The Spirit of Langkasuka Illuminated Man

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The spirit of Langkasuka? Illuminated

manuscripts from the East Coast of the
Malay Peninsula
a
Annabel Teh Gallop
a
The Brit ish Library, 96 Eust on Road, London, NW1 2DB E-mail:
annabel.gallop@bl.uk
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To cite this article: Annabel Teh Gallop (2005): The spirit of Langkasuka? Illuminat ed manuscript s
from t he East Coast of t he Malay Peninsula, Indonesia and t he Malay World, 33:96, 113-182
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Indonesia and the Malay World, Vol. 33, No. 96, July 2005
THE SPIRIT OF LANGKASUKA? ILLUMINATED

MANUSCRIPTS FROM THE EAST COAST OF THE
MALAY PENINSULA
ANNABEL TEH GALLOP
Introduction
Downloaded by [British Library] at 03:38 04 November 2011
A survey of illuminated Islamic manuscripts from the Malay peninsula reveals a very
uneven pattern of distribution. While one or two impressive manuscripts are known
from Pulau Pinang, Kedah, Selangor or Pahang, only a few decorated manuscripts of med-
iocre quality have yet been identified from Perak. The situation on the northeast coast of
the peninsula could not be more different, for some of the finest illuminated Islamic manu-
scripts in the whole of Southeast Asia were produced in considerable numbers in the states
of Terengganu, Kelantan and Patani. It must be stressed that the chronological spread of
these manuscripts is limited, with most probably dating from the 19th century and only a
few from the 18th century. Nonetheless, the picture we are looking at suggests that, artis-
tically, something special was going on in this region, rooted in a compelling sense of
regional identity.
This hint of ‘something special’ recalls the master woodcarver Nik Rashiddin Haji Nik
Hussein’s passionate avowal of the tangible existence of the cultural legacy of this region:
‘As a craftsman, I am convinced from the point of view of craftsmanship. The existence of
this civilisation is obvious in the design, form, motif’ (Farish & Khoo 2003: 12). This civi-
lisation he identified – after all due circumspection (‘I have long thought about it and
believe we cannot use any other term’) – as that of Langkasuka, a kingdom known to
have flourished on the Thai-Malay isthmus until about the 15th century (Wheatley
1966: 252-67). Nik Rashiddin’s conviction arose from his long immersion in the material
culture of this region, studying works of art in wood, cloth and metal. The present article
can be viewed as an attempt to contribute to the evidence available for evaluation, by doc-
umenting and analysing the characteristic features of a distinctive style of illumination
identified in manuscripts from Terengganu, Kelantan and Patani. Henceforth this school
of illumination will be referred to as the ‘East Coast’ style.
So far, 92 manuscripts illuminated in the East Coast style have been identified, 65 of
which are Qur’ans. Unlike manuscripts from Aceh which are commonly encountered in
institutions all over the world, remarkably few illuminated East Coast manuscripts are
found outside peninsular Malaysia today. Two have been identified in the United
Kingdom, one in the Netherlands and one in Indonesia, but all the others are held in
Malaysian institutions. This pattern of distribution can probably be explained by the
fact that illumination in manuscripts from the Malay world is predominantly found in
Qur’ans and other religious works, and until the late 19th century there was little interest
shown in Islam by Western collectors of Malay manuscripts, who focused instead on
subjects like literature, history and law.
ISSN 1363-9811 print=ISSN 1469-8382 online=05=960113-70 # 2005 Editors, Indonesia and the Malay World
DOI: 10.1080=13639810500282417
114 Annabel Teh Gallop
Within Malaysia the most important collection, particularly of Qur’ans, is that now
housed at the Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia (IAMM) in Kuala Lumpur. This collection
was originally formed by the Islamic Centre (Pusat Islam), part of the Islamic Affairs
Department of the Prime Minister’s Office of Malaysia (JAKIM), and passed into the cus-
todianship of the IAMM on its founding in 1997. Also important, particularly for non-
Qur’anic manuscripts, is the collection in the Malay Manuscripts Centre of the National
Library of Malaysia (PNM), which was set up in 1984. Smaller numbers of manuscripts
are held in other Malaysian institutions such as Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, the Inter-
national Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilisation (ISTAC), Muzium Kraftangan,
Muzium Sejarah Nasional and the state museums of Kelantan, Terengganu and Melaka.
There are also undoubtedly other manuscripts in private collections. All examples
recorded so far are listed in the Appendix.
In discussing the East Coast style, occasional reference will be made to the only other
regional school of Islamic manuscript illumination in Southeast Asia yet to have been
described in detail, that of Aceh (Gallop 2004). This is because such comparisons help
to distinguish between features unique to the East Coast style, those characteristic of
Southeast Asian Islamic manuscripts in general, and those common to manuscript art
throughout the broader Islamic world.
The East Coast style of manuscript illumination

The ‘East Coast’ style is less easy to describe than the ‘Acehnese’ style, for it cannot be
quite so simply defined by a list of specific criteria common to all the manuscripts. Rather,
East Coast illumination is characterised by an amalgam of a number of different features,
each of which may or may not be present in individual manuscripts. It should also be
borne in mind that there are other illuminated manuscripts from the region which do
not conform to this single artistic template and, furthermore, not all of the individual
structural features described below are necessarily unique to East Coast illumination.
That there is an artistic and cultural continuum stretching from Terengganu in the south,
through Kelantan and reaching up to Patani in the north, is not in doubt. However, it is
possible that the seeming lack of focus in defining the East Coast school of manuscript
illumination may stem from variations in the styles of each of the three main cultural
centres of Terengganu, Kelantan and Patani, despite an underlying unifying East Coast
thread. As will be shown below, it is possible to identify distinguishing features in
certain manuscripts associated with either Terengganu or Patani, but at present little can
be said about the characteristics of illuminated manuscripts from Kelantan, sited in the
geographic, cultural and political middle. In discussing woodcarving and other Malay
material art forms, Nik Rashiddin articulated the differences between the artistic identities
of each of the states: ‘the finest aesthetic expression is found in Patani and the greatest
technical finesse in Terengganu, while the art of Kelantan lies somewhere between
these two poles’.1 We will return to this statement at the end of this article, and attempt
to judge its applicability to the arts of the book.
In the following discussion, first the main architectural forms of the East Coast style of
illumination are outlined; the relationship between the choice of illuminated formats and
the texts in which they are found is then explored; and then materials used – ink and pig-
ments, paper and bindings – are discussed. Finally, we turn to the question of identity,
1
Pers. comm., December 1999.
The spirit of Langkasuka? 115
both in the broad sense of considering what makes an illuminated manuscript a member of
the East Coast school, and in the narrower one of defining more closely what is meant by
the ‘Terengganu’ or ‘Patani’ style.
The architecture of the East Coast style of illumination

The two main large-scale structural genres of illumination encountered in East Coast
manuscripts are decorated double frames and decorated headpieces.
. Decorated double frames are found on two facing pages and generally
take the form of a series of ornamental rectangular borders around the
text block with lobed arches on the three outer sides filled with floral
and foliate motifs, the entire composition being symmetrical about
the gutter of the book (see Plates 1 –29).
. Decorated headpieces are usually encountered as identical double
headpieces on two facing pages of a book, with the text block on

each page set within a decorative rectangular frame. The vertical
borders of these frames are extended upwards beyond the first lines
of the text block, almost to the upper edge of the page, and
between these two ‘arms’ is a lobed arch, filled with floral or
foliate motifs (Plates 32 – 35).
. Perhaps the most characteristic structural feature of East Coast illumi-
nation is that in both decorated double frames and headpieces, the
arches are not presented in stark outline but are usually topped with
a series of little finials or ‘wavelets’. These wavelets may be found
on all three arches of a decorated frame, or only on one or two.
The wavelets can range tremendously in size, from little petals or
bud-like motifs to substantial foliate or floral garlands, or – particu-
larly on headpieces – from tiny butterfly-like antennae to long,
straight, feathered finials.
In addition to these two major structural forms of illumination, there are also a number
of minor ones.
. Tailpieces adorning the colophon or end of a text are sometimes

found. These take the standard Islamic shape of two right-angled tri-
angles filled with floral or foliate patterns flanking the tapered final
lines and words of the text, sometimes with the addition of a deco-
rated rectangular panel below (Plate 36).
. In metrical works such as Arabic nazam or Malay syair, the text is
often arranged in two columns separated down the middle by a verti-
cal border. This border may be illuminated with a geometric or floral
meander pattern (Plates 32– 33).
. In other manuscripts of metrical works, the lines may instead be
separated by decorative markers similar to verse markers in a
Qur’an. While these markers may simply be circles or coloured
single roundels, very often they are complex composite roundels
made up of intersecting circles, ranging in number from three or
four up to eight. While decorative composite roundels are also
found in manuscripts from other parts of Southeast Asia, in their most

colourful and elaborate form they seem to be particularly associated
with East Coast manuscripts (Plates 36 – 37).
. Finally, admittedly minor in terms of size but not in artistic quality are
the illuminated marginal ornaments found in Qur’an manuscripts
used to mark divisions of the text; these are discussed in greater
detail below (Plates 15, 18, 27 –28, 30 –31).
Described above are the most prominent forms of East Coast illumination, based on
a study of all illuminated manuscripts in this group. At a more detailed level, it is possible
to define further features which appear to be particularly associated with manuscripts
at either end of the geographical and artistic continuum, leading to the tentative identifi-
cation of a ‘Terengganu’ and a ‘Patani’ style of manuscript illumination, and these subsets
are explored below. However, it must be stressed that there are many other manuscripts
illuminated in the East Coast style which do not fit neatly into either of these groups.
A Terengganu style
In a small group of manuscripts – a few key members of which can be linked with
Terengganu – the decorated double frames are developed further in a characteristic way:
. In addition to the illuminated frame around the text block on two

