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Bionanocomposites as industrial materials, current and future perspectives: a

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DOI: 10.1007/s42247-020-00133-x

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Emergent Materials
https://doi.org/10.1007/s42247-020-00133-x

REVIEW

Bionanocomposites as industrial materials, current and future

perspectives: a review
Blessy Joseph 1 & Saravanan Krishnan 2 & V. K. Sagarika 3 & Abhimanyu Tharayil 4 & Nandakumar Kalarikkal 1 &
Sabu Thomas 1,4

Received: 26 August 2020 / Accepted: 9 October 2020

# Qatar University and Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

Abstract
The use of biopolymers in industrial applications remain elusive due to their hydrophilicity, poor barrier properties, etc. It has
been of great interest to the research community to modify the inherent nature of bio-based materials by incorporating nanoscale
fillers into the matrix. The resulting bionanocomposites show versatility as future biomaterials, providing a deft alternative to
plastics. In general, bionanocomposites are made up of a matrix which is a biopolymer (continuous phase) and the reinforcing
agent (dispersed phase), consisting of particles with dimensions in the range of 1–100 nm. The increased research in this field is
driven by the biodegradable, biocompatible, and renewable nature of biomaterials. Bionanocomposites find broad applications in
food packaging, automobile industries, electronic industries, cosmetics, textile industries, water purification sectors, tissue
engineering, etc. A range of approaches have been utilized for the preparation of bionanocomposites including solution casting
and 3D printing. However, much more green and sophisticated processing techniques should be developed for industrial
applications. Furthermore, precise control over geometry, porosity, internal architecture, etc. is still challenging and need to be
overlooked carefully.

Keywords Bionanocomposites . Industry . Nanoparticles . Cost effective . Automobile . Water purification

1 Introduction environment. Recent advances in material science revolution-

Plastic wastes are raising general global concern, and disposal
methods are limited. We do not have enough means to recycle
plastic, and moreover, the practice of using single-use plastics
has become a pervasive problem. For instance, majority of
plastics include petroleum-based synthetic polymers like
polypropylene and polyethylene that usually take longer time
to degrade, preventing the breakdown of the other biodegrad-
able materials. They cause severe detrimental effects on the
* Sabu Thomas
sabuthomas@mgu.ac.in
1
International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and
Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi University,
Kottayam, Kerala 686560, India
2
Indian Institute of Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600036, India
3
Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Tirupati,
Mangalam, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh 517507, India
4
School of Energy Materials, Mahatma Gandhi University,
Kottayam, Kerala 686560, India
ized the field of bionanocomposites, resulting in the effective
development of environmentally friendly composites that can
replace non-degradable plastics for diversified industrial ap-
plications. The bionanocomposites can be defined as the ma-
terials that are comprise of particles with at least one dimen-
sion in the range of 1–100 nm and a constituent(s) of the
biological origin or may be biopolymers [1]. The nomencla-
ture “bionanocomposite or nanobiocomposite” typically ap-
plies to materials that have particles with at least one dimen-
sion in the nanometer regime. Generally, a bionanocomposite
comprises a biopolymer or biodegradable polymer (usually
cellulose, polycaprolactone, polylactic acid, chitin) with ap-
propriate nanofillers (nanoclay, zinc oxide, titanium dioxide,
silver nanoparticles, etc.). Nanofillers have large surface to
volume ratio which enhances the polymer matrix-filler inter-
actions, resulting in overall enhancement of material perfor-
mance [2]. The reinforcement effect is obtained even at small-
er filler content which is not usually possible with convention-
al composites that require higher proposition of fillers.
Nanofillers also improve the thermal and barrier characteris-
tics of polymers. The bionanocomposite materials have

