Geomorphology☆

LD Stetler, South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, Rapid City, SD, USA
ã 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Tectonic Forces 1
Fluvial Processes 1
Mass Wasting 4
Glaciation 7
Human Geomorphology 9

Tectonic Forces

Tectonic geomorphology is the study of vertical and horizontal displacement and deformation (stress, strain) of crustal and mantle
materials. On the large scale, tectonic deformation is defined by plate movement that is mainly observed and measured at
boundaries, including spreading centers and subduction and collision zones. These processes are largely driven by heat convection
and diffusion and the resulting effects on material properties such as density. Large-scale tectonic morphology is at a basic level
represented by continental and ocean crust, relatively low vs. high density materials, respectively. The force balance is governed by
the depth of equal pressure generated by a thicker, low density continent juxtaposed to a thinner, high density ocean basin, both
positioned above the mantle. The picture (Figure 1) is of a thick continent ‘floating’ at an elevation above the ocean crust where the
balance of forces is an isostatic process that includes crustal and mantle material properties and depth of ocean water. At spreading
centers, the ridge system is at higher elevations than the surrounding surfaces reflecting the hotter, lower density material as it is
brought to the surface. As spreading continues and plate motion moves previously extruded materials father from the ridge, the
rock cools and sinks to a lower elevation. At the edges of the plate, at the meeting of another plate, these density difference
determine the ultimate demise of the colliding materials (Figure 2). Those that ‘win’ this battle are raised higher, have an extended
duration, become subaerially exposed, and are subject to subsequent geomorphic processes. Materials that ‘loose’ the battle
subduct deeper into the mantle and re-melt. In the case of continent-continent collision, most of the materials are subaerially
elevated.

Fluvial Processes

Flowing water arguably has produced the greatest amount of geomorphic work through geologic time and is the premier agent for
surface erosion and landform evolution. That portion of the surface of Earth that has been elevated by tectonic forces, over
geological time, is continually and gradually weathered and eroded. The force of moving water is relentless, never ceasing, and
irrespective of time. If the land surface of earth were reduced to a common elevation, it would stand
0.84 km high and the force of
water flowing continuously down that surface would generate
12 x 109 kW continuously. Including buoyant rise, this would be
sufficient power to erode the entire land surface in
44 MY. The primary reasons there remains topography today is that energy is
consumed by frictional losses at the stream bed and by turbulent dissipation. The total power utilization of flowing water is
between 2–4% per year, yet this is sufficient to produce the estimated 2 x 1010 T yr1 of sediment delivered to the ocean basins.
Fluvial landforms that result from flowing water produce distinct morphologies that can be viewed as being self-similar, or
scale-invariant. The mechanics of flowing water effectively shapes and forms the channel system in an
repeating pattern from m to
km in scale (Figure 3). In this figure, both systems include a complex braided network of dissected channel and bank bars. Closer
inspection shows that bars are cut by 2nd and 3rd order channels and vary only by scale, which unless noted, differences in channel
morphologies are not obvious.
Physical controls on channel formation ultimately are dependent upon geology and climate. As these parameters interplay
through time, the resulting channel that develops is a result of discharge, sediment carried as load, and the materials making up the
bed and banks. River styles were quantitatively assessed first by Leopold and Wolman who showed that channel slope was a
function of the discharge and load. The two resulting morphologies were braided and meandering, representing rivers of proximal
and distal source, respectively. Today, channel classification is process-based with classifying parameters that include braiding
parameter (number of braids per meander wavelength) and sinuosity (thalweg to valley length). The four resulting river
morphologies are straight, meandering, braided, and anastomosing.

☆
Change History: July 2013. LD Stetler updated the text and further readings to this entire article including sections Fluvial Processes, Mass Wasting and
Glaciation. New material on river classification and hydraulic geometry was added. A new section, Human Geomorphology, was added to emphasise the role
humanity has on landscape evolution. All 8 figures in the Rahn text were replaced with 14 new figures. The Further Reading section was updated with new
references and suggestions for reading.

Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.09078-3 1

2 Geomorphology

Figure 1 Schematic of the force balance of continental and oceanic crusts that rely on material density and thickness of the crust, water, and mantel.
(modified from Anderson and Anderson, 2010).

