ASSIGNMENT 1 FRONT SHEET

Qualification BTEC Level 5 HND Diploma in Computing

Unit number and title Unit 2: Networking Infrastructure

Submission date 22/8/2022 Date Received 1st submission

Re-submission Date Date Received 2nd submission

Student Name Phan Tuan Manh Student ID: BH00210

Class IT0504 Assessor name Le Van Thuan

Student declaration

I certify that the assignment submission is entirely my own work and I fully understand the consequences of plagiarism. I understand that
making a false declaration is a form of malpractice.

Student’s signature Your name heare

Grading grid

P1 P2 P3 P4 M1 M2 D1

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❒ Summative Feedback: ❒ Resubmission Feedback:

Grade: Assessor Signature: Date:

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Signature & Date:

Table contents
I. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4

II. BODY P1 DISCUSS THE BENEFITS AND CONSTRAINTS OF DIFFERENT NETWORK TYPES AND STANDARDS........................................................................................... 4

1. Define network............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
2. Network type (MAN, WAN,LAN etc.)................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
a. PAN (Personal Area Network)...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5
b. LAN (Local Area Network).......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................6
c. WAN (Wide Area Network)?...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................8
d. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)?................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................10
3. Protocol and Standards........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 12
a. Protocol..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................12
b. Standards.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................12
P2. NETWORK TOPOLOGY & COMMUNICATION AND BANDWIDTH REQUIREMENTS.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 14
a. Network topology definition............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
b. The Impact of topology......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
a. Client Server..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................15
b. Cloud................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................15
c. Virtualised.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................15
d. Logical Topology.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................16
e. Physical Topology.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................16
f. IPv4...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................17
g. IPv6...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................17
h. FTP....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................18
i. HTTP................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................18
j. OSI Model.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................18
k. IEEE 802.3......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................20
l. IEEE 802.11...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................21
c. Communication and Bandwidth................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
a. commutations in terms of networking............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................22
b. Rules of communication.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................23
c. Bandwidth.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................24
P3 DISCUSS THE OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF NETWORKING DEVICES AND SERVER TYPES....................................................................................................................................................................................... 25

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 1. Networking Devices and Sever Type............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
a. Types of network devices......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................25
P4 DISCUSS THE INTER-DEPENDENCE OF WORKSTATION HARDWARE WITH RELEVANT NETWORKING SOFTWARE...........................................................................................................................................39
a. workstation hardware.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
b. networking software.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 40

III. CONCLUSION........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 40

IV. REFERENCES...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 40

Table of Figure

Figure 1: Nework......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 2: LAN................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7
Figure 3: Wan............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 4: Man............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
Figure 5: Protocol....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 6: Network Topology Types............................................................................................................................................................................ 14
Figure 7: Hub............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 26
Figure 8: Swich........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 9: Router......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 10: Bridge........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 31

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 I. Introduction
Currently, the network is a common utility in life. It has a long history of development with diverse models and complex
modes of operation. In this assignment, the benefits and limitations of netWork types WIll be discussed, and the concepts of
network types, protocols, and network standards will also be introduced and analyzed. The impact of network topology will
be explained in the next section. Here, the concepts, of how the network topology works are the main issue, In addition,
communication and bandwidth are also explored. Part three, the operating principles of network equipment and servers is
an important issue. Common network devices and some types of Servers will be introduced to the concept and how it works.
The last part will be discussed with the main issue being the interdependence of workstation hardware with network
software. They will be introduced and analyze the dependence of these two factors.

II. Body
P1 Discuss the benefits and constraints of different network types and standards.
1. Define network.
In information technology, a network is defined as the connection of at least two computer systems, either by a cable or a
wireless connection. The simplest network is a combination of two computers connected by a cable. This type of network is
called a peer-to-peer network. There is no hierarchy in this network; both participants have equal privileges. Each computer
has access to the data of the other device and can share resources such as disk space, applications or peripheral devices
(printers, etc.).

Today’s networks tend to be a bit more complex and don’t just consist of two computers. Systems with more than ten
participants usually use client-server networks. In these networks, a central computer (server) provides resources to the
other participants in the network (clients).
2. Network type (MAN, WAN,LAN etc.)

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Figure 1: Nework

a. PAN (Personal Area Network)

PAN (Personal Area Network) is a computer network formed around a person. It generally consists of a computer,
mobile, or personal digital assistant. PAN can be used for establishing communication among these personal devices
for connecting to a digital network and the internet.

I. Characteristics of PAN

 It is mostly personal devices network equipped within a limited area.

 Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the surrounding of a single user.
 PAN includes mobile devices, tablet, and laptop.
 It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN.
 Appliances use for PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and Bluetooth systems.

II. Advantages of PAN

 PAN networks are relatively secure and safe

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  It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
 Strictly restricted to a small area

III. Disadvantages of PAN

 It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same radio bands.
 Distance limits.

b. LAN (Local Area Network)

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral devices which are connected in a limited area such
as school, laboratory, home, and office building. It is a widely useful network for sharing resources like files, printers,
games, and other application. The simplest type of LAN network is to connect computers and a printer in someone’s
home or office. In general, LAN will be used as one type of transmission medium. It is a network which consists of less
than 5000 interconnected devices across several buildings.

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Figure 2: LAN

I. Characteristics of LAN

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  It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.
 LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.
 There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring and ethernet.