received considerable attention from the industry and academia
owing to their unique properties such as excellent biodegradabil-
ity, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability. Optically transparent
bionanocomposites made of polylactic acid (PLA) is an interest-
ing material for food industry. Other polymers used in packag-
ing industry include poly-(butylene succinate) (PBS),
polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), and starch [3, 4]. Cellulose nano-
fibers are explored in automobile industries for developing du-
rable load-bearing parts, automotive parts, and building blocks
in cars [5]. Nanocellulose-based composites also act as cost-
effective and reusable adsorbents in water treatment industries
for the removal of contaminants like fluoride and chlorophenols
[6]. The performance of bionanocomposites is dependent on the
effective dispersion of nanoparticles in the polymer matrix. The
uniform distribution of nanoparticles in a bulk polymer depends
on various factors like choice of solvent, type of mixing, and
size of nanoparticles. The nanofillers are usually surface modi-
fied by using techniques like plasma modification, grafting or
coating with bio moieties, and chemical modifications to im-
prove their dispersion in polymer matrix. Surface modification
techniques also enhance the biocompatibility and
hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity of the bionanocomposites.
There are various factors that affect the final properties of
bionanocomposites like the nature of biopolymer used, size of
nanofillers, stoichiometric ration of components involved, and
cross-linking effectiveness [7]. Improved understanding of sur-
face chemistry enabled functionalizing nanoparticles, to im-
prove the mechanical and biological properties. Several other
criteria like controlling the crystallinity of nanoparticles and
tuning their size and shape are also considered for fabricating
high-performance bionanocomposites [8]. For biomedical appli-
cations, it is very important that the bioactivity of the nanocom-
posites should be preserved even after processing. Hence, choice
of processing technique is also very important. It is however
worth to elucidate the underlying structure property relationship
and polymer-filler interactions at the interface for the design of a
bionanocomposites. Considering the versatile properties of these
materials, the present review focuses on the application of
bionanocomposites in selected industries involving food, water
purification/treatment, tissue engineering, cosmetics, electron-
ics, textile, and automobiles.
2 Bionanocomposites for food industry
Food packaging materials play a vital role in maintaining the
quality and safety of food products by creating a barrier against
the passage of moisture, chemical contaminants, light, CO2, O2,
and microorganisms. Recently, many efforts have been reported
to replace the non-degradable petroleum-derived plastic food
packaging materials by biopolymer-based materials. To enhance
the mechanical properties of biodegradable, renewable, and hy-
drophilic biopolymers, nanofillers are incorporated onto them to
emergent mater.
develop bionanocomposites as a promising candidate in pack-
aging applications [9]. Bionanocomposites having antimicrobial
property can be used to improve the shelf life and safety of food
products by decreasing the growth of post-processing pollutant
microorganisms [10].In a previous study, AgNPs (silver nano-
particles) were incorporated into the HPMC (hydroxypropyl
methylcellulose) matrix to produce a bactericidal food packag-
ing films. These HPMC-AgNP nanocomposites have shown
excellent barrier properties and mechanical characteristics. The
nanofillers have resulted in the high tensile strength of the nano-
composite films, and the study concluded that these films can be
used as an active antimicrobial coating in the food packaging
industry. In another study, nano-silica was introduced into the
PLA (polylactic acid) matrix to synthesize a biodegradable coat-
ing material through the sol-gel process. From the results, it was
clear that the water vapor and gas barrier properties of the PLA/
SiO2 (silica) nanocomposite films were improved making it
suitable for food packaging applications [11]. Researches have
been done about the usage of bionanocomposite films contain-
ing chitosan, PVA (polyvinyl alcohol), and TiO2 nanoparticles
for packaging of soft brined cheese. In this composite film, high
hydrophilic and bio-inert properties of PVA and antimicrobial
characteristics of TiO2 are combined to create a mechanically
robust material for packaging [10].
The poor oxygen barrier property of PLA (polylactic acid)
is a limiting factor for its usage in packaging applications. In a
study, Thellen et al. revealed that the PLA/MMT (polylactic
acid/montmorillonite) bionanocomposites possess improved
oxygen barrier properties by 15–48% as compared to that of
pure PLA. Also, the water vapor transition rate was decreased
by 40–50% for PLA/MMT bionanocomposites as opposed to
that of neat PLA. Similarly, to overcome the poor gas barrier
properties of PHA (polyhydroxyalkanoates), nanoclay can be
incorporated into the PHA matrices resulting in lower oxygen
and water permeability. And hence, these PHA/ nanoclay
bionanocomposites can be used for food packaging [13].
Studies have been conducted regarding the synthesis of
bionanocomposite films using modified MMT (Cloisite 20A
and Cloisite 30B) and soy protein isolates. It was found that
the nanocomposite with 5% Cloisite 20A and Cloisite 30B
exhibited superior viscoelastic, water barrier, and mechanical
properties as compared to natural MMT composite films.
Also, it was reported that the films made from 10% concen-
tration of Cloisite 30B possess similar mechanical character-
istics as that of some plastics currently being used in the food
packaging industry [14]. Bionanocomposite films for food
packaging were developed by incorporating chitosan nanopar-
ticles and Origanum vulgare essential oil (OEO) into fish
gelatin matrix using solution casting technique. The neat films
presented a rough morphology (Fig. 1b), and with addition of
essential oil, the roughness decreased as evident from atomic
force microscopy images (Fig. 1c). This is because the liquid
state of oil fills in the irregularities of polymer films; however,
emergent mater.
Fig. 1 AFM images of a chitosan
nanoparticles, b control and FG/
CSNP composite films containing
c 0.4 and d 1.2% (w/v) OEO
(black dots in image). Mean
values with different superscript
in small letters for Ra and in cap-
ital letters for Rq are significantly
different (p < 0.05). Scan size
50 × 50 m and resolution< 0.1 nm
[12]
with further addition of oil (1.2%, w/v), an increase in rough-
ness parameters could be observed (Fig. 1d). This could be
attributed to the lipid aggregation and creaming during the
drying step [12]. The films also exhibited antimicrobial activ-
ity against test food pathogens, Staphylococcus aureus,
Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella enteritidis, and
Escherichia coli.
Nanotechnology has resulted in the development of antimi-
crobial food packaging materials with improved mechanical
and oxidation stability, barrier properties, and biodegradability.
These packaging materials are very important in food industries
in order to enhance the quality and freshness of food materials.
The applications of bionanocomposites should not only be lim-
ited to packaging materials but should be extended to biosen-
sors that will allow easy detection of spoiled or contaminated
foods, detect the presence of microorganisms, and so on.
3 Bionanocomposites for water
purification/treatment industries
Previous research works have shown that the chitosan-based
magnetic nanocomposites exhibit better adsorption efficiency
and enhanced adsorption rate for the removal of contaminants
from water. For example, Shi et al. manufactured magnetic
chitosan nanocomposites using amine-functionalized magne-
tite nanoparticles to remove heavy metal ions for water puri-
fication. In the presence of ultrasound radiation, these metal
ions can be removed from chitosan in weak acidic deionized
water due to the reversible interactions between chitosan and
metal ions. Hence, the created magnetic chitosan nanocom-
posites can be utilized as a recyclable tool for heavy metal ion
removal from water [15].
In a recent work to remove the textile dyes (AR88-acid red
88) from wastewater, biosilica/chitosan nanocomposite was
applied [16]. In this work, the adsorbed dye increased with
the increase in reaction time and adsorption concentration and
a decrease in temperature and initial pH (Fig. 2a). When the
adsorption dosage was increased from 1 to 3 (g L−1), a huge
increase in adsorption was observed (Fig. 2b). But, the further
increase in adsorption dosage caused a minor increase in the
adsorption.
For the removal of methylene blue (MB) dye from aqueous
solution, batch adsorption methods were performed applying
CTS-g-PAA/MMT (chitosan-g-poly(acrylic acid)/montmoril-
lonite) nanocomposite as adsorbent [17]. An increase in the