Figure 2 Dynamic balancing of the crust due to upwelling of hot mantel material that cools and sinks as it moves laterally away from the spreading
center. At the collision with the continent, the cooler and denser ocean plate subducts below the continent which is raised higher. The thickness
of the mantel below each crust type is adjusted to provide a line of equal pressure such that the sum of forces above that point is equal to the sum
of forces above another point. Figure 1 illustrates the line of equal pressure and the force distribution required to satisfy these conditions. Illustration
by author.

Figure 3 Channel morphology of two rivers systems of distinctly different environmental conditions. The Brahmaputra river (A) in northern India
and North Platt river (B) in southeast Wyoming, USA show the same channel morphologies (bank and channel braid bars) even though the widths vary
by 1 order of magnitude. Illustration by author using Google Earth images.
 Geomorphology 3

River (re)engineering is rapidly growing in urban areas and has focus on restoring a more natural channel geomorphology to
river reaches that have been straightened and engineered through time. There are two primary approaches to this naturalization
process. One system, referred to as the ‘Rosgen Classification’, is a ‘geomorphic balance’ of the river system based on defining the
river morphology described by using physical channel parameters. The reach of channel is then engineered to match geomorphic
conditions. A second method is based on physical processes and is referred to as the ‘Channel Evolution Model’. This classification
systems utilizes the physical processes operating in and through a river reach. Several pertinent sources for determining the
usefulness and potential pitfalls of these methods are provided in the suggested reading list.
Regardless of channel classification, sediment is transported through the system forming the channel bottom, banks, bars, and
surrounding floodplain. These sediments are viewed as mobile but may be in temporary storage for long periods, then mobilized
during extreme discharge events. Thus, the channel is viewed as being in an equilibrium condition with the formative elements. Its
width, along with the depth and velocity of the water constantly adjust to changes in discharge through rapid adjustments, a
process collectively referred to as hydraulic geometry. The role of each of the hydraulic parameters are given through the following
discharge-dependent equations:

w ¼ aQb d ¼ cQf v ¼ kQm L ¼ pQj s ¼ rQz [1]

where:

w, d, v, L, and s ¼ width, depth, velocity, load, and slope, respectively

a, c, k, p, r ¼ x coefficients
b, f , m, j, z ¼ exponents

Using principles of continuity, the above reduces to:

Q ¼ a Qb x cQf x kQm ; or Q ¼ ackQbþf þm [2]

This expression says that Q is equal to Q only if the product of ack and the sum of bþfþm are equal to 1. Coefficients are derived
by plotting individual hydraulic parameters against Q using channel cross-sections at measured locations, typically from USGS
gaging stations (Figure 4). Exponents are derived from the slope of a line fit to the data. Interpretation of the plots reveal the
function of the channel, i.e., how it responds to changes in discharge by adjustment of width, depth, and velocity. Thus, channels
that are broad and flat plot differently than those that are deep and narrow. Similarly, bed and bank materials effect how channel
width responds to discharge. Each of these conditions are reflected in the values of the coefficients and exponents derived from the
plots. Sediment load also varies with discharge and increases with increasing discharge. Load, however, waxes and wanes through
an individual runoff event and typically reaches its peak near the peak discharge. After this point, most of the initial load has been
transported out of the area and the river has excess power. It now turns toward the channel, scouring the channel bed material for
the load and mobilizes it during the waning flood.
One of the broader impacts of fluvial geomorphology is flooding and flood potential for any river system. The immediate area
surrounding the channel that is inundated during high flows is defined as the floodplain. It is a constructional landform and
represents the cyclic nature of discharge and sediment transport in a natural system. The floodplain is typically low-lying and
consists of basal coarse materials representing the channel bottom and grading vertically to fine-sand and clay. In a meandering
channel system, the floodplain is an area where the river used to be located. On geologic maps, this is typically mapped as
Quaternary alluvium (Qal) without regard for distinction between the active channel, the floodplain, or low-lying abandoned
terraces. Local topographic conditions dictate the extent of flooding. In urban areas, the United States Federal Emergency
Management Agency requires a 100 year floodplain to be defined. This is typically accomplished utilizing topographic maps and
aerial imagery to estimate the area inundated by a 100-year flood discharge (Figure 5). The discharge value of the 100-year event is
calculated using USGS gage station data and standardized statistical methods. Engineers and planners uses computer programs to
define the physical characteristics (channel width, roughness, and slope) and calculate flow discharge values that are then ‘fed’
through the topography and used to delineate a likely floodway that is then superimposed on the topographic map.
An important critical factor in flood assessment is an understanding that the 100-year flood does not imply this event will occur
only once in 100 years (or that any 100-year event will occur in a 100 year period), but is a statistical value based on derivations
from a typically decades-long flow record, i.e., it is a statistical value that is utilized in design and mitigation work. The estimate of
the 100-year flood discharge, the quality of the topographic maps, and the other assumptions of the computer programs limit this
hazard evaluation. Further, this process does not protect flood-prone areas just above the 100-year flood stage.
Above the active channel, abandoned floodplain deposits may occur and represent the former elevation of the active channel
system. Terraces form from lowering of base level, often having a climatic or tectonic cause. Terraces may be paired or unpaired. The
continuity of a terrace along a valley, paired on both sides, may be correlated to a former graded condition. On the other hand,
progressive stream down-cutting will leave isolated unpaired terraces along the valley sides. The surface elevation of terraces cannot
be correlated because the terraces were never portions of a single, continuous surface.
Rivers can have complex terrace systems. For example, the active flood plain width of the lower Mississippi River is approxi-
mately 16 km, lying within a terraced valley floor varying from 40 to 200 km wide. The terraces along the lower Mississippi River
were formed by degradation accompanying sea-level lowering during glacial maximum, whereas the terraces along the upper
Mississippi river were formed by degradation that accompanied reduced sediment loads during interglacial time.
4 Geomorphology