II. Advantages of LAN

 Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local area networks. This
significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
 You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the licensed software for each
client in the network.
 Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server computer.
 You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
 It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more secure.
 Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection among all the LAN users.

III. Disadvantages of LAN

 LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the initial cost of installing Local
Area Networks is quite high.
 The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not offer good privacy.
 Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN admin is not able to secure
centralized data repository.
 Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues related to software
setup and hardware failures

c. WAN (Wide Area Network)?

WAN (Wide Area Network) is another important computer network that which is spread across a large geographical
area. WAN network system could be a connection of a LAN which connects with other LAN’s using telephone lines
and radio waves. It is mostly limited to an enterprise or an organization.

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Figure 3: Wan

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 I. Characteristics of WAN

 The software files will be shared among all the users; therefore, all can access to the latest files.
 Any organization can form its global integrated network using WAN.
II. Advantages of WAN

 WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore business offices situated at longer
distances can easily communicate.
 Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming consoles, etc.
 WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into client devices.
III. Disadvantages of WAN

 The initial setup cost of investment is very high.

 It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians and network administrators.
 There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use of different technologies.
 It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of multiple wired and wireless
technologies.
 Offers lower security compared to other types of network in computer

d. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)?

A Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is consisting of a computer network across an entire city, college campus, or a
small region. This type of network is large than a LAN, which is mostly limited to a single building or site. Depending
upon the type of configuration, this type of network allows you to cover an area from several miles to tens of miles.

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Figure 4: Man

I. Characteristics of MAN
 It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range
 Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.
II. Advantages of MAN
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  It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic cables.
 It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater access to WANs.
 The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both directions concurrently.
 A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.
III. Disadvantages of MAN
 You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to another.
 In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers

3. Protocol and Standards 

a. Protocol
In Order to make communication successful between devices , some rules and procedures should be agreed upon at
the sending and receiving ends of the system. Such rules and procedures are called as Protocols . Different types of
protocols are used for different types of communication.

Figure 5: Protocol

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 In above diagrams Protocols are shown as set of rules . Such that Communication between Sender and Receiver is not
possible without Protocol.

b. Standards
Standards are the set of rules for data communication that are needed for exchange of information among devices.
It is important to follow Standards which are created by various Standard Organization like IEEE , ISO , ANSI etc.

Types of Standards :
Standards are of two types :
 De Facto Standard.
 De Jure Standard.

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P2. Network topology & communication and Bandwidth requirements

Figure 6: Network Topology Types

a. Network topology definition.

Network topology refers to the manner in which the links and nodes of a network are arranged to relate to each other.
Topologies are categorized as either physical network topology, which is the physical signal transmission medium, or logical
network topology, which refers to the manner in which data travels through the network between devices, independent of

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 physical connection of the devices. Logical network topology examples include twisted pair Ethernet, which is categorized as
a logical bus topology, and token ring, which is categorized as a logical ring topology.

Physical network topology examples include star, mesh, tree, ring, point-to-point, circular, hybrid, and bus topology
networks, each consisting of different configurations of nodes and links. The ideal network topology depends on each
business’s size, scale, goals, and budget. A network topology diagram helps visualize the communicating devices, which are
modeled as nodes, and the connections between the devices, which are modeled as links between the nodes.

b. The Impact of topology

a. Client Server
This type of relationship is between two systems. One is the client (user), and the other is a server. The client will
make a service request to the other system (Server) which will send back information to the client. Within this type of
relationship, the client requires the information given from the server for it to function correctly; therefore, it must be
managed correctly. Furthermore, the server controls the security of the network which can be beneficial as this
means that the user does not need to have security measures on their side. With this type of topology, the bandwidth
between the client and the server is limited by the hardware that is used either by the server or the client. (BBC, n.d.)
For example, a server may have hardware supporting 1000 mb/s transfer speed but is limited to 30 mb/s due to the
bandwidth allocated by the ISP (Internet Server Provider). This scenario can also be applied to the client as their
hardware configuration may support higher bandwidth than their ISP (Internet Service Provider) has allocated for
them.
b. Cloud
The cloud network topology refers to a collection of servers and data centers which are used to create a collection of
resources that could be accessed from anywhere in the world as long as the user has an Internet connection. Cloud
networks can be beneficial for small or large organisations as they can accompany expansion which only requires an
adjustment to their current contract with the provider (Microsoft, n.d.). As a result of cloud technology, this has led to
the popularisation of cloud software. Cloud software is a type of software that can be accessed through browsers. For
example, Google cloud suite allows users to use a variety of software such as Docs, Slides, Sheets or Drive. These will
enable users to create and edit documents, upload files and also share these documents with other users through

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email. This can be advantageous for organisations as this can be used to improve communication and also allows
employees to continue working on documents outside of business hours.
c. Virtualised
Virtualised networks can be presented in a variety of different forms that work in a variety of ways and for a different
purpose. VLAN stands for Virtual Local Area Network. Cisco (URL, n.d.) summarises a VLAN as a “group of devices on
one or more LANs that are configured to communicate as if they were attached to the same wire”. Within an
organisation this can be beneficial as the connecting LANs could allow for increased communication between
departments or branches, therefore. Another type of Virtual network is a VPN. This stands for a virtual private
network which according to Cisco (n.d. 2) is defined as “an encrypted connection over the Internet from a device to a
network”. This can also be known as remote access. Within an organisation that allows employees to connect to the
network securely. This can be beneficial as it can enable the work from home approach which could prevent
demotivation.
d. Logical Topology
I. Ethernet