Fig. 2 Varying of adsorbed AR88 with a adsorbent dosage and b initial pH [16]
pH value resulted in an increase in the adsorption capacity of
the CTS-g-PAA/MMT nanocomposite for MB cationic dye.
Overall, the study established that the prepared nanocompos-
ite is a suitable adsorbent for the removal of MB dye from
aqueous solution. Saifuddin et al. prepared Ag/chitosan
bionanocomposites via a melt intercalation method during
which a chitosan solution and silver nitrate solution were
mixed and microwave irradiation was applied. During irradi-
ation, the silver nitrate was reduced forming silver nanoparti-
cles. And the Ag/chitosan nanocomposites were able to elim-
inate a higher amount of atrazine pesticide in column mode.
Also, the chitosan-based nanocomposites exhibited a higher
elimination of organophosphate pesticides [18].
Khan et al. fabricated antibacterial nanocomposites by dis-
persing zinc oxide (ZnO) nanofillers in the matrix of cellulose
acetate (CA). Every nanocomposite film (CA/ZnO weight ra-
tios of 100/0 (CA), 100/2 (NC1), 100/3 (NC2), 100/4 (NC3),
100/5 (NC4) films) exhibited antibacterial activity which in-
creased with the increment in ZnO concentration. The selec-
tivity of nanocomposite films was examined towards Pb2+,
Mn2+, Ni2+, Zn2+, Cd2+, Al3+, Sb3+, Fe2+, and Sr3+ metal ions
and was found that the antibacterial nanocomposites were
more selective towards Fe2+ ion. The highest uptake capacity
towards Fe2+ was shown by NC1 nanocomposite (CA/ ZnO
weight ratio of 100/2), and the water permeability of NC1 was
evaluated to investigate the role of antibacterial nanocompos-
ite films as a membrane for water purification. And the water
permeability data concluded that these materials are appropri-
ate for water purification applications [19].
4 Bionanocomposites for healthcare industry
Several studies have been done focusing on the usage of the
biodegradable and biocompatible polymer materials as wound
healing scaffolds to restore the cellular continuity of tissue.
Auddy et al. fabricated a novel bionanocomposite by embed-
ding silver nanoparticles (AgNP) into cationic GGAA (guar
emergent mater.
gum alkylamine) biopolymeric matrix. And the produced
bionanocomposites were tested in rat punch wound models
for wound healing applications. In the SEM studies, the good
dispersion of silver nanoparticles in the GGAA matrix was
observed. In the wound healing studies, faster wound healing
occurred for the AgNP-GGAA nanocomposite–treated group
as compared to that of silver alginate cream. The antimicrobial
properties of AgNPs and the hydrated surface provided by the
cationic guar gum matrix resulted in the proliferation and mi-
gration of keratinocytes at the wound region to promote the
healing process. Also, it was indicated that the hydroxypro-
line, DNA, and total protein content of the tissues at the
wound site were much higher in the AgNP-GGAA
nanocomposite–treated group as compared with the commer-
cially available silver alginate group [20].
Díez-Pascual et al. prepared castor oil (CO)–based films
containing chitosan-modified zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles
using solution mixing and casting method. The thermal stabil-
ity, biodegradability, cytocompatibility, viscoelastic, barrier,
antibacterial, and wound healing properties of the synthesized
films were evaluated. The chitosan-ZnO loading has increased
the thermal stability, degree of porosity, water absorption,
hydrophilicity, oxygen permeability, water vapor transmis-
sion rate, and biodegradability of the films. The water vapor
transmission rate and oxygen permeability values of the films
were within the range of commercial wound dressing mate-
rials. Results confirmed that the nanofillers were randomly
and uniformly distributed on the CO (castor oil) resin. The
antimicrobial activity of the nanocomposites was proven
against Gram-negative as well as Gram-positive bacteria in
the presence and absence of UV light. And the antimicrobial
activity against M. luteus and S. aureus were higher than that
towards E. coli bacteria. From the in vivo healing studies, it
was noted that wounds treated with CO/chitosan-ZnO healed
faster than CO and gauze-covered wounds. In total, the re-
search summarized that these nanocomposite films have great
potential for use in the biomedical field, specifically in wound
dressings [21].
emergent mater.
Guadarrama-Reyes et al. studied the antibacterial proper-
ties of two suture threads, silk and catgut, coated with silver
nanoparticles (AgNPs). Chenopodium ambrosioides (perenni-
al herb) commonly known as Mexican tea was used as reduc-
ing agent for the preparation of nanoparticles. The synthesis of
silver nanoparticles and the dispersion of AgNPs on both su-
ture threads were ensured by the characterization studies.
Inhibition zone tests were conducted to determine the antibac-
terial properties of the bionanocomposites. The suture com-
posites showed antibacterial activity towards Escherichia coli
and Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. In the inhibition of
S. aureus versus E. coli, there was no notable difference seen
statistically. These suture thread bionanocomposites could be
used in oral or periodontal surgery to prevent the growth of
pathogenic microorganisms [22].
A novel three-dimensional polymer–based magnetic nano-
composite made up of poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL), poly(eth-
