any courses.
AAiT - SECE 24
Chapter 4
Yonas Y.
Outline

Calculus
Domain Relational
End of Chapter 4 Calculus
Questions?
AAiT - SECE 25

Relational Query Languages

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Chapter 4

The Relational Algebra

The Tuple Relational

Addis Ababa Institute of Technology

The Relational Algebra

The Tuple Relational

The Tuple Relational Calculus

Domain Relational Calculus

Relational Algebra Yonas Y.

The Relational Algebra

The operators take one or two relations as inputs and produce a

The Select Operation Yonas Y.

The Relational Algebra

Where p is a formula in propositional calculus consisting of

I Each term is one of:

where op is one of: =, 6=, >, ≥, <, ≤.

The Relational Algebra

write: Domain Relational

σdept name=”Elec.Eng .” (instructor )

Example: To find the instructors in Electrical Engineering with a

σdept name=”Elec.Eng .”∧salary >90,000 (instructor )

The Project Operation Yonas Y.

The Relational Algebra

where A1 , A2 are attribute names and r is a relation name.

Example: To eliminate the dept name attribute of instructor

The Union Operation Yonas Y.

I Notation: r ∪ s The Relational Algebra

The Tuple Relational

1. r , s must have the same arity (same number of attributes)

Example: To find all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, or

The Set-Difference Operation Yonas Y.

one relation but are not in another. The Tuple Relational

Set differences must be taken between compatible relations.

1. r , s must have the same arity.

Example: To find all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester,

Set-Intersection Operation Yonas Y.

The Relational Algebra

The Tuple Relational

1. r , s must have the same arity.

The Cartesian-Product Operation Yonas Y.

The Relational Algebra

The Tuple Relational

information from any two relations. Domain Relational

I If attributes of r (R) and s(S) are not disjoint, then renaming

The Rename Operation Yonas Y.

The Relational Algebra

If a relational-algebra expression E has arity n, then

ρx(A1 ,A2 ,··· ,An ) (E )

2. Step 2: The query to find the largest salary in the university

The Tuple Relational Calculus Yonas Y.

The Relational Algebra

The Tuple Relational

A nonprocedural query language, where each query is of the form Calculus

I It is the set of all tuples t such that predicate P is true for t.

Predicate Calculus Formula Yonas Y.

The Relational Algebra

The Tuple Relational

3. Set of connectives: and (∧), or (∨) not (¬).

whose salary is greater than 80,000. The Relational Algebra

The Tuple Relational

Example: As in the previous query, but output only the ID

{t | ∃s ∈ instructor (t[ID] = s[ID] ∧ s[salary ] > 80000}