The Ethernet typology is the most typical type of logical topology used. This topology can use two physical
topologies that are the bus and the star topology. The bus topology connects all devices on the network
through the same medium, also known as a physical channel. Some examples of this physical channel are
coaxial Cables, twisted pair or fibre optic. When using this topology, any communication that occurs can be
heard by all other devices connected (Blackbox, n.d.). Ethernet also utilises CSMA/CD which stands for
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection. Carrier Sense refers to the prevention of transmission
from other devices if one is already transmitting (Blackbox, n.d.). Multiple Access refers to the ability for
multiple devices to communicate using the same medium (Blackbox, n.d.). Collision Detection refers to a
check that occurs to detect if more than one transmission signal is occurring, jamming the signal and then
waiting for a random interval before retransmission. (Blackbox, n.d.)
e. Physical Topology
I. Star

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 BBC (n.d. 3) defines the star network topology as “each device on the network has its own cable that
connects to a switch or hub”. This means that visually the switch/hub is located at the centre of and the
computers are connected to the hub/switch rather than being connected to two different computers. This
can be essential for network management as all the traffic will be directed through the switch/hub which it
can be easily managed. Similar to other types of topologies it is also easy to add devices to the network as it
will only require a cable connected to the switch/hub. If a device other than the hub/switch fails, then the
rest of the network will still be accessible. However, if the hub/switch fails, then the entire network will not
be accessible by the other devices. This also has additional cost due to the requirement of a networking
device to be used. (BBC, n.d. 3).

II. Ring

According to ComputerHope (2018), the ring topology is defined as “A ring topology is a network
configuration in which device connections create a circular data path. Each networked device is connected
to two others, like points on a circle”. From this, it can be assumed that in the event of an error occurring at
one part of the ring this will cause the chain to break and the network to fail. The ring topology also only
allows transmission in a certain direction at a certain time within the circle while other topologies such as
the star allows the data to flow in either direction. Unlike the star topology, it does not require a networking
device for it to function correctly as each device will connect to two other devices. This also allows the
network to be flexible. It can expand the ring as long as the new device can connect to two other devices to
continue the ring. Furthermore, as the data is travelling in one direction, this can reduce collisions that occur
when transmissions are sent. However, this topology can be slow. For example, if a device has to transmit
data to a device that is “behind” it on the ring, it will have to go to every other device before it reaches its
destination. (Computerhope, 2018).
f. IPv4
IPv4 stands for Internet Protocol Version 4 which is a 32-bit IP address that is formatted as four three-digit numbers
separated by a dot. For example, 111.111.111.111. This can allow any number from 0 to 255 which roughly provides 4
billion unique addresses. As computing devices have become more affordable, it had led to it becoming more
common in everyday houses and organisations. As IPv4 has a set limitation on the number of unique addresses it can

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allocate, it will mean that at in the future we will run out of unique addresses. To solve this major issue, a new type of
unique address will be used as a replacement to the IPv4 system. This is called IPv6. (PC, 2009)
g. IPv6
IPv6 is the 6th version of the Internet Protocol which is an increasingly complex version from an earlier version. This is
because it uses a 128-bit address which is four hexadecimal (0-9 and A-F) numbers laid out in the following pattern
‘aaaa:bbbb:cccc:dddd:eeee:ffff:gggg:hhhh’. As this follows hexadecimal, this can be easily perceived as being more
secure as attempting to guess the IP would take significantly more time than what it would for an IPv4 address. This
type of Internet Protocol has not been fully adopted yet. This is due to a wide range of systems using IPv4, and the
immediate switch could be financially expensive. However, as of the 22d November 2018, there is a 22.77% IPv6
adoption with 21.85% of the amount being in the United Kingdom. (Google, n.d.)
h. FTP
FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol and it is used for transferring files between a client and a server. This type of
protocol utilises the client-server network topology when communicating between the server and the client. FTP also
uses two ports, one for sending data (port 20) and another port for the server to listen for incoming clients (port 21)
(Gibson Research Corporation, 2008). FTP can also be handy for a user as this allows them to easily upload and
download files remotely through the connection which further eliminates the requirements for the user to use a
removable media to merely update the files on their server. Depending on the configuration this also means that it
can also be remotely accessed from different geolocations. FTP is commonly used when using a company as a server
hosting provider as most times the servers are not physically accessible the user. (BBC, n.d. 2)
i. HTTP
HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol which is used for transmitting digital media for example HTML. This
protocol is used when sending requests from a browser to a web server. This type of protocol is stateless which is
defined as not recording any data. This type of transmission protocol has been superseded by HTTPS which is a secure
version of the HTTP protocol. HTTPS is a secure version of HTTP which utilises encryption methods to ensure any data
transmitted or received by the user cannot be intercepted. (BBC, n.d. 2)
j. OSI Model
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. According to (CloudFlare, n.d.) the OSI provides “Standardization which
enables diverse communication systems to communicate using standard protocols.”