ylene glycol) (PEG), and 5% iron oxide nanoparticles
(250 nm) fabricated using the co-electrospinning method
was reported [23]. Interestingly, these nanocomposites as a
membrane displayed low cytotoxicity with NIH 3T3 cells
studied using MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphe-
nyltetrazolium bromide) assay. More importantly, these cells
attach to the scaffold and grow densely which supports the
potentiality of this electrospun PCFC/Fe3O4 membrane in tis-
sue engineering. In a separate study, the synthesis of iron
oxide-gold core shell nanoparticles (8.1 nm) stabilized by
thiolated sodium alginate was reported [24]. About 23% of
polymeric content of nanocomposites was contributed by the
stabilizer, sodium alginate. Although the saturation magneti-
zation (Ms) of these magnetic nanocomposite (41➔24 emu/g)
was reduced due to gold coating, these composites demon-
strated good loading capacity (7.2 wt.%) with encapsulation
efficiency of nearly 73% curcumin. These properties empha-
size the applicability of these nanocomposites as MRI/CT
contrast agents and in targeted drug delivery.
Similarly, the synthesis of dextran stabilized iron oxide
nanoparticles (DINP) was reported [25]. The average core par-
ticle size of the ferrite nanoparticles was found to be 15.4 nm,
and coating them by dextran has shown to improve the stability
of nanoparticles in biological matrices. These nanocomposites
demonstrated good cytocompatibility as shown via (1) direct
contact assay with L929 fibroblast cells showing no phenotypic
changes and maintained cellular integrity and (2) MTT assay
with 80% cells found viable. Systematic investigation of acute/
chronic oral, dermal, immunotoxicity, genotoxicity, carcinoge-
nicity, and bio-distribution study revealed that these dextran-
capped iron oxide nanoparticles were considered as non-toxic,
safe, and biocompatible for biomedical applications. Hydrolytic
synthesis of pH-responsive poly(aspartic acid) hydrogel-loaded
Fe3O4 nanoparticles from cross-linked polysuccinimide on the
surface of magnetite nanoparticles under mild alkaline condi-
tions was recently reported [26]. The hydrodynamic diameter of
these polymer nanocomposites decreased with gradual decrease
in pH values, which is due to the change in hydrogel volume as
a result of pH-dependent cross-linking reaction. These nanosys-
tems possess high colloidal stability even after 100 days of
storage. Cytotoxicity studies revealed that L929 fibroblast cells
with nanoparticles at all tested concentration exhibited ≥ 90%
viability indicating it is non-toxic and biocompatible. Also, no
change in cellular morphology or signs of cell death was ob-
served during inverted light microscopy studies.
Biocompatible synthetic PEGylated copolymer–coated
magnetic nanoparticles (10 nm) were developed [27]. These
nanocomposites are super paramagnetic (55 emu/g) with spe-
cific absorption rate up to 17.44 W/g which is well suited for
magnetic hyperthermia. Silver nanoparticles bio-synthesized
using the leaf extract of Euphorbia helioscopia was reportedly
loaded into chitosan-alginate and the polymer-based nanocom-
posites was prepared [28]. At the ratio of 2:1 of chitosan and
alginate, maximum loading efficiency of about 95% was ob-
served. AgNP-loaded chitosan-alginate constructs displayed
good anti-bacterial efficacy (in terms of log reduction) against
Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella
pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Morganella morganii,
and Haemophilus influenzae. Besides, these composites were
biocompatible to normal cell lines (L929) and cytotoxic to
HeLa cancer cells and thus could serve as potential candidates
for applications in biomedicine.
Thermo-sensitive nanocomposites containing chitosan
hydrogels with embedded poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nano-
particles for encapsulation of flavonoid extract of Cecropia
glaziovii Snethl with known anti-viral properties against
Herpes infections was reported [29]. Incorporation of PLGA
nanoparticles (226 nm) into chitosan hydrogels decreases the
thermal stability as that of pristine chitosan hydrogel.
Rheological properties (elasticity) were optimum at maximum
of 3% w/w PLGA nanoparticle concentration for these chito-
san hydrogel-(Ch-PLGA) nanocomposites. Cytotoxicity stud-
ies of the Ch-PLGA (10%) nanocomposites were studied
using MTT assay. Results revealed about > 70% Vero cells
were viable after 48-h incubation for all concentration (50 to
400 μg mL−1) of Ch-PLGA nanocomposites tested.
Metal nanoparticle–incorporated polymeric scaffolds are
highly applicable in tissue engineering applications. Recently,
titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles impregnated zein–
polydopamine (PDA) polymeric scaffold was prepared and eval-
uated for wound healing properties [30]. Thermogravimetric
analysis indicated that the thermal stability of these scaffolds
was increased due to the uniform distribution of TiO2 nanopar-
ticles into polymeric network. Compared to zein and zein-PDA,
zein-PDA-TiO2 nanofiber possesses enhanced proliferation and
viability of keratinocytes. In addition, the cell adhesion and mi-
gration properties of these nanofibers were significantly higher
than that of the control. These properties of nanofibers were
responsible to promote the healing process in the wound re-