Figure 4 (a) Hydraulic geometry relations for width, depth, and velocity responses to four order of magnitude changes in discharge. (b) Sediment
load relations to discharge showing a greater change in load (7 orders of magnitude) to discharge. Data from the Wind River in WY, compiled by author.

Mass Wasting

Mass wasting is the downslope translation of weathered and bedrock materials under the influence of gravity. Tectonics, local
geology, and weathering intensity all contribute to the generation of materials susceptible for movement. These hillslope processes
deliver material to a stream that ultimately carries the eroded debris to the sea. There have been many classification schemes utilized
to describe these processes, some more complex than others. In general terms, useful classification is based on the process involved
and the knowledge that processes can, and often do, change during a single event. Thus, a useful process-based classification
includes a range of processes and responses.
Styles of mass wasting includes falls, slides, flows, and creep where the primary differences between these are fluid content, size
and amount of material in transport, and rate. Falls occur in areas where steep outcrops, hills, or mountains contain bedrock
formations that are fractured and dip in a favorable attitude to promote slope failure by falling blocks. Once a block is released, it
can break into smaller pieces as it bounces to the bottom of the slope. It can also become fluidized by either air or water and end up
as a debris flow. The slope at the base of a rock fall area typically is mantled by a pile of debris referred to as talus (Figure 6). In semi-
arid terrains, weathered rock, soil, and other surficial deposits built up through time are often released during heavy rainfall (or
triggered by seismic shaking) and begin to move as a mass. Downslope, fluid content increases and the debris becomes a flow and
often is channelized in stream channels. Particles in transport vary (by source area) and range from boulders and rock to flows
having the properties of wet cement. In mountain terrains, alluvial fan deposits (Figure 7) present at the base of the slopes record
 Geomorphology 5

Figure 5 Portions of the Rapid City East and West 7.5 minute quadrangle maps showing the approximate location of the 100-year floodplain (black
lines). The area of potential inundation is determined using topography, aerial imagery, engineered structures (such as berms, walls, etc.), and the
calculated 100-year discharge through the topography. The area inundated by this flow is defined as the 100-year floodplain. Illustration prepared
by author.

Figure 6 Talus, or scree slopes form at the base (black arrow) of uplifted rocky areas by fall and sliding of weathered material from above. Talus is
inhomogeneous and several individual deposits can merge into a continuous quasi-linear feature extending across large areas. Note the vehicle on
the road for scale. Photo by author in Bighorn Mts., WY.