facing pages, there is another decorated border hugging the outer
edges of both pages, usually rounded at the corners on its inner edge.
. From this outer border numerous finials or rays reach in towards the
wavelets protruding outwards from the text block frames, evoking the
relationship between stalagmites and stalactites.
Within the group of manuscripts with ‘stalagmite-stalactite’ finials and wavelets, two
specific subsets can be discerned.
The first comprises some of the most luxuriant East Coast illuminated manuscripts
known. In this group, the wavelets protruding from the text block arches are usually
coloured gold as are the finials protruding from the outer border, and in some manuscripts
they are linked by a series of gold beads. The overall effect is akin to a golden shower or a
golden net suspended from the outer border supporting the text block frames in the middle.
Three of these golden-shower Qur’ans are known, and probably the finest artistically is
that held in the Muzium Budaya Melaka (Plate 1). The most famous, however, is a
Qur’an in the IAMM (1998.1.3427) said to have been copied for Sultan Zainal Abidin
II of Terengganu (r.1793 –1808) (Barkeshli 2002: 180), but it is clearly dated AH 1288
(1871/2 AD), which fell in the reign of Baginda Omar (r.1839 – 1876). Another fine
example, also in the IAMM (1998.1.3436), is unusual in that it has a detailed colophon,
dated 13 Syaaban 1275 (18 March 1859) and naming the scribe as ‘the elderly mendicant’
Haji Ahmad of Kampung Menjelagi2 (Plates 2 –4).
The second cluster consists of a slightly less opulent group of manuscripts which, while
technically masterful, have a somewhat formulaic and detached aesthetic feel, almost as if
2
It has not yet been possible to locate Kampung Menjelagi; but according to Nik Rashidee Hj. Nik Hussein, the
name ‘Menjelagi’ may derive from pokok jelagi, the local name for teak trees in the area around Besut in
Terengganu, near the border with Kelantan (pers. comm., January 2004).
produced to a template (Plates 5 –7). Indeed, the striking similarities between six Qur’ans
in this ‘regular’ Terengganu group may even reflect a common place and time span of pro-
duction.3 In these manuscripts, the wavelets on the arches are usually in alternating colours
of red and blue or green. The finials projecting from the outer border often have a very
distinctive construction: suspended from finely-outlined semicircles (either convex or
concave to the border) are motifs in an ‘M-W’ or ‘V’ shape, while emanating from
each of these semicircular constructions may be a coloured bead with a tapered tendril
tail in black ink. In other manuscripts in this group, the semicircles may be absent but
here the finials or rays are constructed out of a stacked series of coloured M-W or V
motifs, stretching from the outer border to the wavelets on the frames of the text blocks.
There are also a number of other features which appear to be characteristic of the
Terengganu style (see Figure 1):
. In decorated double frames, the arches on the three outer sides of the
text block constitute a single structural entity, with a continuous
outline.
. The central arch on each of the three outer sides is usually flanked by a
pair of secondary arches. At the two outer corners of the text block,
these small flanking arches often rise to a diagonal cusp to meet the
subsidiary arch situated on the adjacent side of the text block.
. The arches – whether on double frames or headpieces – are nearly
always stepped ogival domes in shape, and often enclose a small
semi-circular arch or a small ogival one which echoes the shape of
the larger one.
. The double frames at the beginning and end of Qur’ans often incorpor-
ate superb cursive calligraphic panels above and below the text block,
with the inscription highlighted in gold, yellow or ‘reserved white’
against a coloured backdrop. The top panel usually contains the title
of the surah, while that below gives the number of verses and states
whether the surah was revealed at Mekkah or Medinah (cf. Plate 8).
. The foliate and floral motifs which fill the structural units – arches,
frames, rectangular panels – tend to take the form of small units
repeated in a uniform and regular way.
Very occasionally, manuscripts are encountered with Terengganu style double frames but
which do not have the outer border and stalagmite-stalactite finials and rays (Plate 9).
A Patani style
Just as a group of illuminated manuscripts associated with Terengganu can be associated
with certain specific decorative elements, so too can another group of manuscripts linked
to Patani, and highlighted below are some of the most characteristic artistic features
(Figure 2; Plates 13 – 28):
. In decorated double frames, the arches on the three outer sides of the
text block are usually separate entities which are not joined to each
3
IAMM 1998.1.3444, 1998.1.3483; PNM MSS 3238; DBP MS 79; ISTAC Qur’an; MSN 32.1992
Figure 1. Characteristic features of the ‘Terengganu’ style of illumination, in the right-

hand page of a double frame from the beginning of a Qur’an, enclosing the Sūrat
al-Fātihah: A – the arches on the decorated frame around the text block are linked
with a continuous outline; B – wavelets protruding from the arches of the decorated
frame; C – decorated border hugging the outer edges of the page, rounded at the
corners; D – finials protruding from the outer border inwards towards the text block
frames, creating a stalagmite-stalactite effect; E – semi-circular construct; F – ‘M-W’
motif; G – stepped ogival arch, enclosing a smaller semi-circular arch; H – flanking
secondary arches which rise to a diagonal cusp at the corners of the text block; I – fine
calligraphic panel; J – densely repeated floral and foliate motifs. DBP MS 79, p.1.
Figure 2. Characteristic features of the ‘Patani’ style of illumination, in the right-hand

page of a double frame from the beginning of a Qur’an, enclosing the Sūrat al-Fātihah:
A – the three arches on the decorated frame are separate structural entities, and the top
and bottom arches emerge out of, and are placed in front of, rectangular panels in the
text block frame; B – wavelets protrude from some or all of the arches; C – the side
arches are flanked by tendrils that rest against the vertical border of the frame; D – the
‘interlocking wave’ motif in an arch; E – a chili pepper motif in the border; F – arches
and finials often end in a tear-drop shaped point; G – naturalistic foliate and floral
motifs tend to show a strong distinction between the primary and secondary vegetal
shoots. IAMM 1998.1.3489.
other, unlike the continuous construction of the arches in Terengganu-

style frames.
. The arches – particularly those at the top and bottom – may emerge
out of, and hence appear to lie in front of, rectangular panels in the
text block frame.
. The side arches on a double frame are usually flanked by two tendrils.
In some ways these tendrils are reminiscent of the ‘wings’ flanking
the side arches on Acehnese decorated double frames, but while the
Acehnese wings tend to rise up and are starkly outlined against the
backdrop of the page, the tendrils in Patani manuscripts rest quietly
against the vertical border of the frame around the text block.
. The ‘interlocking wave’ motif: one or more of the arches which pro-
trude from the three outer sides of the decorated frame around the text
block is constructed from two intersecting arcs, which are then sur-
mounted by a small ogival dome (Plate 21).
. There is frequent use of a border containing a row of small seed-like

elements, in the shape of tiny chili peppers (cili padi) or mangoes that
point alternately one way and then the other. These seeds are often in
contrasting colours, and there may be tiny arcs in black ink on either
side, as if to anchor the seeds to the ruled sides of the border (Plate
22).
. Arches and finials often culminate in a small round or teardrop-
shaped point.
. The foliate and floral motifs which fill the superstructure of double
frames and headpieces in the Patani style tend to be more naturalistic
and free-flowing than the regular, densely repeated patterns found in
Terengganu manuscripts, and the distinction between the primary
vegetal shoot and secondary ones is often quite distinct.4
. Striking calligraphic panels, more individualistic if less accomplished
than those in Terengganu manuscripts, may be found on two or all
four sides of a decorated frame (Plates 23– 24).
Some ‘Patani’ manuscripts may contain only one or two of these elements while
others may exhibit all of them. One of the finest and earliest dateable manuscripts in
which all these features can be seen is a copy of the Bustan al-Salatin which was in
the possession of J. Hunt, the British Resident in Pontianak, in 1812 (RAS Raffles
Malay 42).
The art of the East Coast Qur’an

There is a distinct correlation between structural genres of illumination and the types
of texts within which they are found. In manuscripts from the East Coast of the Malay
peninsula, as elsewhere in the Islamic world, the finest examples of illumination are invari-
ably found in copies of the Holy Qur’an. Reverence for the Qur’an is also expressed in
using the most lavish architectural format of illumination available, namely the decorated
double frame. Thus it is very rare to find headpieces in complete single-volume copies
4
Rosnawati Othman, pers. comm. Jan 2004.
(mushaf) of the Qur’an from the East Coast (see, however, Plate 10), although they can be
found in smaller manuscripts containing excerpts from the Qur’an (Plate 35). Nor are
tailpieces found in East Coast mushaf, although these too have been noted in small
manuscripts containing a selection of sūrahs (e.g. IAMM 1998.1.3826).
Illumination in East Coast Qur’ans is found to conform with fairly strict and consistent
prescriptions. The most usual manifestation of illumination in an East Coast Qur’an is a
decorated double frame at the beginning of the text, enclosing the complete Sūrat al-
Fātihah (Q.1:1 – 7) on the right-hand page, and the beginning of the Sūrat al-Baqarah
(Q.2:1 – 4) on the left-hand page (cf. Plates 1, 2, 5, 9, 13, 16, 19 –20, 23 –25). In most
East Coast Qur’ans, this is the only major illuminated element found.
Some Qur’ans also have a second double frame at the end of the text. There is less con-
sistency in the text enclosed by this final frame: in some manuscripts the frame encloses
the final two sūrahs of the Qur’an, with the Sūrat al-Falaq (Q.113) on the right-hand page
and the Sūrat al-Nās (Q.114) on the left (Plates 7, 17, 27). In other Qur’ans, the final eight
sūrahs are presented, with four on each page: Sūrat al-Mā’ūn (Q.107) to Sūrat al-Nasr
(Q.110) on the right-hand page, and Sūrat al-Lahab (Q.111) to Sūrat al-Nās on the left-
hand page (Plate 4). In one very fine Patani manuscript the final frames are empty
(Plate 14); this phenomenon is not uncommon in illuminated Aceh Qur’ans (cf. Gallop
2004: 234), and the frames may have been intended to include a prayer to be recited on
the completion of the reading of the Qur’an.
A number of Qur’ans – mainly in the Terengganu style – have a third pair of double
frames sited in the middle of the text, invariably marking the start of Sūrat al-Isrā’
(Q.17:1), i.e. the beginning of the 15th juz’ (one juz’ is a thirtieth-part of the Qur’an),
on the right-hand page (Plates 3, 6, 29). The location of a decorated double frame in
the middle of the Qur’anic text – when present – is one of the surest indications of its
regional origin. For example, in Aceh Qur’ans this middle frame always marks the start
of the 16th juz’ in the middle of the Sūrat al-Kahf (Q.18:75), while in Qur’ans from
Java it encloses the start of Sūrat al-Kahf (Q.18:1). In the companion study of the Aceh-
nese style of manuscript illumination, in a survey of illuminated Qur’ans no exceptions
were found to the pattern of location of double frames, which, if present, were only
found at the beginning, end, or at the start of juz’ 16 in the middle. In East Coast
Qur’ans, however, a few manuscripts are found to have unusual numbers and/or locations
of double frames. For example, a fine small Qur’an said to be from Terengganu contains
double frames at the beginning (Plate 9) and at the start of the Sūrat al-Isrā’, but also has
another, simpler, frame enclosing the Sūrat al-Fajr, Sūrat al-Balad and Sūrat al-Shams
(Q.89 –91). A Qur’an in the British Library has four illuminated double frames: at the
beginning and end, and marking the start of the Sūrat al-Kahf and the Sūrat Yāsīn
(Q.36:1) (Plate 11). In addition, there are two apparently unfinished monochrome
empty double frames drawn in black ink at the end of the text.
A striking feature of East Coast Qur’ans is their consistent adherence to a system of
standardised page layout perfected by the Ottomans in the 18th century:
Early in the twelfth/eighteenth century, Ottoman copyists apparently