epithelialization studies in rats. Also, zein-PDA-TiO2 nanofibers
showed better wound closure rate (15 days) and the tensile
strength of the newly formed tissue (1.283 MPa) than control
(Zein-PDA) which took 17 days for complete healing and
1.083 MPa strength, respectively. Interestingly, histopathological
studies by hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining revealed that
wound healing occurs in the presence of zein-PDA-TiO2 nano-
fibers and is facilitated by better epithelialization, granulation
tissue, and new hair follicle formation with improved collagen
deposition and decreased inflammation.
Developing target-specific multifunctional up-converting
metal nanoparticles is important for imaging and cancer thera-
peutic applications. For instance, nanocomposite containing
phenanthriplatin (IV)-conjugated NaGdF4:Yb3+/Er3+ nanopar-
ticles, modified using polyethylenimine (PEI), and poly(ethyl-
ene glycol) along with cancer-specific RGD peptide was report-
ed [31]. These nanocomposites (251-nm dia.) exhibited notice-
able cytotoxic effect towards Hep-2 cells. The cellular internal-
ization of these nanocomposites in cancer cell lines was studied
using flow cytometry and ICP-MS analysis. Results revealed
that cells taking up these nanocomposites showed lumines-
cence under laser excitation at 960 nm, demonstrating their
applications as bio-imaging agents. In vivo studies demonstrat-
ed that these nanocomposites possess tumor inhibition ability in
tumor-induced mice which could be due to the directed entry of
nanosystem into cells by endocytic pathway and sustained re-
lease of pro-drug Phen-Pt (IV) from nanocomposites.
Recently, an innovative hybrid hydrogel with excellent an-
tibacterial and anticancer properties was reported [32]. Here,
green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (10-nm dia.) is
achieved using carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) as a reducing
agent and stabilizer and further conjugated with doxorubicin
(DOX), an anticancer drug. These nanoconjugates were cross-
linked using citric acid to produce hybrid hydrogels.
Interestingly, gel fraction and swelling % of the hybrid nano-
composites depends on the degree of carboxymethylation of
CMC. These hydrogels demonstrated its anti-microbial activ-
ity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
In vitro study emphasized the synergistic killing effect in mel-
anoma cancer cells due to the AgNPs and release of DOX.
Incorporation of nanomaterials into the biomedical polymer
such as polylactic acid (PLA) to improve their overall proper-
ties for biomedical applications is gaining wide attention.
However, the uniform distribution of the nanomaterials in the
PLA matrix is a major concern. Pal et al. demonstrated the
fabrication of nanocomposite composed of PLA, cellulose
nanocrystals (CNCs), and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) using
melt-blending method [34]. These nanocomposites were non-
cytotoxic and biocompatible to HEK293 cells. Collectively, the
PLA matrix with 1% unmodified CNCs and rGO exhibited
maximum tensile strength and thermal stability as compared
to PLA matrix or other nanocomposites prepared by incorpo-
rating cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), a cationic
emergent mater.
detergent for better dispersion of CNC in PLA. The same group
has reported the preparation of PLA-based nanocomposite film
with polyethylene glycol (PEG)-grafted TEMPO-oxidized
CNC and rGO recently [35]. Unlike CTAB-capped CNC-
PLA nanocomposites, this nanocomposite with modified
CNC showed improved thermal and mechanical properties.
Moreover, this nanocomposite was also found cytocompatible
to fibroblast cells C3H10T1/2. Formulation of polyethylene
glycol–capped celecoxib-loaded liposomes of average size
95 nm was recently developed for treating colon cancer and
arthritis [36]. Drug release kinetics indicated that continuous
release of about 98.75% is released within a period of 24 h.
Nanocrystalline cellulose/alginate hydrogels immobilized with
silver nanoparticles were 3D printed. Both alginate (ALG) and
alginate/nanocrystalline cellulose hybrid (ALG/CNC) scaffolds
had rough surface with pore size ranging from 174 to 201 μm
as seen in Fig. 3a and 3c. Figure 3b shows the cross-sectional
image of alginate scaffolds that displayed interconnected lay-
ered porous structure in the interior. Hollow tubular fiber for-
mation was interestingly observed for ALG/CNC composite
(Fig. 3d). The EDS image clearly depicts how uniformly silver
nanoparticles are distributed in alginate and ALG/CNC scaf-
folds (Fig. 3e and f) [33].
Hyaluronan (HA) is one of the main components of the
extracellular matrix (ECM) and aids in cell proliferation and
migration. Bionanocomposites were fabricated using HA and
bacterial cellulose (pure cellulose nanofibers) using solution
impregnation method [37]. Briefly, the bacterial cellulose
films were dipped into various concentrations of hyaluronan
solution (0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, or 0.5% (wt./v)) for 24 h at
room temperature. The composite films showed better water
uptake ability than pure BC films. The BC-HA composite
films promoted the growth of primary human fibroblast cells,
indicating that the films were cytocompatible. In vivo wound
healing analyzed in Wistar rats were analyzed using H&E and
Masson staining, 7 and 14 days after the surgery. Wound
healing was investigated using 3 sets of samples (BC, BC-
HA composite films, and gauze samples). The wound region
covered with BC and the BC-HA composite films showed
formation of new blood vessels; the BC-HA composite films
with low HA concentrations of 0.05% HA and 0.1% HA
evidently promoted wound healing (Fig. 4).
5 Nanocomposites for automobile industry
Due to their outstanding properties, polymer nanocomposites
are employed to address the emerging requirements in automo-
bile industry. This includes paint, lubrication, electric and elec-
tronic devices and sensors, tyres, and self-cleaning for win-
dows. Generally, natural rubber (NR), synthetic rubber, or their
blends form the basis of tyre tread compounds. Natural rubber
is considered as a degrading material; however, their
emergent mater.