several episodes of flows. The morphology of the fans are similar to a delta from a major river where each flow event proceeds down
the steepest channel. The fan aggrades through time and shifts to flow through other channels as the surface of the fan changes
through time.
Soil slopes typically fail as a landslide where the soil and bedrock fail along a detachment plane that can be a clay, bedding
surface, or some discontinuity. Slides are of two types, rotational and translational. Rotational slides fail through an arcuate surface
(Figure 8.) and have distinct morphologies. At the top, a steep scarp is identified where the displaced mass has been rotated out of
place and translated down the slope. The excavation area is often populated by smaller individual shear surfaces that dip backward
into the slope. The failure plane intersects the surface at some point downslope and the excavated material overrides the original
slope below this point of inflection. Rotational failures range in size from m to 100 s of m. For example, the rotational slide in
figure 8 is 10 m wide at the scarp whereas the 1980 Mt. St. Helens eruption was proceeded by a rotational slide of the entire
northern face of the mountain. Translational slides are where failure occurs along the bedding slope of dipping bedrock. The
weakness is typically between bedding planes that become lubricated by percolating water, or can be along an impermeable layer
that becomes wet. The displaced mass retains much of its internal structure and bedding (depending on slope and volume of the
flow) and often is identified by the clean smooth slide surface that exists upslope of the displaced mass.
6 Geomorphology

Figure 7 An alluvial fan building at the base of the Sierra-Nevada Mts in Owens Valley, CA. The apex of the fan is a narrow region less than 50 m wide
and extends to a distal lobe of >1 km width. Photo by author in Owens Valley, CA.

Figure 8 Head scarp of a rotational failure containing all typical morphological features of a slide mass. The scarp is steep (82 ) and shows numerous
shear surfaces where the original surface has been broken (grass covered) with each segment rotated to an orientation that dips back into the
slope. Note the paleoslide in the background indicated by the scar. Photo by author in Rapid City, SD.

Debris flows and slides are highly susceptible to small changes in the fluid content. Encapsulations of air, water, or snow can
fluidize the moving mass of material. Once it becomes fluidized, the energy of the system propels the mass farther that it would go
if it had remained dry. Fluidized mass flows can extend far beyond the steep terrain that generated the movement, even on slopes of
only a few degrees.
Weathering of hillslopes produces soil and disintegration products from bedrock. Gravity acts on these materials and slowly
moves them downslope as colluvium. Often, colluvial layers move downslope against the dip of the bedrock and are identified by
angle-of-repose weathered debris. Colluvial surface can also fail as a slide, so the processes of creep and landslide are at times
intermingled. Geologic maps typically do not identify surficial deposits such as colluvium. Geological engineers can effectively
identify, map, and assess any hazard potential associated with these deposits. In recent years, an increasing number of engineering
maps that identify hazards are being produced. These maps are most useful as overlays to the bedrock geology and are useful for
determination of critical slope angles or existing geologic conditions that warrant a hazard rating. Municipalities are interested in
utilizing such maps if they assist in the safe development of housing or industrial tracks in geologic materials that are subject
to failure.
Weathering of bedrock proceeds by physical and chemical processes to produce soil. Soil is either regolith (in situ) or
transported. Physical processes disintegrate the rock producing smaller particles whereas chemical weathering alters the chemical
makeup of the original minerals in the rock. Often, minerals are dissolved, or partly dissolved, and leave the weathering site in the
solute. Chemical constituents in the groundwater produces a chemical signature depicting the host material. In most locations,
weathering proceeds as a combination of both physical and chemical processes. Arid and semi-arid climates produce mainly
disintegration products that produce thin, poor quality soils where developed. These materials are often the source of debris flows.
In humid climates, bedrock weathers into a material that retains the appearance of bedrock but easily disintegrates under a hammer
blow. This material is referred to as saprolite, formed by both physical and chemical weathering, and can accumulate to great
thicknesses in humid areas such as the south-eastern United States. Soils are thicker and more fertile than those in semi-arid
climates. In Asia, many engineering projects have been altered by the presence of, and depth to, the saprolite layer. Excavation
 Geomorphology 7