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 I. Layer 7
Layer 7 also known as the Application layer. This layer interacts with the user and is used to establish the
communication. This layer gains this communication from software applications which rely on protocols for
communicating data and also receiving data (Cloudflare, n.d.). A common example of this is the HTTP
protocol as the user requests a web page from a browser which in turn attempts to establish communication
with the server. Another typical example is the usage of FTP. As the software relies on communicating with
the server for the purpose of sending and receiving files.
II. Layer 6
Layer 6 also known as the Presentation layer. This layer specialises in translation of data so that the different
layers can use it. This means that any information passed from the application layer will need to be
translated so it can be readable by another device. This also works in the opposite direction as data from
another device will not be readable by the application layer. Therefore, it will need to be translated into a
format that can be used by the application layer. Furthermore, encryption, decryption, and compression are
also done during this stage if required. (Cloudflare, n.d.)
III. Layer 5
Layer 5 also known as the Session layer. This layer has the primary focus of managing the communication
between the two devices that are used for the transmission and receiving of data. This layer also has the
ability to establish and terminate the communication. This layer is essential as it ensures that
communication between the two devices is established long enough for the data to be fully transmitted
without any errors. To further ensure that the data is fully transmitted, checks are conducted periodically to
identify the recipient or sender has disconnected. If this occurs, the layer will save the last point that data
was transmitted or received so that it only sends the missing packets rather than all of them. (Cloudflare,
n.d.)
IV. Layer 4
Layer 4 also known as the Transport layer. This focuses on taking data gained from the session layer then
breaking it into segments which will then be given to the network layer (layer 3). This layer is also
responsible for the data communication for the two devices. This contains flow and error control which will
identify the transmission speed required so that it does not cause issues for the recipient if they have a
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 lower speed than the sender. Error control ensures that all data is sent correctly and if it is not correctly sent
it will retransmit the missing data. (Cloudflare, n.d.)
V. Layer 3
Layer 3, also known as the Network layer. This layer is designed to transfer the data from one network to
another. This layer is only applicable if the two devices are not contained on the same network as this layer
will be skipped and sent to layer 2. During the network layer, the segments gained from the previous layer
are then further split into packets. These contain the data and information such as the receiver’s IP address
to allow it to get to the correct location.
VI. Layer 2
Layer 2, also known as the Data Link layer, refers to the section which specialises in the transmitting and
receiving of data between two devices that are connected within the same network. This takes the packets
received from layer three that do not contain information in relation to which local machine requested the
data. This then adds the MAC address to the packet so it can be correctly forwarded to the right system. As
with the network layer, this also contains flow control and error control functionality to ensure the data is
received correctly. (Cloudflare, n.d.)
VII. Layer 1
Layer1, also known as the physical layer, refers to the use of physical equipment that is required for data to
be transferred successfully. This is typically done through mediums such as an Ethernet cable. During this
layer, the data gets converted into bits which consist of 1s and 0s. When communicating between devices,
these must be correctly synchronised to understand the data conversion. (Cloudflare, n.d.)

k. IEEE 802.3
I. 10Base-T

10Base-T is an Ethernet standard established by the IEEE. Sopto (n.d.) defines 10Base-T as “10BASE-T is the
IEEE standard that defines the requirement for sending information at 10 Mbps on unshielded twisted-pair
cabling”. This means that when using a 10Base-T wire for connecting devices together will only allow a
transmission speed of 10 Mbps.

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 II. 100Base-TX

According to Pcmag (n.d.), 100Base-TX is a modified version of 100Base-T which supports transmission
speeds of 100 Mbps between devices using two pairs of category 5 cables while the 100Base-TX utilizes the
Category 6 cables.

III. 1000Base-T

1000Base-T is an updated standard by the IEE which is defined by Sopto (n.d.) as “sending information at
1000 Mbps on unshielded twisted-pair cabling”. This type of Ethernet is an updated version of 10Base-T but
allows for significantly faster transmission speeds of 1 gigabit. This also utilizes Category 5 cables within
which will enable it to have the 1 gigabit transmission speed. (Sopto n.d.)

IV. 10GBase-T

According to an article published by Cablinginstall (2006), 10GBase-T refers to a standard for ethernet that
supports the ability to have 10 gigabits per second transmission speeds up to 100 meters. This is further
expanded by the usage of Category 6 Augmented cables (Cat 6a) which allow these speeds to be used for
distances over 100 meters. This type of Even though this was first established in 2006 it is still uncommon for
the standard household. This is because a lot of ISPs and consumer level hardware do not support those
types of speeds. However, this is used by large organisations that conduct large-scale file transfers and
receiving. This is also common within data centers as they are reliant on maintaining high transmissions
speeds.

l. IEEE 802.11
IEEE 802.11 refers to the working standards set for Wireless Local Area Networks created by the Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). This also sets specifications for the Media Access Control (MAC) and the Physical
Layer (PHY). The first version of these standards was released in 1997 and has been amended and updated as wireless
technology advances. Below contains some of the examples of the various protocols that are set by the IEEE.
(Mitchell, 2018)

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 I. 802.11a

This iteration of the 802.11a wireless standard sough to improve upon the original networking speed of 1-
2Mbps transmission. This was upgraded to 54Mbps and also utilized the 5GHz band, standard 802.11 utilised
2.4GHz. This also made sure it would be compatible with other iterations of the wireless standard such as
the 802.11b and 802.11g. (Mitchell, 2018)

II. 802.11b

This standard also is adapted from the original 802.11 standard but focuses on improvements within the
2.4GHz range which increased the transmission speeds to 11 Mbps. This further allowed wireless to be more
viable as an alternative to ethernet.  (Mitchell, 2018)