Fig. 3 Scanning electron

microscope images at different
magnifications of a ALG 5%
(w/v) scaffold (80×); b ALG 5%
(w/v) scaffold (360×); c ALG/
CNC (5% and 3% w/v) scaffold
(80×); d ALG/CNC (5% and 3%
w/v) scaffold cross section (80×).
Energy-dispersive X-ray spec-
troscopy (EDS) map distribution
and EDS spectrum of Ag in e
ALG 5% (w/v) scaffold (80×); f
ALG/CNC (5% and 3% w/v)
scaffold (80×) [33]

degradation rate is low. Carbon black and silica are used as and graphene are explored as reinforcing fillers. ZnO
reinforcing fillers to enhance the properties of rubber. With nanoparticle–doped graphene (nano-ZnO-GE) could signifi-
the outbreak of nanotechnology, several nanomaterials like cantly improve the tensile strength, modulus, and tear strength
clay, kaolin, multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT), silica, of natural rubber composites even at low filler content [38].

Fig. 4 Representative HE-stained
tissue sections of subcutaneously
implanted wound dressings with
BC-HA composite films, BC, and
gauze, respectively, on 7 days and
14 days after implantation. Blood
vessels are indicated by black ar-
rowheads. All scale bars equal
100 μm [37]
NR/graphene nanocomposites (NR/GE) and NR/nano-zinc ox-
ide (nano-ZnO) nanocomposites were used as reference sam-
ples to evaluate the mechanical performance as seen in Fig. 5. It
could be clearly observed that low content of nano-ZnO-GE
provided greater reinforcing effect when compared with control
samples. This could be related to the effective dispersion of
graphene sheets, thus preventing stress concentration sites,
leading to efficient stress transfer. The nano-ZnO-GE could
also effectively act as cure-activator during vulcanization pro-
cess, resulting in formation of excellent cross-linked network.
The automotive industry is one of the fastest growing indus-
tries worldwide and is one of the biggest markets for polymers
after industrial construction market. Plastics account for around
25% weight of the car body and around 15–20 different poly-
mers being used in a single car body. The polymer composite
markets for automotive industry had a market size valued at
6.40 billion USD in 2016, which is expected to grow to 11.6
billion USD by 2025. Polypropylene (PP), polyurethane (PU),
and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are the most commonly used
polymers which constitute around 65% of the total plastic ma-
terial used [39]. Even though automotive industry is one of the
key industrial sectors, it faces numerous challenges in both the
developed and developing markets globally. The foremost of
this is the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. The EU has
enacted legislation which reduces carbon dioxide emissions
emergent mater.
from light vehicles to 95 g/km by 2020 [40]. The other major
issue is the reduction of petroleum sources, whereas plant-
based products as fuels mostly remain underutilized. So, the
time has come for bringing about a change in consumer habits
and work towards the sustainability of environment.
One of the important design strategies is the reduction of
automobile kerb weight, which has the added advantage of
less emissions and better drive performance. There are two
ways to achieve this, one is the architectural design of the
automobile and second is the substitution of existing materials
with new better functional materials. The practicality of using
natural fiber as a potential high-quality automotive material
requires extensive understanding of the crystallization behav-
ior, moisture repellant properties, degree of polymerization,
etc.
Processing temperature is a significant factor in case of
natural fiber composite as mostly fiber degrades at around
160 °C when exposed over a considerable duration of time
[41]. So, the important factor is to obtain rapid reaction rate
and development of low-temperature processing. The
manufacturing route plays a very important role in the perfor-
mance of the final desired product. The processing involves
interrelationships between several key factors: the interfacial
contact angle between the matrix and fiber, orientation of fi-
bers, moisture control, etc. to name a few. The compounding
emergent mater.
Fig. 5 Comparison of mechanical
properties of NR/nano-ZnO-GE,
NR/nano-ZnO, and NR/GE
nanocomposites. a Tensile
strength; b elongation at break; c
modulus at 300% strain; d tear
strength. The symbol α represents
5 phr for conventional-ZnO, and
β, χ, δ, and ε represent 0.5, 1.0,
1.5, and 2.0 phr for nano-ZnO-
GE; or 0.4225, 0.8450, 1.2675,
and 1.6900 phr for nano-ZnO; or
0.0775, 0.1550, 0.2325, and
0.3100 phr for GE, respectively
[38]
process like injection molding, extrusion, and high shear
mixing provides a great degree of consistency to the compos-
ite material. Injection molding method has the advantage of
producing intricate shapes and short cycling times.
Compression molding has the advantage of a fast processing
time along with low fiber attrition. Compression molding
techniques have the advantage of reduced fiber degradation
and lesser knit lines. Foaming techniques are extensively used
in upholstery making.
Many global automotive manufacturers are embarking on
the idea of sustainable manufacturing and production tech-
niques. DaimlerChrysler uses around 60 components in its
European vehicles that are derived from natural bio-based
resources. BMW uses considerable amount of renewable
raw materials in their manufacturing processes. General
Motors has used wood fibers as cushioning in the seatbacks,
cargo area of floor of Cadillac Deville and GMC Envoy, re-
spectively [43]. Goodyear Tire manufactures have infused
corn stacks in their tyre to find that the rolling resistance is
comparatively less compared to conventional tyres thereby
improving fuel resistance. Kenaf fibers are also extensively
used by Toyota in their many concept model cars. Many au-
tomotive components are produced from this bio-based natu-
ral fiber materials and are outlined in Table 1.
Nanocellulose has comparatively lower density and would
be able to address the requirement for lower weight vehicle
[44]. It can be seen that over the last several years, there has
been continuous adoption of cellulose-based materials in the
automotive industry [5]. Many automotive manufacturers like
Ford have already started replacing glass fiber–based filler
materials with cellulose nanoparticles. A new thermoplastic-
based composite material was developed under the name
THRIVE [45]. Here, cellulose obtained from tree pulp is used
as the nanofiller, which has the added advantage of high
strength, temperature resistance, durability, and wear resis-
tance. This also has the additional advantage of reducing the
weight of the automobile thereby reducing the fuel consump-
tion and carbon footprint. Cellulose-based nanofibrils have the
biggest disadvantage of compatibility at the fiber matrix inter-
face and require extensive modification and surfactants to im-
prove their dispersion properties [46]. A water-soluble poly-
mer-like polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) can be used as the matrix
that can encapsulate the nanocellulose fibrils and provide bet-
ter dispersion. Recently a nanocellulose vehicle (NCV) has
been developed by Kyoto University in Japan. The automo-
bile had a profile that is derived from natural cellulose material
that has its origin from wood pulp which is exciting alternative
to the conventional automobile materials. This wood pulp was