reached an optimal calibration of the Qur’ān and found a way of match-
ing the juz’ with the kind of quire they were commonly using, namely
the classical ten folios quire. It followed from this that the subdivisions
of the juz’ matched a definite amount of folios. The clever use of the
possibilities of extension or contraction of the Arabic script even
resulted in every page finishing with a verse ending: hence the name
āyāt ber-kenār 5 for these Qur’āns written with fifteen lines to the page
in a small format, on ca.300 folios (that is, thirty quires of ten folios) . . .
Illumination also became standardised to some extent, with a double
opening page containing sūra 1 and the beginning of sūra 2, gilded
frame for the text, floral markers for the juz’; and so forth. This presen-
tation was highly successful, and modern printed editions still follow
this model (Déroche 2003: 271).
A few Qur’an manuscripts with this distinctive page layout have been documented from
other parts of the Malay world,6 but nowhere else could this system of page-setting be
described as a defining characteristic of a particular regional style. In fact, recognition
of this conceptual framework underpinning the layout of East Coast Qur’ans is crucial
for understanding both standard features of these Qur’ans and also anomalies. The
opening double pages with the Sūrat al-Fātihah on the right and the beginning of the
Sūrat al-Baqarah on the left always have a smaller text block, generally with seven
lines per page, while all other pages have a text block of 15 lines (Figure 3). This
means that the decorated double frames at the beginning are relatively large, while
those in the middle are commensurately narrower due to the smaller page margins. This
explains the extraordinarily cramped appearance of the text in a beautifully illuminated
Qur’an which, unusually, has wide illuminated double frames at the start of the Sūrat
al-Isrā’, as the scribe then had to fit the prescribed 15 lines of text into a space half the
size of the conventional text block (Plate 29). Conversely, in unilluminated East Coast
Qur’ans, it is still common to find the opening double pages with a reduced text block
of seven lines on each page, set within extra-wide plain white margins, which could be
said to have their own, quiet, aesthetic appeal (Figure 4).
While we do find variation in the composition of individual lines upon the page, the
ending of each page, with a complete verse, is predetermined. It is not uncommon,
though, to find greater differences creeping in the page layouts of the final juz’. In
Qur’ans which adhere to what could be called the ‘orthodox’ Ottoman model, the final
two pages of the Qur’an contain the final eight sūrahs, and when these are illuminated
the double frames are of the narrow type. However, as noted above, in some Qur’ans
wide illuminated frames surround reduced text blocks containing only the final two
sūrahs. In such cases, either the text layout is adjusted commensurately in the preceding
few pages, or the orthodox model is followed as described above but then the final two
sūrahs are repeated after the end of the Qur’anic text.
Decorated double frames are the most prominent form of illumination found in East
Coast Qur’ans, but hardly less impressive artistically are some of the marginal ornaments
found (Plates 15, 30– 31). These are used to mark conventional divisions of the Qur’anic
text into 30 parts of equal length called juz’ (plural ajzā’), and sometimes each juz’ into
half (nisf), quarters (rub’) or eighths (thumn); places for ritual prostration (sajdah) or
genuflection (ruku’); or to indicate portions of the text to be learnt for recitation
(maqra’). The marginal ornaments in East Coast Qur’ans are without doubt the finest in
5
A suggested translation for this term is ‘with freestanding verses’ (Stanley 2004: 59).
6
Two such manuscripts, albeit with slight variations, are IAMM 2004.2.5 from Java, which follows the ‘Ottoman’
model except for adjustments necessary to allow the Sūrat al-Kahf to start at the top of the right-hand page of a
double opening adorned with decorated double frames as is characteristic of the Javanese school; and KIT H
2184, from west Sumatra, where each juz’ commences at the top of the left-hand page of a double page
opening precisely every ten folios.
Figure 3. The layout of these text pages, like that of all East Coast Qur’ans, follows the
18th-century Ottoman āyāt ber-kenār model with 15 lines per page, set within text
frames consisting of a series of ruled borders, with the start of each juz’ indicated with
a marginal ornament in the top right corner of the right-hand page. Qur’an, the start of
juz’ 17, Sūrat al-Anbiyā’. IAMM 1998.1.3446.
Figure 4. Opening pages of a non-illuminated Qur’an, with a reduced text block containing
seven lines on each page, with wide white margins. IAMM 1998.1.3434.
any Southeast Asian manuscript tradition, and at their best display a sublime and haunting
aesthetic sense, executed with extraordinary skill and delicacy. Nonetheless, it is rare to
find a complete set of all possible marginal ornaments in an East Coast Qur’an. The
most commonly found are the juz’ markers, but even these may not be inserted consist-
ently, and some simpler manuscripts contain only one or two illuminated marginal orna-
ments. Other Qur’ans may yield a relatively full set of marginal ornaments near the
beginning of a manuscript which soon decrease in frequency leaving only the juz’
markers. However, many of the finest illuminated manuscripts will have a full set of 28
or 29 juz’ 7 and 30 nisf markers, and when these are present it is often the case that
every single one is unique, testifying to the Malay artist’s infinite capacity for variation
on a theme.8
The underlying shape of all these marginal ornaments is a circle, usually with three or
four concentric outer bands, inscribed in the middle with the appropriate label such as al-
juz’, nisf, etc. In the most basic marginal ornaments the outer bands of the circle are simply
coloured; alternatively the outer bands may be subdivided into cartouches which are then
coloured, and the circle may also be augmented with petals at the four cardinal points. But
the most frequent mode of embellishment, especially in finely-illuminated manuscripts, is
for the circular structure to be extended vertically both upwards and downwards with floral
and foliate motifs, tapering off at either end with a tendril or tear-drop point. It is not
unusual for the hierarchy of text divisions to be mirrored in the complexity of their
marginal ornaments, and thus when juz’ markers are extended vertically nisf markers
may be left as circles or petalled circles.
Marginal ornaments are also found in other Southeast Asian illuminated Qur’ans, often
with their own distinctive regional shapes. But in most other Southeast Asian Qur’ans, the
start of a juz’ is indicated not only by a marginal ornament but also at the appropriate place
within the Qur’anic text, either with a decorative marker or by highlighting the first few
words in red or bold ink. That this second, textual, indicator is never encountered in
East Coast Qur’ans is to due to their adoption of the Ottoman page layout model described
above, whereby the start of each juz’ occurs with unfailing regularity precisely at the top of
the verso of the first folio of each quire. Therefore in East Coast Qur’ans juz’ markers are
always encountered in the same position, in the top-right corner of the right-hand side of a
double page opening every ten folios (or 20 pages).
Minor forms of illumination characteristic of Qur’ans include the round markers which
separate each verse or āyāh. In East Coast Qur’ans these are most frequently plain red
circles, but in some lavish Qur’ans may be gold roundels outlined in black or red ink.
The text frames found on every page also follow one of two prescribed formats: a
simpler version with (from the innermost frame to the outermost) black-black-red lines,
associated with the Patani style, and a more complex version with black-thick yellow-
black-black-red lines more commonly found in Terengganu Qur’ans, but there are also
many exceptions to this pattern of distribution. Finally, in a few of the most finely illumi-
nated Qur’ans, the sūrah headings may be illuminated. Sometimes the rectangular panel
containing the sūrah heading, written as usual in red ink, includes floral motifs at either
end, or the heading itself may be reserved in white or highlighted in gold against a
(multi-) coloured background (Plate 18).
7
Depending on whether or not juz’ 15 is marked by a marginal ornament or a decorated double frame, but bearing
in mind the presence of the latter does not necessarily preclude the former (e.g. DBP MS 79, p. 281).
8
Ling Roth commented on the ‘absence of simple repetition’ in the patterns on Malay silverwork (Roth 1993: 4).
Lithographed Qur’ans in the East Coast style

The coherence and dynamism of the Islamic manuscript tradition in the East Coast states
in the 19th century, apparent from a study of extant manuscripts, is confirmed by contem-
porary accounts. Munsyi Abdullah, who visited Terengganu in 1838, commented on the
scholarly preoccupation with works in Arabic rather than in Malay and the reputation
of Terengganu scribes as Qur’an copyists.9 Proudfoot (1993: 37) has highlighted the
prominent role of Terengganu scribes in the Muslim lithographic publishing houses in
Singapore in the second half of the 19th century. It is not altogether surprising, therefore,
to find that a group of Qur’ans, all of which may have been lithographed in Singapore in
late 19th century, bear unmistakeable signs of Terengganu influence in their mise-en-page,
decoration and even bindings.
Six such copies of the Qur’an have been traced; extraordinarily, all seem to represent dis-
tinct printings.10 Furthermore, four of these copies have been found in Indonesian collections,
three of which were acquired in Sumatra in the late 19th century,11 reflecting the widespread
distribution of these printed Qur’ans. One is complete with a colophon, dated 20 Rabiulawal
1287 (20 June 1870), naming the copyist as Abdul Kadir bin Mustafa of Terengganu, and the
place of printing as Lorong Mesjid Sultan Ali, Kampung Gelam, Singapore (Figure 5). No
publication details have been noted in the other Qur’ans documented, all of which are defec-
tive or fragmentary, but the marked similarity in size, style and bindings described below may
indicate a common origin, bearing in mind Singapore’s position as the centre of Muslim pub-
lishing in Southeast Asia in the late 19th century.
All six printed Qur’ans exhibit typical features of the East Coast style: they all follow the
Ottoman āyāt ber-kenār model of text layout with 15 lines per page, save for the first and last
double-page spread which have smaller text blocks containing seven lines each. As far as can
be ascertained from the incomplete copies extant, most appear to have had three pairs of
decorated double frames in the regular Terengganu-style described above, with an outer
border and stalagmite-stalactite finials and wavelets. These pairs of double frames are
found at the beginning of the text, with the Sūrat al-Fātihah on the right and the beginning
of the Sūrat al-Baqarah on the left (Plate 12); in the middle, at the beginning of Sūrat al-
Isrā’; and at the end, framing the Sūrat al-Falaq and Sūrat al-Nās. Āyāh markers are red
or black circles, and text frames are black-[wide space]-black-black-red, the space
between the first two black frames corresponding to the wide yellow frame normally
found in East Coast Qur’ans. Marginal ornaments are either in the form of concentric
circles or circles with tapered floral and foliate motifs above and below. The creeping influ-
ence of modern print culture is apparent in the numbering of juz’ markers, a feature not gen-
erally found in East Coast manuscript Qur’ans. The double decorated frames are printed in
colours, in red, green and sometimes blue. Perhaps one of the most striking indicators of how
these early printed Qur’ans emulated as closely as possible their manuscript models is that
three of these lithographed Qur’ans have full Islamic bindings in maroon leather in a clearly
recognisable Terengganu style described in more detail below.
9
Tetapi adalah sadikit orang dalam antara mereka itu yang pandai menulis, lagi pun bagus bekas
tangannya menulis Arab, saperti Kor’an dan kitab-kitab bahasa ‘Arab; maka jarang yang dalam
bahasa Melayu. Maka sebab itu kebanyakan terpuji Kor’an Terengganu itu dalam negeri lain-
lain (Abdullah 1961: 32–33). [There are a few literate ones amongst them, and indeed who are
very fine calligraphers of Arabic, for example in Qur’ans and other works in Arabic, but they
rarely write in Malay. Thus Terengganu Qur’ans are highly admired in other states.]
10
Listed in Appendix II. None of these copies can be correlated positively with Quran 1869 in Proudfoot 1993: 433.
11
Now in the Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden.
Figure 5. Colophon from a lithographed Qur’an, copied by Abdul Kadir bin Mustafa of
Terengganu and printed in Singapore, dated 20 Rabiulawal 1287 (20 June 1870), with
typically East Coast composite roundels. RMV 03-240.
Illumination in non-Qur’anic manuscripts