III. 802.11g

This type of wireless standard is the most commonly used one today. This further expands on the 802.11b
wireless standard by allowing transmission speeds up to 54Mbps and distances up to 150 feet (45.72
Meters). It also still uses the 2.4GHz range which allows it to be compatible with the 802.11b wireless
standard. (Mitchell, 2018)

IV. 802.11n

This wireless standard was designed to be an improvement over the 802.11g wireless standard. This utilises
MIMO technology, which stands for Multiple Input, Multiple Output. This allows the access point to use
more than one antenna which can improve speed, range, and overall efficiency. (Mitchell, 2018)

V. 802.11ac

802.11ac was created as an overall improvement to the 802.11 standard but more specifically the 802.11n
wireless standard. This wireless standard provides significantly increased transmission speeds (from 433
Mbps). This also runs on the 5GHz range to ensure speed is maintained as most other devices run on the

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 2.4GHz range. This also incorporates the MIMO technology and also uses a new technology called
beamforming. Which according to Lendino (2016) “sends signal directly to client devices”.

c. Communication and Bandwidth

a. commutations  in terms of networking

Network communication, or internetworking, defines a set of protocols (that is, rules and standards) that allow
application programs to talk with each other without regard to the hardware and operating systems where they are run.
Internetworking allows application programs to communicate independently of their physical network connections.

The internetworking technology called TCP/IP is named after its two main protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
and Internet Protocol (IP). To understand TCP/IP, you should be familiar with the following terms:
client
A process that requests services on the network.
server
A process that responds to a request for service from a client.
datagram
The basic unit of information, consisting of one or more data packets, which are passed across an Internet at the
transport level.
packet
The unit or block of a data transaction between a computer and its network. A packet usually contains a network header,
at least one high-level protocol header, and data blocks. Generally, the format of data blocks does not affect how packets
are handled. Packets are the exchange medium used at the Internetwork layer to send data through the network.

b. Rules of communication
The information to be passed or the message to be shared among the people in the same network should be clear and
should be free from any jargon. Active voice should be preferred and the message should be in simple words and short. If
the message is long, it is better to transfer the message with bulleted points.

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The message has to be concise which only then the listener be careful to read with full attention and with no loss of
concentration. Long or lengthy messages should be avoided at any cost. People will not have enough patience to read the
entire message if it is elaborated with very less meaningful words.
The message passed should be explained well with concrete information. False messages should not be passed in any
case which leads to communication mishaps.
The messages should be passed in relevant order. It is not good if the message is passed saying the end in the beginning
or finishing the message without full information. The receiver will understand the message in a wrong manner which will
lead to conflicts and the ideas will differ. The information should be passed between persons in a logical, sequential and
well-planned manner. Hence this part has to be concentrated well.
The transmitter person should be honest, respecting others and open with the listener at the bottom level or end of the
conversation. The transmitter should be considerate with the listener and should use polite words. The messenger should
not be rude at all as the rude messenger will not find any receptors for his information even if the information is
important. The messenger should not be a racist and should never use such terms while passing the information. All the
persons in the other end receiving the information should be considered equal and should never use inconsiderate words
while transmitting the information.
The listener also plays an important role in the communication network. They should understand the information very
well and should clarify the same if possible. The message should be detected from the mixed words, non-verbal actions
should be analyzed well, practical to understand the problems and mature enough to act according to the information.
Care should be there from the listener’s side to focus the message when it is sent from the other end. Miscommunication
should not happen.
Emotions should be controlled while passing information. The listener should not use his knowledge to pass information
to other people in the loop. The focus should only be on the information passed from the top level.

c. Bandwidth
Rouse (2018) state that bandwidth is the amount of wired or wireless network bandwidth used
to transmit data from point to point. Bandwidth plays a very important role for internet users, it
determines the connection speed and internet experience. The more data that a broadband
connection has, the more data that can be sent and received at the same time. The maximum

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 capacity of a network connection is just one factor that affects network performance. Terminal
topology usually consists of multiple network links, each with different bandwidths.
There are 3 types of bandwidth that first one uses as much space as it will pay as much money.
The second type of bandwidth is shared bandwidth used for many machines which usually causes
full bandwidth condition. And the last type is the bandwidth of the individual without share
bandwidth condition. Computers can interact with each other by using the bandwidth flow. so
users should choose their own type of bandwidth.
The bandwidth used to describe the network speed, for example: a bandwidth of 1,000 Mbps.
Internet connection via cable modem can provide 25 Mbps bandwidth. (Rouse, 2018)

P3 Discuss the operating principles of networking devices and server types

1. Networking Devices and Sever Type

a. Types of network devices

I. Hub

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Figure 7: Hub

Hubs connect multiple computer networking devices together. A hub also acts as a repeater in that it amplifies
signals that deteriorate after traveling long distances over connecting cables. A hub is the simplest in the
family of network connecting devices because it connects LAN components with identical protocols.

A hub can be used with both digital and analog data, provided its settings have been configured to prepare for
the formatting of the incoming data. For example, if the incoming data is in digital format, the hub must pass it
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 on as packets; however, if the incoming data is analog, then the hub passes it on in signal form.

Hubs do not perform packet filtering or addressing functions; they just send data packets to all connected
devices. Hubs operate at the Physical layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. There are two
types of hubs: simple and multiple port.