Table 1 Automotive parts produced from natural fibers [42]
Vehicle part Material used
Glove box Wood/cotton fibers; molded flax/sisal
Door panels Flax/sisal with thermoset resin
Seat coverings Leather/wool backing
Seat surface Coconut fiber/natural rubber
Trunk panel Cotton fiber
Insulation Cotton fiber
Trunk floor Cotton with PP/PET fibers
Floor panels Flax mat with PP
waste products or leftovers from agricultural waste, making it
more environment-friendly. The advantage is that the
cellulose-based material is reported to be 80% lighter than
steel, with strength levels around five times the metal [47].
Biocomposites have the advantage that they are lightweight
and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Biocomposites are also
advantageous for manufacturing of low load-bearing automo-
bile interiors like wood trim, interior panels, seat fillers, and
thermoacoustic insulation. The preparation of biocomposites
can involve thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers as re-
inforcements. The biodegradable polyesters like PLA, PHB,
PBS and natural polymers like cellulose, natural rubber are the
most used thermoplastic matrix material. The thermosetting
material includes resin with bio-based components like bio-
epoxy and bio-polyurethane.
6 Polymer-based nanocomposites
for cosmetics industry
Morlando et al. reported the use of natural polymer chitosan
for the inactivation of the photocatalytic activity of titanium
dioxide (TiO2), an inorganic ultraviolet (UV) filter used for
sun blocking applications [48]. The photocatalytic property of
TiO2 in the presence of UV irradiation generates reactive ox-
ygen species which damages the sunscreen formulation and
skin. Encapsulation of TiO2 by chitosan by spray drying meth-
od reduces its photoactivity from 95 to 39.5% and thus useful
in the preparation of inactive protective coating material. As a
potential replacement to conventional plastics used as pack-
aging materials, the use of biodegradable packaging material
using the polylactic acid (PLA)-organoclay nanocomposite
was developed and tested for cosmetic formulations [49].
Migration studies of the nanocomposite in cosmetic formula-
tions and related stimulants were investigated for 10 days post
incubation at 40 °C as per EU-Plastics Regulation 10/2011.
Results indicated the total migration level of PLA nanocom-
posites was 0.88 mg/dm2 which were far less than maximum
legislative migration limit (10 mg/dm2). Especially, adverse
emergent mater.
toxicity (epidermal skin model-EpiDerm™) or irritation
(OECD TG 439) was not observed and the cell viability re-
mains unaffected for migration extracts upon exposure to skin
cells. Recently, the polymer nanocomposite made out of poly-
vinyl alcohol, bentonite, and gold, silver, or zinc oxide nano-
particles for the preparation of facial mask was reported [50].
Importantly, this formulation was stable for up to 12 weeks
and non-irritant to skin.
7 Bionanocomposites for textile industry
The durability of textile materials is of primary importance, and
therefore, it is very necessary to functionalize cotton fabrics. The
common approaches include plasma treatment, grafting, and de-
positing nanoparticles on the surface. Incorporation of nanopar-
ticles imparts special properties like antimicrobial activity, ultra-
violet protection, and enhanced hydrophobicity. Busila et al. re-
ported the synthesis of antimicrobial textiles by incorporation of
Ag (silver)/ZnO/hybrid nanoparticles in chitosan (CS) matrix
along with suitable binders in cotton (100%) and cotton/
polyester (50:50) using pad-dry-cure method [51]. The antimi-
crobial activity of the textile coated with biopolymer nanocom-
posite was tested against Gram-negative bacteria Escherichia
coli and Gram-positive Micrococcus luteus by tetrazolium/
formazan-test (TTC) method. Results showed that antimicrobial
efficacy of modified cotton and cotton/polyester for both the
bacterial species follows the order: Ag:ZnO/CS ≥ Ag/CS ≥
ZnO/CS > CS. A similar study was reported which involves
the preparation of antimicrobial textiles by coating the cotton
fabrics with SnO2/ZnO/chitosan bionanocomposites through
sonochemical process. The coated cotton fabrics displayed anti-
microbial activity against E. coli and Streptococcus aureus. After
several washes, antimicrobial activity was still retained with
modified cotton fabrics which were due to the presence of chito-
san as complexing agent and citric acid as cross linker. With the
interest of fabricating next-generation multifunctional smart tex-
tiles, textile (wool/nylon)-based e/touch-sensors decorated with
polyethylene glycol (PEG)/(poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene),
poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS)/reduced graphene oxide
(rGO) nanosheets were developed. These multifunctional textiles
exhibited high electrical conductivity (90.5 S cm−1), thermal
conductivity (0.81 W/mK), and EMI (electromagnetic induction)
shielding efficiency of 73.8 dB. This textile was found to be taser
proof which can absorb electrical shocks as microwave shock
absorber and can be used in the manufacturing of soft touch
switches to lighten up household bulbs or through WIFI-
connected textile-based touch switches.
Zinc oxide nanoparticles were grown on the polydopamine
templated cotton fabrics by Ran et al. [52]. The antimicrobial
activity of the neat cotton fabrics and ZnO-modified cotton
fabrics against Gluconobacter cerinus was studied using col-
ony count method, as shown in Fig. 6. The neat cotton fabrics
emergent mater.
does not possess any antibacterial effect; hence, bacterial
growth is visible (Fig. 6a). The growth was comparatively less
in PDA-templated cotton fabrics (Fig. 6b). However, there
was complete reduction of bacterial growth in ZnO-coated
cotton fabrics (Fig. 6c). This is attributed to the reactive oxy-
gen production by ZnO nanoparticles resulting in the destruc-
tion of bacterial membrane. Even after five washing cycles,
the antimicrobial property was retained (Fig. 6d).
8 Polymer nanocomposites in electronic
industry
Biomaterials have the disadvantage of having weak electron
transfer function, and thus, their application is limited in the
electronics industry [54]. When the bio-based materials are
combined to form composites with other functional materials,
they can be readily used in electronics and other semiconduc-
tor industries. Bionanocomposites can be used in electronic
devices such as resistive random access memory (RRAM),
field-effect transistor (FET), resistive memory, artificial syn-
apses, and artificial neural network simulation [53]. Chiu et al.
prepared a glucose-based polysaccharide (maltoheptaose)
field effect transistor memory. The material showed high cur-
rent state and stable retention characteristics. The alpha glucan
linker present in the glucose gave these material high charge
Fig. 6 a Antimicrobial activity of
pristine cotton fabrics, b PDA-
templated cotton fabrics, c ZnO-
coated cotton fabrics, and d ZnO-
coated cotton fabrics after five
washing cycles [52]
trapping capability [55]. Ferritin is a highly stable iron storage
protein and a widely used biomolecule produced by almost all
living organisms like bacteria, plants, and algae. Ferritin mul-
tilayers showed switching abilities and can be utilized for the
creation of non-volatile memory. This was brought about by
the charge trapping and releasing ability of the iron redox
couples with ferritin [56]. A floating gate memory device
was fabricated using a Bombyx mori silk protein, multiwalled
carbon nanotube (MWCNT)/CdS composite system. The de-
vice showed good flexibility and transparency with a large flat
band voltage shift [57]. An antibody immunoglobulin G pro-
tein was attached to two gold nanoparticles which can be used
for the production of bioelectronics circuits [58]. A
biocomponent blend film using carbon dots and silk were
produced as a phototunable carrier trapping layer showed
good optical programming and erasing process. This has the
advantage that the synaptic-like behavior can be used in both
volatile and non-volatile modes and has the potential to be
used as a bioinspired photonic computing application [59].
An amyloidogenic protein alpha synuclein was coated on gold
nanoparticle arrays to create a monolayer that had a highly
tunable memory performance. The material showed good
tunneling/blocking properties and showed large density which
is suitable for many electronic applications [60]. A protein
calmodulin (CaM)–modified silicon nanowire field effect
transistor was manufactured for the detection of proteins and