After Qur’ans, examples of East Coast illumination are most frequently found in devotional
works to the Prophet Muhammad. This group includes manuscripts known generically as
kitab mawlid, containing accounts in verse or prose of the life of the Prophet and prayers in
his praise,12 and the popular prayerbook Dalā’il al-khayrāt, ‘The signs of benediction’, by
the Moroccan mystical activist Muhammad bin Sulāyman al-Jazūlī (d.1465). The text con-
sists of an introduction and hadīth on the benefit of prayer and faith; a list of names of the
Prophet; a description of the burial places of the Prophet, Abū Bakr and ‘Umar; and prayers
for the days of the week (Vernoit 1997: 32).
When such manuscripts are illuminated they are often lavishly so, with many deco-
rated pages drawing on a wide repertoire of decorative elements. The first pages of the
different sections of the text are usually announced with double headpieces (Plates
32 –34) or, in the most sumptuous manuscripts, decorated double frames, and the end
of each section may be marked by an illuminated tailpiece (Plate 36). The metrical
and repetitive nature of one of the songs of praise to the Prophet often found in kitab
mawlid – in which each line starts al-salām ‘alaykā, [peace be upon him], followed
by a different honorific epithet of Muhammad, such as zayn al-ānbiyā’ [the ornament
of the prophets] – lends itself to an impressive graphical layout. Down the centre of
the text block runs an illuminated vertical border, with al-salām ‘alaykā – often
enhanced calligraphically with ‘alaykā nestled above the elongated sin of salām – on
the right on every line, and the appropriate epithet on the left (Figure 6). Alternatively,
lines may be separated by complex composite roundels. All over the Muslim world,
manuscripts of the Dalā’il al-khayrāt often contain two full page illuminations of sche-
matic depictions of the tomb (rawdah) and pulpit (minbar) of the Prophet in his mosque
in Medinah, and a pair of these illustrations is found in a fine copy of the Dalā’il al-
khayrāt said to be from Patani (Plate 38), which also contains a third, very unusual, full
page illumination which appears to depict two foliate fronds, the meaning of which is
unknown (Plate 40). Other manuscripts of the Dalā’il al-khayrāt may contain instead two
facing pages with illustrations of the Kaabah in Mekkah and the mosque of the Prophet in
Medinah. A pair of these paintings in flat plane is found in a kitab mawlid (Plate 33),
while another kitab mawlid from Patani (MNK MZ(KN) 136:14) – probably the finest
known – has five full pages of illuminations which appear to contain depictions of pilgrim-
age sites in Mekkah and Medinah.
There are nine illuminated kitab mawlid and two copies of the Dalā’il al-khayrāt
listed in the Appendix; on the same hagiographical theme are an illuminated Qasidah
in Malay and a copy of Kifayat al-muhtāj fi¯ al-isrā’ wa-al-mi’rāj, an account of the
miraculous night journey of the Prophet by Syaikh Daud bin Abdullah Patani (fl.1809-
1843 in Mekkah). These two major categories of Qur’ans and devotional works on
the Prophet account for 85% of the illuminated manuscripts listed in the Appendix.
Only a handful of other texts are found, including collections of sermons (khutbah),
two copies of the Sabil al-muhtadin by Muhammad Arsyad al-Banjari, a copy of the
zikir of Muhammad Samman, a manuscript of the Bustan al-Salatin and a work on
zakat by Syaikh Daud.
Of particular interest, however, are two fine copies of the Hikayat Hang Tuah, both with
lavish decorated double frames, one held in the Muzium Negeri Terengganu (MNT
12
For a description of the mawlid texts popular in Indonesia and the context of their use see Kaptein 1993:
125–27.
Figure 6. Decorated vertical border and fine calligraphy in a Kitab mawlid. PNM MSS 175.
Figure 7. Detail of the top-right corner of a fine decorated double frame at the beginning of
a manuscript of the Hikayat Hang Tuah, reproduced from a (negative) photographic copy
held in the Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. The manuscript bears the ownership seal of the
Raja Muda of Kelantan dated 1890. DBP MS 28a.
H.10.83) which has Patani-style illuminated frames, and another which was formerly in
the possession of the Raja Muda of Kelantan (later Sultan Muhammad IV of Kelantan,
r.1900 – 1920), and of which a photographic copy is held in the Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka in Kuala Lumpur (DBP MS 28a) (Figure 7). Alongside these two manuscripts
we should probably consider a third manuscript of the Hikayat Hang Tuah, in the
recent past owned by another member of the Kelantan royal family and now in the
National Library of Malaysia, also finely illuminated with recognisable East Coast orna-
mental motifs and colours, but not sharing the structure of typical East Coast double
frames.13 It is very rare to find high-quality examples of illumination in Malay literary
manuscripts, except in copies made under European patronage. The presence of three
superbly illuminated literary manuscripts from the East Coast, all copies of the Hikayat
Hang Tuah and at least two linked to the royal court of Kelantan, appears to be significant,
although the implications thereof have yet to be explored.
Both the types of East Coast texts which are decorated and the quality of the illumina-
tion therein contrast strongly with the profile of manuscripts illuminated in the Acehnese
style, where after the Qur’an illumination is most commonly found in works of fiqh written
in Malay by local (or locally resident) ulama such as Nuruddin al-Raniri and Abdul Rauf
of Singkel. Apart from the two works of Syaikh Daud mentioned above few illuminated
copies of kitab jawi by East Coast ulama are known, despite the large numbers of such
13
PNM MSS 1713; reproduced on the front cover of Warison 2002. Ownership stamp of Tengku Ridzwan bt.
Tengku Zainal Arifin.
manuscripts extant. Moreover, the best examples of the Acehnese style of illumination are
invariably found in copies of the Qur’an, with non-Qur’anic manuscripts almost never
exhibiting the same degree of artistry or finesse. In East Coast illumination, however,
while the finest examples are also indubitably in Qur’ans, smaller manuscripts of kitab
mawlid and the Dalā’il al-khayrāt often achieve a jewel-like radiance, and may be
filled with page after page of exquisite illumination commensurate with that found in
the most impressive Qur’ans.
Palette
The palette in East Coast illuminated manuscripts is very broad. Red and yellow predomi-
nate, but many other colours are encountered including blue (ranging from dark blue
through a distinctive powder blue to a pale blue-grey), various shades of green, brown,
orange, ochre and black. Limited use is also made of reserved white, namely the practice
of leaving uncoloured certain parts of the decorated elements, which therefore appear
white due to the background colour of the paper. In manuscripts illuminated in the Aceh-
nese style, reserved white was accorded the primary role of carrying the main ornamental
motif, but in East Coast illumination it is simply treated as another basic colour.
One of the most notable features of the palette of East Coast manuscripts is the rela-
tively high use of gold. This is used to an almost overwhelming degree in the ‘golden
shower’ manuscripts in the Terengganu style described above (Plates 1 –4), but gold is
also used lavishly in some of the finest ‘Patani’ manuscripts (cf. Plates 13 –18). In other
manuscripts, such as those in the standard Terengganu style, the dominant use of
yellow to pick out the main ornamental motifs appears to be a substitute for gold. At
the other end of the scale of artistic sophistication, a large number of relatively crude illu-
minated manuscripts in the Patani style are executed wholly in orange/red, ochre (verging
on khakhi), black ink and reserved white (Plates 20, 32), shadowing the basic red, yellow,
black and white palette of Aceh manuscripts.
The composition of the pigments used is not known. Sometimes the colours in a
manuscript have a deep rich hue and glitter in certain lighting conditions, suggesting an
inorganic, metallic, origin, while in other manuscripts paler pastel colours are found, poss-
ibly indicating organic sources. In general the pigments used in East Coast illumination
appear to be very stable except in a few cases where the green shows signs of degradation,
perhaps indicating the presence of copper.14 Far more problematic is the black ink used for
the text, which in many manuscripts has undergone serious degradation indicative of iron-
gall composition (cf. Plate 13). Thus in quite a number of fine illuminated manuscripts
from the East Coast, a pristine and sparkling illuminated frame may surround a badly
corroded, discoloured and even crumbling text block.15
Paper, page size and bindings