II. Switch

Figure 8: Swich

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 Switches generally have a more intelligent role than hubs. A switch is a multiport device that improves
network efficiency. The switch maintains limited routing information about nodes in the internal network, and
it allows connections to systems like hubs or routers. Strands of LANs are usually connected using switches.
Generally, switches can read the hardware addresses of incoming packets to transmit them to the appropriate
destination.

Using switches improves network efficiency over hubs or routers because of the virtual circuit capability.
Switches also improve network security because the virtual circuits are more difficult to examine with network
monitors. You can think of a switch as a device that has some of the best capabilities of routers and hubs
combined. A switch can work at either the Data Link layer or the Network layer of the OSI model. A multilayer
switch is one that can operate at both layers, which means that it can operate as both a switch and a router. A
multilayer switch is a high-performance device that supports the same routing protocols as routers.

Switches can be subject to distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks; flood guards are used to prevent
malicious traffic from bringing the switch to a halt. Switch port security is important so be sure to secure
switches: Disable all unused ports and use DHCP snooping, ARP inspection and MAC address filtering.

III. Router

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Figure 9: Router

Routers help transmit packets to their destinations by charting a path through the sea of interconnected
networking devices using different network topologies. Routers are intelligent devices, and they store
information about the networks they’re connected to. Most routers can be configured to operate as packet-
filtering firewalls and use access control lists (ACLs). Routers, in conjunction with a channel service unit/data
service unit (CSU/DSU), are also used to translate from LAN framing to WAN framing. This is needed because
LANs and WANs use different network protocols. Such routers are known as border routers. They serve as the
outside connection of a LAN to a WAN, and they operate at the border of your network.

Router are also used to divide internal networks into two or more subnetworks. Routers can also be
connected internally to other routers, creating zones that operate independently. Routers establish
communication by maintaining tables about destinations and local connections. A router contains information
about the systems connected to it and where to send requests if the destination isn’t known. Routers usually

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 communicate routing and other information using one of three standard protocols: Routing Information
Protocol (RIP), Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) or Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).

Routers are your first line of defense, and they must be configured to pass only traffic that is authorized by
network administrators. The routes themselves can be configured as static or dynamic. If they are static, they
can only be configured manually and stay that way until changed. If they are dynamic, they learn of other
routers around them and use information about those routers to build their routing tables.

Routers are general-purpose devices that interconnect two or more heterogeneous networks. They are usually
dedicated to special-purpose computers, with separate input and output network interfaces for each
connected network. Because routers and gateways are the backbone of large computer networks like the
internet, they have special features that give them the flexibility and the ability to cope with varying network
addressing schemes and frame sizes through segmentation of big packets into smaller sizes that fit the new
network components. Each router interface has its own Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) module, its own
LAN address (network card address) and its own Internet Protocol (IP) address. The router, with the help of a
routing table, has knowledge of routes a packet could take from its source to its destination. The routing table,
like in the bridge and switch, grows dynamically. Upon receipt of a packet, the router removes the packet
headers and trailers and analyzes the IP header by determining the source and destination addresses and data
type, and noting the arrival time. It also updates the router table with new addresses not already in the table.
The IP header and arrival time information is entered in the routing table. Routers normally work at the
Network layer of the OSI model.

IV. Bridge

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Figure 10: Bridge

Bridges are used to connect two or more hosts or network segments together. The basic role of bridges in
network architecture is storing and forwarding frames between the different segments that the bridge
connects. They use hardware Media Access Control (MAC) addresses for transferring frames. By looking at the
MAC address of the devices connected to each segment, bridges can forward the data or block it from
crossing. Bridges can also be used to connect two physical LANs into a larger logical LAN.

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 Bridges work only at the Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI model. Bridges are used to divide larger
networks into smaller sections by sitting between two physical network segments and managing the flow of
data between the two.

Bridges are like hubs in many respects, including the fact that they connect LAN components with identical
protocols. However, bridges filter incoming data packets, known as frames, for addresses before they are
forwarded. As it filters the data packets, the bridge makes no modifications to the format or content of the
incoming data. The bridge filters and forwards frames on the network with the help of a dynamic bridge table.
The bridge table, which is initially empty, maintains the LAN addresses for each computer in the LAN and the
addresses of each bridge interface that connects the LAN to other LANs. Bridges, like hubs, can be either
simple or multiple port.

Bridges have mostly fallen out of favor in recent years and have been replaced by switches, which offer more
functionality. In fact, switches are sometimes referred to as “multiport bridges” because of how they operate.

V. Gateway

Gateways normally work at the Transport and Session layers of the OSI model. At the Transport layer and
above, there are numerous protocols and standards from different vendors; gateways are used to deal with
them. Gateways provide translation between networking technologies such as Open System Interconnection
(OSI) and Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Because of this, gateways connect two or
more autonomous networks, each with its own routing algorithms, protocols, topology, domain name service,
and network administration procedures and policies.

Gateways perform all of the functions of routers and more. In fact, a router with added translation
functionality is a gateway. The function that does the translation between different network technologies is
called a protocol converter.

VI. Modem

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 Modems (modulators-demodulators) are used to transmit digital signals over analog telephone lines. Thus,
digital signals are converted by the modem into analog signals of different frequencies and transmitted to a
modem at the receiving location. The receiving modem performs the reverse transformation and provides a
digital output to a device connected to a modem, usually a computer. The digital data is usually transferred to
or from the modem over a serial line through an industry standard interface, RS-232. Many telephone
companies offer DSL services, and many cable operators use modems as end terminals for identification and
recognition of home and personal users. Modems work on both the Physical and Data Link layers.