Fig. 7 Outline of
bionanocomposites in the
electronic device market [53]
calcium ions and finds their use as a biosensor [61]. A non-
volatile memory element is prepared by using DNA biopoly-
mer obtained from fish waste modified with hexadecyl
trimethyl ammonium chloride as gate dielectrics in a low-
voltage application with very low hysteresis [62]. In another
study, wool keratin molecules were used in the incorporation
of gold nanoclusters in silk fibroin networks. This device has
the advantage of excellent switching abilities due to the tem-
plated β crystallite formation and can be used as an advanced
memristor [63]. Nagashima et al. prepared a highly flexible
silver–decorated cellulose nanofiber paper that showed its sta-
ble non-volatile memory effects which has the potential to be
used in portable electronic applications [64]. A silver-doped
chitosan silver composite was prepared as solid polymer elec-
trolyte and applied to the resistive switching layer element in
ReRAM. It has the potential to be used in non-volatile mem-
ory application with very less power requirements. This low-
emergent mater.
cost material also showed good on-off ratio and good data
retention time [65]. The biodegradability and bioactivity of
the existing polymers can be used in the manufacture of im-
plantable bio electronic materials. A schematic representation
of the application of bionanocomposites in the electronic de-
vices market is given in Fig. 7 [53].
9 Conclusion
The present review reports the use of bionanocomposites in the
industry as it is seen that in the last 10 years, an increasing
number of researches in the area of bionanocomposites have
been developed and reported. Several studies underline the
need to replace plastics with greener materials. Many biopoly-
mers and inorganic nanoparticle filler materials are available
which can be finely tuned to obtain bionanocomposites with
emergent mater.
the required properties and functionalities. Many naturally oc-
curring materials like cellulose, chitosan, and natural rubber
have been widely used in many industries such as automobile
industry, healthcare industry, and food industry. The possibility
of chemical modification and their usage as coating materials
are also explored. The bionanocomposite field is an exciting
and highly potential research area. These biopolymers are the
only alternative material to synthetic petroleum-based products,
and since they are renewable, they form the basis for sustainable
development. They provide the biggest advantage that they
contribute to decreased greenhouse gas emissions, which is a
very important criteria in large industries like the automotive
industry. Substantial reductions in plastic generation can be
obtained by choosing right strategies for developing
bionanocomposites. Future research should focus on cost-
effective processes and more sustainable materials. Even
though there is tremendous growth in the bionanocomposite
field, the transformation from the smaller scale laboratory to
the larger scale industry requires constant development and
innovation in the material science and manufacturing field.
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of
interest.
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