All the illuminated East Coast manuscripts documented so far are written on laid paper
of European manufacture,16 and there does appear to be a correlation between style of
illumination and page size. In general, Terengganu-style Qur’ans are produced in folio
14
E.g. IAMM 1998.1.3462, 1998.1.3826.
15
E.g. DBP MS 79; IAMM 1998.1.3500.
16
The paper is often Italian, and a commonly encountered watermark is ‘Andrea Galvani Pordenone’. Water-
marks of MSS in the PNM are noted, where found, in the most recent published catalogues.
format, whereby the manuscript is made up of leaves or folios obtained by folding a sheet
of paper once, yielding two folios or four pages, which may then be trimmed as required.
The format of manuscripts can be recognised from the marks of the paper mold in which
they were made: in folio format manuscripts, the laid lines are horizontal and the chain
lines vertical, and the watermark and countermark (if present) will usually appear in the
centre of the leaves of the manuscript.17 One of the largest of such East Coast manuscripts
is the royal Terengganu Qur’an mentioned above (IAMM 1998.1.3427) with a page size of
43 28 cm, but most of the regular Terengganu-style Qur’ans have page sizes consist-
ently around 32 21 cm. By comparison, manuscripts illuminated in the Patani style –
both Qur’ans and other texts – tend to be smaller and squarer, in quarto format,
whereby each sheet of paper is folded twice yielding four folios or eight pages, with
page sizes consistently around 21 16 cm. In these quarto manuscripts the laid lines
are vertical and the chain lines horizontal, and where found only half the watermark
appears on a folio, as if cut in half by the gutter of the book. Some smaller mainly non-
Qur’anic manuscripts illuminated in both Terengganu and Patani styles were produced
in octavo format, resulting from folding the sheet of paper three times yielding eight
folios or 16 pages, with page sizes of around 16 10 cm. This pattern can be contrasted
with Aceh, where Qur’ans are invariably only in the larger folio format, with the quarto
and octavo formats strongly associated with non-Qur’anic kitab jawi.
Regional origin can be correlated not only with page size but also with binding format.
Associated with the Terengganu-style manuscripts is a highly distinctive type of full
Islamic binding with flap in maroon leather with stamped gold borders and medallions18
(Plate 41). In contrast, Qur’ans illuminated in the Patani style are invariably bound
in cloth, with intricately sewn headbands exhibiting a variety of stitching patterns
(Plate 42). Most of the cloth is plain cotton, but two volumes are bound in dark indigo
batik with a very regular, square-shaped pattern.19
Questions of identity
What does it mean to say that a manuscript is illuminated in the East Coast style? Does it
imply that the manuscript was created – copied and decorated – on the northeast coast of
the Malay peninsula, or that it was produced by a scribe or artist from this region? In the
study of Acehnese illumination, it was found that neither the place of creation of the manu-
script nor the ethnic identity of the artist was a definitive qualifier of the ‘Acehnese’ style.
In this study, there are also many examples of manuscripts illuminated in the East
Coast style which were produced outside the region, notably in Mekkah,20 home to a
large resident community of teachers and religious students from the East Coast Malay
states. Taken together with the Acehnese examples, some of which also originated from
Mekkah, this fact is interesting because it shows that local Southeast Asian senses of artis-
tic identity were still strongly evident amongst the ‘Jawi’ community in Mekkah, and were
not subsumed either into a generic Jawi style or one dominant Malay-world school of
manuscript illumination at the expense of the others. Thus, as was the case in Aceh, manu-
scripts illuminated in the East Coast style are probably best defined as such simply by their
17
I am grateful to Russell Jones for advice on how to identify the format of a manuscript.
18
See, for example, IAMM 1998.1.3427, 1998.1.3436, 1998.1.3462, 1998.1.3483; PNM MSS 3238; DBP MS 79.
19
IAMM 1998.1.3430, 1998.1.3632.
20
DBP MS 106a; PNM MSS 484, MSS 2343.
Figure 8. Detail from a double headpiece with typical ‘Terengganu’ features in the tapered
tendrils and M-W motifs, copied by a Patani scribe in Mekkah in 1874. PNM MSS 484.
conformity to certain artistic conventions associated with the book arts of Patani, Kelantan
and Terengganu.
Similarly, it is not necessarily the case that manuscripts illuminated in the Terengganu
or Patani style were produced in Terengganu or Patani respectively, or even by artists from
those states. For example, a manuscript of Syaikh Daud’s Kifayah al-muhtāj fi¯ al-isrā’
wa-al-mi’rāj was copied in Mekkah in 1874 by a Patani scribe named in the colophon
as Wan Abdul Rahman ibn al-marhum Wan Abdul Ghafur Patani, but its very fine
double illuminated headpiece has Terengganu-style features with trademark ‘W-M’
motifs and tapered tendrils (Figure 8).
Another scenario to consider is that for every unambiguous Terengganu- or Patani- style
manuscript there are others which combine elements from both artistic schools. Thus one
illuminated Qur’an (IAMM 1998.1.3446) has the outer borders and semicircular finials
of the Terengganu-style decorated double frames, and their stepped lobed arches with a
continuous outline, but the distinctively Patani-style chili-pepper borders. Another
mixed example is a Qur’an in the British Library (Or.15227), presumed to be of southern
Thai origin on the basis of the blackened paper, familiar from Thai folding-book manu-
scripts, which has been used for the inner boards of the binding. Among the four coloured
double frames in this manuscript are two with linked arches in the Terengganu style (cf.
Plate 11) and two with the discrete arches favoured in Patani illumination. Other Patani
features include interlocking wave arches (Plate 21) and chili-pepper borders, but the
regular recurring floral motifs are more associated with Terengganu-style artists, and
this manuscript has been described by Norhaiza Noordin – woodcarver and protégé of
Nik Rashiddin – as ‘Patani with Terengganu influences in the neatness of the detail’.21
Should such hybrid manuscripts be assumed to reflect artistic practice in Kelantan, situated
physically between Terengganu and Patani, and historically in the political shadow of both?
Not necessarily, although this might be true of some manuscripts, such as a small but coherent
group where the formal Terengganu structures seem to have been softened by a gentler
palette and greater naturalism in the vegetal ornamentation (e.g. IAMM 1998.1.3494,
Plates 25–30). An important factor for consideration is the high degree of mobility associated
with this community of manuscript producers and consumers. Apart from the royal courts,
major centres of manuscript production in the East Coast states would have been the madra-
sah, religious educational establishments known in this region as pondok. Students would
travel from long distances to study with a renowned teacher, and it was common too for
ulama to move easily between the three states – and indeed Mekkah – resulting in
complex webs of kinship links and ties of fealty throughout the region.22
It is therefore perhaps more likely that we are dealing with just two main genres of manu-
script illumination, originating from Terengganu and Patani respectively, each with their
associated structural conventions, but which skilled practitioners of any origin could draw
upon and reinterpret according to individual, group or patron predilections or requirements.
A problem in testing out this theory is that sources of information on provenance such as
colophons or statements of ownership or endowment (wakaf) are very rare in East Coast
manuscripts (compared to, say, illuminated manuscripts from Aceh). Physical indicators
such as paper, page size and especially bindings and stitching styles may ultimately be a
more accurate indicator of geographical origin than style of illumination alone.
21
Pers. comm., January 2004.
22
On the links between the religious fraternity of the East Coast states, and the particular importance of Patani
teachers, see Matheson & Hooker 1988: 76 –78, Shafie 1983: 12 and Ahmad 2002.
To return to Nik Rashiddin’s remarks on the relative artistic merit of art forms from each
of the three states, it is certainly true that in some manuscripts illuminated in the Patani
style we encounter a degree of artistic individuality, boldness and creativity not associated
with Terengganu works, which appear to conform more closely to certain recognised
structural conventions. And yet it is also the case that considerable variation is found in
the quality of the Patani style manuscripts, which range from the exquisite to relatively
crudely drawn and coloured examples (e.g. Plate 20), while in contrast all known
examples of Terengganu illumination are executed to a consistently high standard.
These comments confirm Nik Rashiddin’s evaluation, namely that in technique the
work of Terengganu artists is unrivalled, while it is in Patani that some of the finest aes-
thetic achievements are encountered. But until we are able to identify securely the origins
of more manuscripts, little can at present be said about any distinguishing characteristics
of the manuscript art of Kelantan.
Concluding remarks
Some of the finest illuminated Islamic manuscripts from Southeast Asia originate from the
states of Terengganu, Kelantan and Patani on the northeast coast of the Malay peninsula.
The major forms of illumination encountered are decorated double frames and double
headpieces, characterised by multi-lobed ogival arches edged with small wavelets,
impressive calligraphic panels and a varied palette. On the basis of structural features
and ornamental motifs two distinctive subsets can be identified, associated with Tereng-
ganu and Patani. The most immediate distinction is that in Terengganu-style double
frames, the arches on the three outer sides of the textblock are linked by a single continu-
ous outline, while in Patani frames the arches tend to be discrete entities. The Terengganu
style is usually further distinguished by a decorative border hugging the outer edges of the
pages from which protrude finials which meet the wavelets on the inner decorated frame in
a stalagmite-stalactite pattern. This structural feature is also occasionally encountered in
other Southeast Asian Islamic manuscripts, but in Terengganu manuscripts it is combined
with distinctive M-W and tapered tendril motifs, and densely repeated floral and foliate
patterns, all executed with great skill and confidence, and often lavishly gilded. The
Patani style is characterised by greater artistic individuality and two unique decorative
features – interlocking wave arches and a chili pepper border – not encountered in any
other illuminated manuscripts from the Malay world. While primarily associated with
their eponymous states, the two styles of illumination were not necessarily limited to
local practitioners; instead, the resulting pool of ornamental features could also be
drawn upon as necessary by scribes and manuscript artists from any of the three East
Coast cultural centres of Terengganu, Kelantan and Patani.
Illumination in the East Coast style is mainly found in Qur’ans and devotional works to
the Prophet such as kitab mawlid and the prayerbook Dalā’il al-khayrāt. The text layout in
East Coast Qur’ans was undeniably influenced by Ottoman practice, but Ottoman influ-
ence is hardly discernible in the decorative details. Instead, East Coast illumination
exudes a strident and self-confident sense of regional identity that both embraces the
unity of the cultural zone comprising Terengganu, Kelantan and Patani while recognising
differences in the artistic character of each state, yet is also firmly cognisant of the broader
conventions of the art of the Islamic book in Southeast Asia.
There are many more surviving illuminated Qur’ans and other Islamic works from
the East Coast than from all the other peninsular states together. While it is possible
that this is simply a consequence of the uneven survival of manuscript collections in
the Malay world, the numbers are large enough to hint, instead, at an East Coast domi-
nance in the production of illuminated Islamic manuscripts in the Malay peninsula, at
least in the 19th century.
Acknowledgements
This survey of illumination in East Coast manuscripts, many of which are not listed in
published catalogues and have never been reproduced, could not have been accomplished
without the kind assistance of the custodians of the collections concerned. I would like to
thank Datin Siti Mariani Haji Omar and the curatorial staff of the Pusat Manuskrip
Melayu, Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia for their constant assistance in my ongoing
study of illumination in Malay manuscripts since 1990. At the Islamic Arts Museum
Malaysia, I am indebted to Syed Mohammad al-Bukhary and the curatorial staff – Ros
Mahwati, Nurul and Adline, as well as former curators Mandana Barkeshli and Heba
Nayat Barakat – for access to the treasures in this collection. My thanks are also due to
the staff of Muzium Negeri Terengganu, Muzium Negeri Kelantan, Muzium Kraftangan,
Melaka Museums Corporation, Perpustakaan Nasional Republik Indonesia and Leiden Uni-
versity Library, and to Muhammad bin Muda, Zaharah Othman and Rahizan A. Rahim. I am
also grateful to Ian Proudfoot for his comments on the section on lithographed Qur’ans. I owe
a special debt to the late Nik Rashiddin Haji Nik Hussein, to whom this article is dedicated.
The illustrations which accompany this article have been reproduced with the kind
permission of the following institutions: The British Library Board: Plates 11, 21;
Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka: Figures 1, 7 and Plate 41; Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia:
Figures 2, 3, 4 and Plates 2– 8, 13 –31, 42; Leiden University Library: Plate 35; Melaka
Museums Corporation: Plate 1; Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia: Figures 6, 8 and Plates
22, 32– 34, 36– 40; Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde: Figure 5 and Plate 12.
The British Library

96 Euston Road
London NW1 2DB
E-mail: annabel.gallop@bl.uk
APPENDIX
Abbreviations used in the descriptions:

DF decorated double frames
DHP double headpiece
f(f). folio(s)
f.c. front cover
MO marginal ornaments (indicating text divisions in Qur’ans such as juz’, nisf,
rub’, thumn, maqra’, sajdah)
MS(S) manuscript(s)
r. recto
S. Sūrah
SF decorated single frame
SHP single headpiece
TP tailpiece
v. verso
w.o. without
Abbreviations of institutions:
BL British Library, London
DBP Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur
IAMM Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur
ISTAC International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilisation, Kuala Lumpur
KIT Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen, Amsterdam
LUB Leiden, Universiteitsbibliotheek
MBM Muzium Budaya Melaka (Istana Kesultanan Melaka)
MKT Muzium Kraftangan, Kuala Lumpur
MNK Muzium Negeri Kelantan
MNT Muzium Negeri Terengganu
MSN Muzium Sejarah Nasional, Kuala Lumpur
PNM Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur
PNRI Perpustakaan Nasional Republik Indonesia, Jakarta
RAS Royal Asiatic Society, London
RMV Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden
YMA Yayasan Masagung, Toko Buku Wali Sanga, Jakarta
Appendix I: A preliminary list of manuscripts illuminated in the East