and/or core drilling may be required to determine bedrock conditions and the depth to unaltered bedrock. Transported soils are
formed by the accumulation of material from its original weathering site. These occur in all climate zones and are functions mainly
of slope angle and weathering rate. These accumulations are simply surficial deposits that were moved and deposited by gravity,
glaciers, running water, wind, or coastal processes. In most cases, soil mineralogy does not match the underlying bedrock
mineralogy.
Till is an accumulation of unsorted debris deposited directly by a glacier. Most of the eastern half of North American and large
areas of Europe are covered by till originating from Pleistocene glaciation. Till is noted for its poor drainage and often forms
swamps. Its low permeability is well known, making it useful for ameliorating groundwater contamination plumes. Engineering
geologists who work in glacial terrain need to understand the origin and characteristics of glacial deposits. A good working
knowledge of the Quaternary deposits in a glaciated region is important in engineering endeavors and a valuable asset to a
geotechnical firm.
Rates of mass wasting processes vary from imperceptible motion to rapid translation of large volumes of materials. Hazards
associated with these processes are, in large part, directly a function of the speed of the process. For example, colluvial processes are
slow, not able to be discerned by the eye. Indications of colluvium moving downslope include rotated tress, leaning fences and
power poles, and in cemeteries, gravestone are often rotated downslope (Figure 9). These deposits pose no immediate threat to
human life but knowledge of their existence will reduce or eliminate future mitigation costs. Conversely, landslides can begin with
movement of cm’s per day and accelerate over time up to the mass failure stage where in a matter of hours or minutes, an entire
hillside may fall. These events are extremely hazardous to human life if housing areas, roads, or other structures are located below
potential slide areas. Site characterization performed in advance of engineering projects must be completed with the knowledge of
potential mass movement, type of failures most likely to occur, and a definition of possible triggering events. Engineering hazard
maps should map regions of past as well as potential future failures.

Glaciation

There are two general types of glaciers: mountain glaciers and continental glaciers. Mountain glaciers form distinctive erosional and
depositional topographic features. Ice flowing downslope follows the original topography and seeks the steepest path, similar to
flowing water. The overlying mass of the ice is effective at promoting fractures in the underlying bedrock. Broken bedrock fragments
are plucked from the ‘quarry’ and incorporated into the ice mass (Figure 10). Through this process, the original topography is
modified; valleys are deepened and widened. The upslope origin of a valley glacier provides one of the more stark evidences of the
power of moving ice where it carved out a scallop-shape feature called a cirque (Figure 11). In many mountainous regions today
the cirque is filled with water forming natural lakes (Figure 12).
Moraines are depositional features that mark the path of movement of the valley glaciers. Moraines are surficial deposits that
include both stratified and non-stratified glacial debris. Particle sizes in moraines vary with the formative process. Debris deposited
from melting ice typically is deposited en masse and is highly inhomogeneous. Debris deposited from flowing water is stratified
and can be well sorted, similar to fluvial deposits. Moraines exist at the lateral edges of the glaciers, in the center of the glacier
(Figure 13), and at the terminal, downslope extent. Terminal moraines mark the terminus of Pleistocene mountain glaciers and
often form dams impounding natural lakes.
Vast continental ice-sheets covered much of the land of the northern hemisphere as recently as 20,000 years ago and have left
surficial deposits, including till and stratified drift that mark their ebb and flow. The extent and thickness of continental ice sheets
was sufficient to depress the crust over large geographic regions. This increase in mass was accommodated by an outward flow of

Figure 9 17th and 18th century cemetery in Boston, MA showing the downslope rotation of gravestones from creep processes acting on the

2 slope. Photo by the author.
8 Geomorphology

Figure 10 Mountain glaciers moved (left to right) across this region of the Bighorn Mountains in WY and smoothed and polished the underlying
granitic bedrock. The
1 m scarp is where boulders were quarried, or plucked, and incorporated into the overlying ice mass. The quarry would migrate
upslope as the process continued. Photo by the author.

Figure 11 Cirques mark the origin of valley glaciers on the eastern slope of the Bighorn Mts, WY. The bedrock is granite and was fractured and
quarried by the overriding ice mass to form these erosional scallops. Photo by the author.

Figure 12 Cirque excavation during glacial activity becomes the site of natural lakes after the ice has retreated. The view is looking in the downslope ice
direction and a debris dam is visible at the far end that creates the impoundment. Photo by the author in the High Sierra, CA.

mantel material below the impacted crust. In Scandinavia and surrounding regions, crustal depression was >100 m. As the ice
melted and the mass was reduced, inflow of mantel material continues to raise the crust today at rates of 10’s cm per year. The
movement of the crust from glacial activity is referred to as glacio-isostacy. Crustal depression is evident today in Greenland and
Antarctica. Crustal rebound is occurring over Fenno-Scandia, the Baltic, and the Hudson Bay areas. Of significance, many of the
world’s rivers in glaciated terrains had their course altered by Pleistocene glaciation. For example, the Missouri River in North and
 Geomorphology 9

Figure 13 Moraines from a valley glacier in the Banff area, Alberta, Canada are neatly piled in the valley and mark the lateral edges of the retreating ice
mass. The non-sorted nature of these deposits are evident. Photo by the author.