VII. Repeater

A repeater is an electronic device that amplifies the signal it receives. You can think of repeater as a device
which receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher power so that the signal can cover longer
distances, more than 100 meters for standard LAN cables. Repeaters work on the Physical layer.

VIII. Access Point

While an access point (AP) can technically involve either a wired or wireless connection, it commonly means a
wireless device. An AP works at the second OSI layer, the Data Link layer, and it can operate either as a bridge
connecting a standard wired network to wireless devices or as a router passing data transmissions from one
access point to another.

Wireless access points (WAPs) consist of a transmitter and receiver (transceiver) device used to create a
wireless LAN (WLAN). Access points typically are separate network devices with a built-in antenna, transmitter
and adapter. APs use the wireless infrastructure network mode to provide a connection point between WLANs
and a wired Ethernet LAN. They also have several ports, giving you a way to expand the network to support
additional clients. Depending on the size of the network, one or more APs might be required to provide full
coverage. Additional APs are used to allow access to more wireless clients and to expand the range of the
wireless network. Each AP is limited by its transmission range — the distance a client can be from an AP and
still obtain a usable signal and data process speed. The actual distance depends on the wireless standard, the

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 obstructions and environmental conditions between the client and the AP. Higher end APs have high-powered
antennas, enabling them to extend how far the wireless signal can travel.

APs might also provide many ports that can be used to increase the network’s size, firewall capabilities and
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) service. Therefore, we get APs that are a switch, DHCP server,
router and firewall.

To connect to a wireless AP, you need a service set identifier (SSID) name. 802.11 wireless networks use the
SSID to identify all systems belonging to the same network, and client stations must be configured with the
SSID to be authenticated to the AP. The AP might broadcast the SSID, allowing all wireless clients in the area to
see the AP’s SSID. However, for security reasons, APs can be configured not to broadcast the SSID, which
means that an administrator needs to give client systems the SSID instead of allowing it to be discovered
automatically. Wireless devices ship with default SSIDs, security settings, channels, passwords and usernames.
For security reasons, it is strongly recommended that you change these default settings as soon as possible
because many internet sites list the default settings used by manufacturers.

Access points can be fat or thin. Fat APs, sometimes still referred to as autonomous APs, need to be manually
configured with network and security settings; then they are essentially left alone to serve clients until they
can no longer function. Thin APs allow remote configuration using a controller. Since thin clients do not need
to be manually configured, they can be easily reconfigured and monitored. Access points can also be
controller-based or stand-alone.

b. Server types
I. Web Server

A web server powers the site you’re looking at right now. This genre of server focuses on serving web content
to clients.

Web servers simply take “GET” and “POST” requests from clients (among other verbs).
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 A “GET” request is when a client simply wants to retrieve information and doesn’t have any information to
submit to the server.

A “POST” request on the other hand is when a client does have information to share with the server and
expects a response back. For example, filling up a form on a web server and clicking the submit button is a
“POST” request from the client to the server.

Web servers are typically “headless” in nature. This is to preserve the memory on the server and ensure that
there’s enough to power the operating system and applications on the server.

“Headless” means that it doesn’t run like a traditional home computer, but rather just serves content. The
administrators of these servers can only connect to them through command line terminals.

Remember that these types of servers can run any type of application just like your home computer can

They can also run on any operating system, as long as they obey the general “rules” of the web.

Modern web applications usually run on a series of layers, starting with server-side scripts and programs that
process data (e.g PHP, ASP.NET etc), and ending with client-side scripting (e.g Javascript) that programs how
the data should be displayed.

A web browser then renders the content accordingly to show the page as you’re reading it now

II. Database Server

A database server typically operates in tandem with another type of server. This kind of server simply exists to
store data in groups.

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 There are countless methods of keeping data that operate on different theories. One of the more common
types is known as “SQL” or “Structured Query Language”.

Database programmers can create databases on these servers using scripting in the language of the database.

Web applications usually have their server-side components connect to a Database server to grab data as
users request it.

A good practice is to have webservers and database servers on different machines. The reason that database
servers should exist on their own is for security.

If a hacker gains access to the main webserver but not the database server, they will be able easily to retrieve
or modify the data stored in the database server.

Some popular Database servers include MySQL, MariaDB, Microsoft SQL, Oracle Database etc.

III. eMail Server

An email server typically runs on “SMTP” or “Simple Mail Transfer Protocol”. There are other possible
protocols that newer mail servers operate on, but SMTP remains the dominant protocol.

An email server powers mail services. These servers in themselves simply take in emails from one client to
another and forward the data to the other server.

Data is simplified when sent through SMTP, so some information, like web formatting, is usually lost in email
transactions.

The modern approach to email servers typically pairs them with web servers. This allows for users to have a
“web client” that graphically shows the data on a web page. Some newer web applications can even mimic a
home computer email client without installing anything
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IV. Web Proxy Server

A web proxy server can run on one of many protocols, but they all do one thing in common.

They take in user requests, filter them, and then act on the user’s behalf. The most popular type of web proxy
server is designed to get around school and organizational web filters.

Because web traffic is all through one IP address and website that isn’t yet blocked, users can gain access to
sites that are forbidden through these filters.