Coast style
This appendix lists all manuscripts illuminated in the ‘East Coast’ style known to the
present writer. All the manuscripts have been inspected personally and photographed,
unless indicated otherwise. Those documented only from photographs or published
reproductions are indicated ‘Not seen’; others only viewed on display in museums or
galleries are labelled ‘On exhibition’, and in such cases it has obviously not been poss-
ible to ascertain the extent of illumination in the MS other than in the exhibited
opening.
It is evident that this preliminary list only records a selection of illuminated East Coast
manuscripts in institutions today, and the holdings of the two major repositories have not
yet been checked exhaustively. During research visits to the IAMM in August 2003 and
February 2004 all Qur’an manuscripts numbered 1998.1.3427– 3494 were checked meth-
odically, while the other Qur’ans listed here were either seen on exhibition or selected by
the curatorial staff. The collection of non-Qur’anic manuscripts in the IAMM has not yet
been explored. Illuminated manuscripts in the PNM were either selected by the curatorial
staff or identified from published catalogues of Malay manuscripts (Katalog 2000, 2001,
2002). However, earlier catalogues of the PNM published before 2000 do not note the pre-
sence of decorative elements, and it should be noted that manuscripts wholly in Arabic
(which are more likely to be illuminated) are not listed in any published catalogues.
The manuscripts in the MNK and MNT were documented en passant during a visit
to the East Coast in March 1990, when manuscript illumination was not the main focus
of the research trip. The manuscripts in the MKT were viewed on exhibition in
December 2002; they apparently formed part of the collection of an Islamic
Museum in Langkawi which had recently closed down. The two Qur’ans belonging
to the late Nik Rashiddin Hj. Nik Hussein were seen in Kota Bharu in December
1999, while that belonging to Muhammad bin Muda (inherited from his family in
Terengganu) was inspected in London in October 2003 through the kind offices of
Zaharah Othman.
The descriptions of the manuscripts are limited to the following elements (when avail-
able): title; nature of illumination and its location in the work; colours used; size of folio;
provenance/date; bibliographical references to reproductions of the illuminated elements
(with a note of the pages reproduced). All examples of illumination in the manuscript are
listed, but illuminated manuscripts from the East Coast which do not include any examples
of illumination in the ‘East Coast style’ are not listed. Qur’ans in which the only illumi-
nated elements are round marginal ornaments have not been listed, but the presence of illu-
minated elongated marginal ornaments in Qur’an manuscripts has been documented
consistently.
Indonesia
PNRI A.47
Qur’an. 2 DF: pp. 1 –2 (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah), heavily repaired, partially
laminated; pp. 551– 2 (S. al-Falaq & S. al-Nās), damaged at corners; MO (juz’ every 10
pp; nisf every 10 pp). Black, pale blue, jade green, red, yellow, pink, brown, gold, reserved
white, black ink. 30.5 20 cm; Dutch paper, wm ‘BLAUW & BRIEL [?]’; [602]pp (num-
bered 1 –499, 450 –552). Kumar & McGlynn 1996: 46 (pp. 551 –52).
Malaysia
DBP MS 28a
Hikayat Hang Tuah (black & white negative photographic copy of a MS). 1 DF: begin-
ning. Owner’s seal impression dated AH 1308 (1890/1): Raja Muda Kelantan 1308
(#1062). Winstedt 1991: facing pp. 45 –46 (beginning).
DBP MS 79
Qur’an. 3 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); middle (beg. of
S. al-Isrā’); end (S. al-Falaq & S. al-Nās); MO. Red, yellow, black, blue, green, gold,
reserved white. 33 20 cm. Text very corroded from ink.
DBP MS 106a
Sabīl al-muhtadīn. 1 DHP. Gold, black, reserved white. 24 18 cm. Copied on Thursday
15 Ramadan 1242 (12 April 1827) by Haji Sulaiman of Patani in Mekkah, in Kampung
Tuan Syaikh Dawud, in the street of the hajj, in the house of Tuan Haji Wan Deramat:
tamat al-kitab sabil al-muhtadin li-ikhwan al-mubtadin pada hari Khamis pada lima
belas hari bulan Ramadan pada tahun hijrat nabi s.a.w. seribu dua ratus empat puluh
dua yang menyurat dia Tuan Haji Sulaiman orang Patani khatam di Mekah al-Musyara-
fah pada Kampung Tuan Syaikh Dawud namanya zuqqaq al-hajj rumah Tuan Haji Wan
Deramat.
IAMM 1998.1.3427
Qur’an. 3 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); middle (beg. of S.
al-Isrā’); end (S. al-Falaq & S. al-Nās); MO. Red, yellow, black, blue, gold, reserved
white, black ink. 43 28 cm. Dated AH 1288 (1871/2 AD) at the end of the manu-
script, alongside a table of abbreviations: khatamat hādhā al-qur’ān al-majīd ‘alā
yad/fi¯ sanat 1288 min hijrat al-nabuwiyyah. Manuskrip 1984: 17 (beginning: S. al-
Baqarah); Ahmad 1994: 120 (beginning), 123 (middle); Tamadun 1997: 206
(middle); Barkeshli 1999: 32 (beginning); Barkeshli 2002: 180– 81 (beginning; text
page with binding flap).
IAMM 1998.1.3430
Qur’an, in 30 volumes. 1 DF: vol. 1, beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah).
Blue, ochre/khakhi, orange/red, reserved white, black ink. 21.5 14 cm (maximum).
IAMM 1998.1.3431
Qur’an; lacking beginning & end. MO. Red/orange, ochre, reserved white, black ink.
20.5 16 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3433
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah). Red, khakhi, reserved
white, black ink. 20 16 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3436
S. al-Isrā’); end (S. al-Mā’ūn – S. al-Nās); MO. Red, blue, green, yellow, gold, reserved
white, black ink. 28 21 cm. Colophon dated 13 Syaaban 1275 (18 March 1859) ident-
ifies the scribe as Haji Ahmad of Kampung Menjelagi: khatam menyurat Qur’an daripada
waktu zohor daripada hari Arba’ daripada tiga belas hari bulan Syaaban daripada hijrat
nabi sallā Allāh ‘alayhi wa-sallam seribu dua ratus tujuh puluh lima ,pada tahun
da[l] . tahun Haji Ahmad yang menyurat dia fakir yang sangat tua duduk di
Kampung Menjelagi [m.n.j.l.a.g.y] tamat al-kalam bi-al-khayr wa-salam. Barkeshli
1999:6 (beginning).
IAMM 1998.1.3440
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); MO. Red/orange, ochre,
black, reserved white. 21 17 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3441
Qur’an. MO. Red, black. 22 16 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3444
Qur’an. 3 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah), damaged; middle
(beg. of S. al-Isrā’); end (S. al-Falaq & S. al-Nās); MO. Red, yellow, green, black,
reserved white. 32 18.5 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3446
Qur’an; lacking f.1. 4 DF: beginning (beg. of S. al-Baqarah, lacking right-hand page
with S. al-Fātihah); beg. of juz’ 10, (S. al-Anfāl, Q.8:41); middle (beg. of S. al-Isrā’);
end (S. al-Mā’ūn – S. al-Nās); MO. Red, yellow, blue, black, gold, reserved white.
31 20 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3449
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); MO. Red, black, yellow,
reserved white. 20.5 15 cm; cloth covers.
IAMM 1998.1.3457
Qur’an; lacking beginning & end. MO. Red, yellow, blue, black ink. 23 17 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3458
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); MO. Red, black, yellow,
reserved white. 21 16 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3462
Qur’an; lacking f.1. 1 DF: end (S. al-Mā’ūn – S. al-Nās); MO. Red, yellow, green
(degraded), blue/grey, gold, black ink. 30.5 20.5 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3463
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah). Red, black, gold,
reserved white. 21 18.5 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3467
Qur’an; lacking end. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah). Red, green,
black ink, reserved white (very faded). 22.5 16 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3470
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah). Orange, grey, reserved
white, black ink. 19.5 16 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3471
Qur’an; lacking begining & end. 1 DF: very damaged, fragment only, no text discernible;
MO. Red, ochre, dark blue, reserved white, black ink. 21 17 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3474
Qur’an; lacking beginning & end. 1 DF: beginning (fragment only of beg. of
S. al-Baqarah). Orange, ochre, reserved white, black ink. 20.5 16 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3475
Qur’an. MO (juz’ 5 only). Red, ochre, black. 20 15.5 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3478
Qur’an; lacking beginning & end. MO. Red, yellow, black, reserved white, black ink.
28 22 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3479
Qur’an. MO. Red, ochre, black ink, reserved white. 21 17 cm. According to a note
inside, acquired from Patani.
IAMM 1998.1.3483
Qur’an; lacking f.2. 3 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah, lacking f.2 with beg. of S. al-Baqarah);
middle (beg. of S. al-Isrā’); end (S. al-Falaq & S. al-Nās); MO. Red, yellow, blue, gold,
black, reserved white. Severely trimmed on all outer edges, leading to cropping of illumi-
nated borders and marginal ornaments. 27 16 cm; Dutch paper, wm ‘V B L’.
IAMM 1998.1.3486
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); MO. Red, black, ochre/
khakhi, gold, reserved white, black ink. 21 16 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3487
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah), very badly damaged;
MO. Red, blue, green, yellow, reserved white, black ink. 23 16.5 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3489
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah), MO. Red, brown, ochre,
reserved white, black ink. 21.5 15.5 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3492
Qur’an; lacking beginning & end. 2 DF: middle (beg. of juz’ 16); end (S. al-Mā’ūn – S. al-
Nasr) badly damaged, lacking final page. Gold, blue, red, ochre, black ink; very unusual
design. 23 19 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3493
Qur’an; lacking beginning. 1 DF: beginning (beg. of S. al-Baqarah, lacking S. al-Fātihah),
badly damaged; MO. Red, black, ochre, reserved white. 30 19.5 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3494
S. al-Isrā’); end (S. al-Falaq & S. al-Nās), badly damaged; MO; sūrah headings set in
illuminated cartouches. Red, blue, yellow, green, black, reserved white, gold.
31 20 cm, Eur. paper, wm ‘PRO PATRIA’ .
IAMM 1998.1.3500
Qur’an. 2 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); end (empty frames after
end of text); MO. Red, brown, black, blue, gold, reserved white. 22 18 cm. Tamadun
1997: 209 (beginning), said to be dated AH 1280 (1863/4 AD).
IAMM 1998.1.3505
Qur’an. 2 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); end (S. al-Falaq &
S. al-Nās); MO; sūrah headings in gold against red and blue background. Red, pink,
blue, green, blue, gold, reserved white, black ink.
IAMM 1998.1.3511
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah), damaged. Red, yellow,
black ink, reserved white. Very faded. 20 16 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3514
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah), unusual, no side arches.
Red, black ink, reserved white.
IAMM 1998.1.3516
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); MO. Red, black, ochre/
brown, reserved white. 21 16 cm, blueish paper, cloth covers.
IAMM 1998.1.3524
S. al-Nās); J. Foredge painting of floral meander pattern. Red, ochre, black, reserved
white. 24 19 cm. Barkeshli 1999: 28 (beginning), 38 (end).
IAMM 1998.1.3527
Qur’an. Half of 1 DF: f.[1r] (enclosing first lines of S. al-Baqarah); 4 DF: ff.[2v-3r]
(S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); ff.[3v-4r] (continuation of S. al-Baqarah);
middle (beg. of S. al-Isrā’); end (S. al-Mā’ūn – S. al-Nās), MO. Red, blue, yellow,
pink, green, black, gold, reserved white. 24 17 cm, cloth covers. [NB The first two ff.
appear to be replacement pages brought in from another Qur’an to replace the original
f.[2v] containing S. al-Fātihah, as f.[2v] does not match f.[3r]. In fact, if turned upside
down and placed side-by-side ff.[1r] and [2v] originally formed a DF from the opening
of another Qur’an, which had been laid out but not yet fully coloured or filled with the
text. Thus on f.[1r] there is an upside-down calligraphic panel containing the heading
for S. al-Fātihah, while f.[2v] contains an upside-down calligraphic panel containing
the heading for S. al-Baqarah.]
IAMM 1998.1.3528
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); MO. Blue, yellow, pink,
reserved white, black ink.
IAMM 1998.1.3538
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); MO. Red, brown, ochre,
black, reserved white. 21.5 17 cm; Eur. paper, wm ‘PRO PATRIA’ .
IAMM 1998.1.3549
Qur’an; lacking end. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); MO. Red,
black, ochre, reserved white. Thai pictorial seal, stamped in blue ink, on f.[1r]. Cloth
covers, fine headbands.
IAMM 1998.1.3553
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); MO. Maroon, gold, blue,
green, reserved white, black ink. 24 17 cm; no covers but headbands sewn around
wood.
IAMM 1998.1.3561
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); MO. Red, black, ochre,
reserved white. 21 17 cm; cloth covers; stitched headbands.
IAMM 1998.1.3620
S. al-Nās); MO. Pink, yellow, black, green, gold, reserved white.
IAMM 1998.1.3621
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); MO. Dark red, green,
yellow, blue, black, reserved white. 23.5 16.5 cm; cloth covers with stitched
headband.
IAMM 1998.1.3632
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); MO. Red, green,
ochre, reserved white, black ink. Batik covers; fine stitched headbands. Note at end:
Alhamdulillah wahai ya itulah anak[nya] yang keluarlah ayah[nya] tiada Tuhan
melainkan Allah maka anak beranak yang Kampung Kepala Bukit adanya dari
Kampung Batang . . . Ci’ Du[?] yang . . . [pesan?]
IAMM 1998.1.3651
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); MO. Pink, red,
yellow, black, reserved white. 25 18 cm; remnants of cloth covers with stitched
headbands.
IAMM 1998.1.3826
Qur’an; selections (S.18, 76, 78). 2 DF: beginning (beg. of S. al-Kahf); end (end of
S. al-Nabā’); 2 TP: end of S. al-Kahf; end of S. al-Dahr. Red, blue, yellow, gold, green
(badly degraded), black ink.
IAMM
S. al-Nās). Red, black, reserved white. 21 18.5 cm. [Not seen.] Barkeshli 1999:6
(beg. of S. al-Baqarah), 14 (end).
IAMM
[Khutbah]. 1 SHP: beginning. 14 9 cm. Found in Kampung Pasir Raja, Ulu Dungun,
Terengganu. [Not seen.] Manuskrip 1984: 4 (beginning); said to belong to Pusat Islam,
therefore probably now in the collections of IAMM.
IAMM
[Fadilat membaca al-Qur’an]. 1 DF: beginning. 17 10 cm. [Not seen.] Manuskrip
1984:7 (beginning); said to belong to Pusat Islam, therefore probably now in the
collections of IAMM.
ISTAC
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah). Red, yellow, blue, black
ink, reserved white. [Not seen.] Al-Attas 1998: 158– 59 (beginning).
MBM
S. al-Isra’). Gold, red, blue, black, yellow, reserved white. [Not seen; documented from
photographs provided courtesy of Melaka Museums Corporation.]
MKT
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah). Gold, red, black ink,
reserved white. [On exhibition]
MKT
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah). Gold, red, blue, black,
reserved white. [On exhibition.]
MKT
[Kitab mawlid]. 1 DHP: beginning. Gold, red, blue, brown, yellow, black ink. [On
exhibition.]
MNK MZ(KN) 146:86