Figure 14 From an altitude of 46 km, a line of surface coal mines in the Powder River Basin, WY are easily recognized. The length of the yellow
line is 26 km from north to south. As the mines move from east to west (right to left across the image), previously mined lands are reclaimed
and become indistinguishable from the non-mined lands. Google Earth image using USDA Farm Service Agency imagery, 2009.

South Dakota marks the extent of the continental ice sheet as it was blocked from its
NW course to flowing along the edge of the
ice sheet. Crustal depression diverted many tributary river from their original NW courses to an W-E course in response to the ice
mass. These rivers are now entrenched in their present courses, modified by the ice, even after the ice has been removed.

Human Geomorphology

Although geomorphology has been discussed as a naturally occurring process, the definition implies all processes that modify and
shape the landscape. As such, human modification of the landscape deserves discussion. Human beings have in one way or
another, been effective at adapting to their surroundings. In early human history, landscape modification was low-impact and
limited to the first quarry sites, mining operations, and agriculturally-related processes. Some of these are enduring and include the
Nazca Plains in South America. As global population began to rise in the
mid 19th century as a result of industrialization, human
abilities to alter the landscape increased with it. Throughout the 20th century, humans became very effective movers of modifiers of
the landscape (Figure 14). It has been estimated that 1000 yr BP the total amount of earth moved annually was
0.1 Gt. 100 years
10 Geomorphology

ago, this amount had increased to
0.2 Gt per annum. Today, the estimate is
37 Gt per annum and when agricultural processes
are included, this raises to
80 Gt per annum. Over the past 5000 years of human history, the amount of earth moved by humans
would amount to the construction of 4000 m high mountain range that is 40 km wide by 100 km long.
Clearly, humans are effective modifiers of the landscape. As population continues to increase, the need for basic resources will
also increase. This translates into continued landscape alterations by human activities into the foreseeable future.

Further Reading
Anderson RS and Anderson SP (2010) Geomorphology: The mechanics and chemistry of landscapes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 654p.
Costa JE and Baker VR (1981) Surficial geology, building with the earth. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 510p.
Engineering Geology Field Manual (2001) U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, 2nd edn. Vols. 1–2, (chapter 25).
Fookes PG, Lee EM, and Griffiths JS (eds.) (2007) Engineering geomorphology: Theory and practice. Baca Raton, FL: CRC Press 281p.
Guidelines for Determining Flood Flow Frequency, 1981. Bulletin 17B of the Hydrology Subcommittee, Interagency Advisory Committee on Water Data, U.S. Dept. of the Interior,
Geological Survey, 194p.
Hooke RL (2000) On the history of humans as geomorphic agents. Geology 28(9): 843–846.
Kiersch GA (ed.) (1991) The heritage of engineering geology: The first hundred years. In The decade of North American geology, centennial special volume 3, p. 605. Boulder, CO:
Geological Society of America.
Leopold LB, Wolman MG, and Miller JP (1992) Fluvial processes in geomorphology. New York: Dover Publications, 522p.
Leopold LB (1994) A view of the river. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 312p.
Miall AD (ed.) (1978) Fluvial sedimentology, Canadian Soc. Petrol. Engrs, p. 859.
Rahn PH (1996) Engineering geology, an environmental approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 657p.
Ritter DF, Kochel RC, and Miller JR (2006) Process geomorphology. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 546 p.
Rosgen D (1996) Applied river morphology. Ft. Collins, CO: Wildland Hydrology, 390p.
Schumm SA, Watson C, and Harvey M (1986) Incised channels, morphology, dynamics and controls. Littelton, CO: Water Resources Publications, 200p.
Simon A, Doyle M, Kondolf M, Shields FD Jr., Rhodes B, and McPhillips M (2007) Critical evaluation of how the Rosgen classification and associated “natural channel design”
methods fail to integrate and quantify fluvial processes and channel response. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 43(5): 1117–1131.
Varnes, D.J. 1958. Landslide types and processes. Transportation Research Board, Highway Research Board Special Report, 29, 20–47.