The less popular type is an organizational proxy server. This has the same effect, but it’s typically authorized by
an organization.

It takes users’ web traffic, usually logs it for evaluation later, and sends it to the Internet.

This puts users’ traffic all together so that one computer cannot be differentiated publicly from another.

This is done intentionally by an organization to prevent users from being targeted and usually to be able to
inspect, cache and analyze packets sent and received

V. DNS Server

A DNS server, or “Domain Name Service” server, is used to translate domain names to their corresponding IP
addresses.

This server is what your browser references when you type in a domain name and press Enter. The idea is that
users don’t have to memorize IP addresses and organizations can have a fitting name.

Typically, Internet Service Providers (ISPs) provide DNS servers to their users. However, there are many
organizations that provide this lookup service for free, as well (such as the popular Google DNS server with IP
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 8.8.8.8).

Some users who are more concerned about their privacy on the web often use these alternate DNS servers.

DNS servers are also tapped when users create a new domain name. DNS servers operate on a hierarchical
basis, so there are some more “authoritative” servers than others.

The domain name is registered with one higher-up DNS server that other, lower-level DNS servers reference.
Usually through a process taking anywhere from 24 to 48 hours, this registration propagates across the world

VI. FTP Server

FTP servers, or “File Transfer Protocol” servers, have a single purpose: to host a file exchange among users.

These servers do not provide any type of encryption by default, so there are a number of secured versions of
the protocol that are often used in its place (such as sFTP which is FTP over secure SSH protocol).

This type of server allows users to upload files to it or download files after authenticating through an FTP
client. Users can also browse the server’s files and download individual files as they wish

VII. File Server

A File Server is different from an FTP server. This type of server is more modern and is typically capable of
“mapping” networked files onto drives. This means that users can use their home computer’s file browser to
look into folders.

The main advantage of this form of server is that users can upload and download shared files. Permissions to
files are controlled by the administrator.

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 Usually File Servers exist in corporate networks in a Windows Active Directory environment or in Linux
environments

VIII. DHCP Server

A DHCP Server uses the Dynamic Host Communication Protocol (DHCP) to configure the network settings of
client computers.
Instead of having to manually configure static IP address and other network settings to client computers in a
large network, a DHCP server in the network configures dynamically these network settings to LAN computers

P4 Discuss the inter-dependence of workstation hardware with relevant networking software.

Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other in terms of their relationship. Computers can only produce useful
outputs when both of them work together. Hardware is required for the use of software. In a software, the user interacts with the
hardware in a way that is similar to how they do on a computer.

a. workstation hardware
workstation, a high-performance computer system that is basically designed for a single user and has advanced
graphics capabilities, large storage capacity, and a powerful central processing unit. A workstation is more capable
than a personal computer (PC) but is less advanced than a server (which can manage a large network of peripheral
PCs or workstations and handle immense data-processing and reporting tasks). The term workstation was also
sometimes ascribed to dumb terminals (i.e., those without any processing capacity) that were connected to
mainframe computers

Their raw processing power allows high-end workstations to accommodate high-resolution or three-dimensional
graphic interfaces, sophisticated multitask software, and advanced abilities to communicate with other computers.
Workstations are used primarily to perform computationally intensive scientific and engineering tasks. They have also
found favour in some complex financial and business applications. In addition, high-end workstations often serve a
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 network of attached “client” PCs, which use resident tools and applications to access and manipulate data stored on
the workstation.

The chief delineation between PCs and workstations has traditionally been the latter’s advanced graphics and data-
processing capabilities. But the advanced graphic interfaces and powerful microprocessors of high-end PCs can make
them barely distinguishable from low-end workstations.

b. networking software
Network software is a fundamental element for any networking system. It helps administrators and security
personnel reduce network complexities, and manage, monitor, and better control network traffic. Network software
plays a crucial role in managing a network infrastructure and simplifying IT operations by facilitating communication,
security, content, and data sharing.
 
Network software offers useful benefits to organizations. It has become an important tool in facilitating round-the-
clock communication and allowing an uninterrupted exchange of information. One of the most significant advantages
of network software is its direct correlation with productivity. The centralized nature of network software increases
the productivity of the complete system. This helps reduce end-user technical support problems.

Hardware is the physical component of a computer system. Hardware consists of input devices, processing units, output devices,
and auxiliary storage devices. Hardware includes keyboards, mice, printers, computers, and RAM. Software is a collection of
programs designed for a specific purpose.

Hardware refers to any physical device that is part of your computer, such as the monitor you’re currently using to read this text,
and software refers to the codes that are installed on your hard drive.
III. Conclusion

IV. References
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What is a network? Definition, explanation, and examples [online]
https://www.ionos.com/digitalguide/server/know-how/what-is-a-network/
Protocol and Standard in Computer Networks [online]
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/protocol-and-standard-in-computer-networks/
Types of Computer Network: What is LAN, MAN and WAN [online]
https://www.guru99.com/types-of-computer-network.html
Explain the Impact of Network Topology, Communication and Bandwidth Requirements [online]
https://www.ukessays.com/essays/information-systems/explain-the-impact-of-network-topology-communication-and-
bandwidth-requirements.php
Explain the Impact of Network Topology, Communication and Bandwidth Requirements [online]
https://www.ukessays.com/essays/information-systems/explain-the-impact-of-network-topology-communication-and-
bandwidth-requirements.php

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