[Kitab mawlid]. 1 SF; 1 DF; 2 DHP; 1 TP; 5 full page illuminations with architectural
structures. Red, yellow, black, green, gold. 20 16 cm. Colophon dated Friday 23
Syaaban (no year) identifies scribe as Abdullah Latif ibn al-Haj Abdul Rahman of
Cendung, Patani: disalin oleh Abdullah Latif ibn al-Haj Abdul Rahman dari Cendung,
Patani, pada hari Jumaat tiga likur haribulan Syaaban. Manuskrip 1990: 5 (DHP);
Katalog 2003: 21 (DHP; shelfmark given here as MZ(KN) 136: 86).
MNK MZ(KN) 106:86

Kitab khutbah hari raya. 1 DHP. Maroon, yellow, green, reserved white. 16.5 11.5 cm.
MNK MZ(KN) 1:84

Qur’an. 1 DF: middle (beg. of S. al-Isra’); MO. Yellow, red, black, reserved white.
20.5 17 cm.
MNT H.83.10
Hikayat Hang Tuah. 1 DF: beginning. Red, black, blue, yellow, reserved white.
25 19 cm. Asmah 2004: 86 (beginning).
MNT
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); MO. Red, black, green,
blue, gold.
MSN 32.1992
Qur’an. 1 DF: middle (beg. of S. al-Isrā’). Red, yellow, dark blue, green, black. [ca.
40 30 cm.] [On exhibition on ground floor.]
MSN E.651.1973.U106
Qur’an. Sūrah headings. Gold, red, blue, black. [ca. 40 30 cm.] [On exhibition on first floor.]
PNM MSS 175

[Kitab mawlid]. 3 DHP; 1 SHP; vertical borders; calligraphic panels; roundels. Red, blue,
gold, black ink, reserved white. Gallop 2002:245 (beginning).
PNM MSS 219

[Kitab mawlid]. 2 DHP; roundels. Red, maroon, blue, yellow, black, reserved white. Dated
AH 1276 (1859/60); ownership notes on f.1v: ini milik Haji Wan Idris Pandang ibn Wan
Abdul Kadir; on f.2v: hadha yang milik akan dia Wan Husain Pandang. Gallop 2002: 245
(DHP).
PNM MSS 484

Kifayah al-muhtāj fi¯ al-isrā’ wa-al-mi’rāj, tr. Daud bin Abdullah Patani in Mekkah, 1809.
1 DHP (beginning); 2 TP (end). Red, yellow, blue, green, black, reserved white.
23 16.5 cm; Italian paper, wm ‘Andrea Galvani Pordenone’. Copied by Wan Abdul
Rahman ibn al-marhum Wan Abdul Ghafur Patani in Mekkah, 5 Rabiulakhir 1291
(22 May 1874). Manuskrip 1987: f.c. (beginning); Gallop 2002: 241 (beginning);
Katalog 2003: 30 (beginning).
PNM MSS 630

Qasidah. 1 SHP; calligraphic panels; roundels. Black, red, ochre, reserved white.
21 17 cm.
PNM MSS 819

[Kitab mawlid]. 3 DHP; 3 TP; roundels. Yellow, red, blue, green, black ink, reserved
white. 23 17 cm. Gallop 2002: 235 (DHP), 258 (detail of border); Katalog 2003: 10
(DHP).
PNM MSS 1273

Dalā’il al-khayrāt. 1 SF; 2 DF; 3 TP; 3 fully illuminated pages without text, with two
facing pages depicting the pulpit (minbar) and tomb (rawdah) of the Prophet, and a
third page with foliate fronds. Red, blue, green, gold, black ink, reserved white. Gallop
2002: 244 (minbar & rawdah), 256 (DF).
PNM MSS 2314

[Kitab mawlid]. 1 DHP; roundels. Red, black, yellow, blue, reserved white, gold.
21 15 cm. Katalog 2003: 12 (DHP).
PNM MSS 2336

[Kitab mawlid]. 2 DHP; 1 SHP. Red, ochre, black ink, reserved white. 21 16.5 cm.
Copied in AH 1274 (1857/8). Gallop 2002: 241 (DHP); Katalog 2003:14 (DHP).
PNM MSS 2343

Al-mawāhib al-Makīyyah fi¯ ta’rīb tajwīd al-adāiyyah. 1 SHP (beginning); 1 TP (end).
Maroon, blue, gold, black ink. 24 17 cm. Translated and copied by Wan Abdul Kadir
bin Wan Abdul Rahman Patani in Mekkah on Sunday 23 Rejab 1290 (16 September
1873): dan telah selesailah daripada menyaling naskhah awal pada tajwid Ahmad
Adham yang dipermelayukan oleh Wan Abdul Kadir bin Wan Abdul Rahman Patani
pada hari Ahad pada bulan Rejab tiga likur hari di Mekkah Musyarafah sanat 129[0]
waktu asar. Gallop 2002: 254 (detail of SHP & TP).
PNM MSS 2367

[Zikir Syaikh Muhammad al-Samman]. Roundels. Red, green, yellow, pink, reserved
white. 16 10 cm. Dated AH 1249 (1833/4). Gallop 2002: 245 (roundels).
PNM MSS 2488

[F.] [Kitab iktikad]. Floral panels. [G.] Hill al-zill. 1 TP. Red, yellow, black ink, reserved
white. 22 15.5 cm. Copied by Mahmud ibn Muhammad Yusuf al-Terqanu; [A] dated
29 Safar 1255 (14 May 1839).
PNM MSS 2586
Dalā’il al-khayrāt. 1 SF; 1 DF; 1 DHP; 2 TP; MO; calligraphic panels. Red, blue, yellow,
gold, black, reserved white. 20.5 16 cm. Copied by Ahmad bin Muhammad bin Husain
bin Mustafa bin Syaikh al-Idrus, dated Safar 1256 (April/May 1840). Gallop 2002: 241
(DF), 253 (det. of DHP); Katalog 2003: 15 (SF).
PNM MSS 2648

Sabīl al-muhtadīn. 1 DHP. Red, yellow, brown, reserved white, black ink. 22 16.5 cm.
PNM MSS 2746

[Kitab zakat], by Daud bin Abdullah Patani. 2 TP. Red, green, black ink, reserved white.
23.5 16.5 cm.
PNM MSS 2809

‘Aqīdat al-‘awāmm. 2 DF; borders. Red, yellow, blue, black, reserved white. 15.5 10.5 cm.
Katalog 2002: f.c. (beginning); Gallop 2002: 255 (beginning); Katalog 2003: 17 (beginning).
PNM MSS 2858
[Kitab mawlid]. 3 DHP; 2 TP; vertical borders; roundels. Orange, green, ochre, black,
reserved white. 20 15.5 cm. Katalog 2003: 18 (roundels).
PNM MSS 2940
[Kitab mawlid]. 2 DHP; vertical borders; roundels; 2 full page drawings of Mekkah and
Medinah. Red, green, ochre, black, reserved white. 23.5 16 cm.
PNM MSS 3127
[Kitab mawlid]. 1 SHP; 1 DHP; vertical borders; roundels. Red, yellow, black, reserved
white.
PNM MSS 3236
Qur’an. 2 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); end (S. al-Mā’ūn –
S. al-Nās). Red, blue, green, yellow, gold, black ink, reserved white. NB: the DF at end
is probably a modern addition. Gallop 2002: 235 (beginning), 254 (det. of beginning);
Katalog 2003: 20 (beginning).
PNM MSS 3238
Qur’an. 2 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); end (S. al-Mā’ūn –
S. al-Nās); MO. Red, blue, green, yellow, black, reserved white. Gallop 2002: 239
(beginning).
The Netherlands
LUB Cod.Or.4827
[A] Qur’an. Selections (S.18, 32, 336, 56, 67). 1 DHP: ff.2v-3r (S. al-Kahf). Red, blue,
green, brown, black, gold, reserved white (gold on f.2v tarnished/covered with grey).
16.5 11 cm. Ownership notes on inside f.c.: Bahwa inilah nama tuan itu namanya
Sayid Ali ibn Sayid Mahmud al-Radin b.s.r.a.y (Basrai?) nama negerinya . . . (with a
request for the fulfillment of prayers); f.1r: hadha al-kitab bi-miliki Enci’ Ahmad Abdul
Kadir . . . ; Alamat surat Enci’ Ahmad bin Enci’ Abdul Malik fi balat Selangor tamma.
United Kingdom
BL Or.15227
Qur’an. 1 SF: f.1v: (empty save for one line: tatkala surat Qur’an ini pada bulan Syawal,
monochrome); 6 DF: ff.3v-4r (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); ff.148v-149r: (beg.
of S. al-Kahf); ff. 222v-223r (beg. of S. Yāsīn); ff.303v-304r (empty frames, monochrome);
ff.304v-305r (S. al-Falaq & S. al-Nās); ff.306v-307r (empty frames, monochrome); MO.
Red, yellow, dark blue, green, black ink, reserved white. 22.5 16.5 cm, Italian paper,
wm ‘AG’; cloth covers, inner boards of black paper, stitched headbands.
RAS Raffles Malay 42

[A.] Bustan al-salatin. 1 DF: pp.1 – 2. Red, green, black, gold, reserved white. [B.] Taj
al-Salatin, with owner’s note at end: Datu’ Imam Nur empunya kitab ini. 29 19 cm.
Note in pencil at end: J. Hunt, Pontiana, Nov 2d 1812, Resident. Gallop & Arps 1991:
68 –69 (pp.1 – 2); Kumar & McGlynn 1996: 54 (pp.1 –2).
Manuscripts in private collections

Collection Allahyarham Nik Rashiddin Hj. Nik Hussein, Kelantan; RT005
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); MO. Red, blue, yellow,
black, reserved white. Farish & Khoo 2003: 28– 29, 107 (beginning).
Collection Allahyarham Nik Rashiddin Hj. Nik Hussein, Kelantan

Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); MO. Red, yellow, black
ink, reserved white.
Collection Muhammad bin Muda, London

S. al-Isrā’); mid-end (S. Yāsīn – S. al-Shams); MO. Gold, red, yellow, brown, green,
black ink, reserved white. 20 14 cm; European light blue paper; [301] ff.
Collection Rahizan A. Rahim, Kelantan

S. al-Isrā ); end (S. al-Mā’ūn – S. al-Nās); 28 DHP at the beginning of each juz’ except
for juz’ 1 and 15; MO. Red, gold, green, yellow, pink, black, reserved white.
30 20 cm. [Not seen.]
Appendix II: Lithographed Qur’ans in the East Coast style

YMA
Qur’an, lacking first page. 3 DF: (all with rectangular textblocks): beginning (beg.
of S. al-Baqarah; lacking [p. 1] with S. al-Fātihah); middle (beg. of S. al-Isrā’); end
(S. al-Falaq – S. al-Nās); MO. Red, pale green, blue, yellow, black. Verse markers
yellow roundels outlined in black; text frames black-wide yellow-black-red; marginal
ornaments circles with multiple petals above and below; surah headings in red. [The
missing first page has been replaced with a manuscript folio containing the S. al-
Fātihah set in a very fine decorated frame; the illumination suggests an origin from the
north coast of Java.]
IAMM 1998.1.3439
Qur’an, lacking first page and end. 2 DF: (both with oval textblocks; at corners circles
containing the names of the first four caliphs; surrounded by rectangular calligraphic
borders): beginning (beg. of S. al-Baqarah; lacking [p. 1] with S. al-Fātihah); middle
(beg. of S. al-Isrā’). Red, khakhi green, yellow, black. 30 19 cm. Verse markers
black circles; text frames black-black-black-red; marginal ornaments circles with 3
concentric outlines; full maroon leather binding with gold borders and medallions.
IAMM 1998.1.3459
Qur’an, lacking beginning and end. MO. 31 19 cm. Verse markers red circles; text
frames black-black-black-red; marginal ornaments circles with the borders coloured

yellow (with numbers of juz’).
RMV 03-240
Qur’an. Preliminaries, including [p. 2–3] makhraj, with chart; [p. 4] huruf kalkalah, with
chart; [p.5] huruf kamariyat, huruf syamsiyat, with chart. End: dū’ā khatam al-Qur’ān;
colophon. 3 DF (all with rectangular textblocks): beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of
S. al-Baqarah); middle (beg. of S. al-Isrā’); end (S. al-Falaq – S. al-Nās); MO. Red,
green, blue, black. 32 20 cm. Verse markers red circles; text frames black-black-
black-red; MO round (3 concentric circles); full maroon/brown leather binding with
stamped gold borders and medallions; lacking f.c. Colophon dated 20 Rabiulawal 1287
(20 June 1870), naming the copyist as Abdul Kadir bin Mustafa of Terengganu, the place
of publishing as Lorong Mesjid Sultan Ali, Kampung Gelam, Singapore, and the publisher
as Haji Askawi bin Warintah of Java, of Kampung Kalain: Qada tammat hādhā al-qur’ān
al-‘azīm fi¯ ‘ashrain shahr Rabi’ al-awal yaum al-Rabu’ fi¯ hijrat al-nabuwiyyah alf miatain fi¯
saba’at wa-saba’āin sanat 1287 al-khatt ‘alā yad al-faqīr al-haqīr alā mawlāhu al-Ghanī
‘Abd al-Qādīr bin Mustafā al-marhūm Terqānū al-matba’ fi¯ balād Singkāpūra Kampung
Gelam Lorong Mesjid Sultan Ali bin al-marhum Sultan Husain sahbat al-matāba’ {al-}
al-faqīr al-haqīr alā Allāh al-Ghanī al-Haj Asqawī bin al-marhum Warīntah al-balād
Jawā kendāl Kampung al-Qalāīn. Acquired on the Pidie Expedition, Sumatra, 1898.
RMV 03-240 (enclosure)

Qur’an; first two and last two folios only. 2 DF (both with oval textblocks; at corners
circles containing the names of the first four caliphs; surrounded by rectangular calli-
graphic borders): beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); end (S. al-Falaq –
S. al-Nās). Red, green, black. Verse markers black circles. These loose folios were
found in RMV 03-240.
RMV 1599-696
Qur’an; lacking first page and end (last chapter S. al-Fajr). Preliminaries, with charts, in
Malay. 2 DF (both with rectangular textblocks): beginning (beg. of S. al-Baqarah; lacking
[p. 1] with S. al-Fātihah); middle (beg. of S. al-Isrā’). Red, green, blue. 31.5 20 cm.
Verse markers red circles; text frames black-black-black-red; MO circles extended
upwards and downwards with foliate motifs; full maroon leather binding with stamped
gold borders and medallions.
References
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Publishing House.
Ahmad Fathy al-Fatani. 2002. Ulama besar dari Patani. Bangi: Penerbit Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Ahmad Jamal, Syed. 1994. Form and soul. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Al-Attas, Sharifah Shifa. 1998. ISTAC illuminated. A pictorial tour of the International
Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilisation (ISTAC), Kuala Lumpur. Architectural
and interior design, drawings and calligraphy by Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas.
Written and compiled by Sharifah Shifa al-Attas. Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC.
Asmah Haji Omar (ed.) 2004. Languages and literature. Encyclopaedia of Malaysia,
Vol. 9. Singapore: Archipelago Press.
Barkeshli, Mandana, Dzul Haimi bin Md. Zain, and Amir Hossein Zekrgoo 1999. Nur
al-Quran. Kuala Lumpur: Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia.
Barkeshli, Mandana. 2002. Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Islamic Arts
Museum Malaysia.
Déroche, François. 2003. Manuscripts of the Qur’an. Encyclopaedia of the Qur’an, vol. 3.
Leiden: Brill. pp. 254– 75.
Farish A. Noor and Khoo, Eddin. 2003. Spirit of wood: the art of Malay woodcarving. Works
by master carvers from Kelantan, Terengganu and Pattani. [Singapore]: Periplus.
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193– 240.
Gallop, Annabel Teh with Arps, Bernard. 1991. Golden letters: writing traditions of
Indonesia. Surat emas: budaya tulis di Indonesia. London: British Library.
Kaptein, Nico. 1993. The berdiri mawlid issue among Indonesian Muslims in the
period from circa 1875 to 1930. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 149
(1): 124 – 53.
Katalog. 2000. Katalog manuskrip Melayu koleksi Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia. Kuala
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sambutan Bulan Bahasa dan Sastera 2003. Kuala Lumpur: Perpustakaan Negara
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Warisan. 2002. Warisan manuskrip Melayu. Kuala Lumpur: Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia.
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Royal Asiatic Society.
ADDENDUM
During a brief visit to Malaysia in June 2005, a further 18 Qur’ans illuminated in the East
Coast style were documented. At the IAMM, all Qur’ans numbered 1998.1.3495 – 3523
were examined, while at the MSN, the two large Qur’ans previously only viewed on
exhibition were inspected personally.
IAMM 1998.1.3495
Qur’an (lacking f.1). 1 DF: beginning (only left-hand page survives, with beg. of
S. al-Baqarah). Monochrome: black ink. 21 15 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3497
Qur’an. MO. Red, black, ochre, reserved white. Eur. paper, wm ‘PRO PATRIA’ .
IAMM 1998.1.3498
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah). Gold, red, green, black,
reserved white. 20 16 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3499
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); MO. Red, black,
reserved white, gold. 20.5 16.5 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3501
Qur’an (lacking beginning). 1 DF: end (S. al-Falaq – S. al-Nās); 1 SHP (beg. of juz’ 9,
Q. 7:88); MO; surah headings. Red, gold, yellow, blue, black, reserved white.
28 19.5 cm; Dutch paper, wm ‘WW & H PANNEKOEK’. Colophon at end names the
scribe as Awang Muhammad Idris ibnu Aslim ibn Tuan Haji Muhammad Amin of
Bangkok, Kampung Raja Singkora, dated 20 Rabiulakhir 1270 (20 January 1854):
Telah selesailah daripada perhamba menyurat hadha al-Qur’an iaitu Awang Muhammad
Idris ibnu Aslim ibn Tuan Haji Muhammad Amin panglung (p.ng.l.w.ng) masa dahulu
maka sekarang ada di dalam negeri Bangku’ Kampung Raja Singkora . . . dan
tertamat kepada bulan Rabiulakhir dua likur hari selasa waktu jam pukul sebelas
sanat 1270 . . .
IAMM 1998.1.3502
Qur’an (lacking beginning and end). 3 DF: middle (beg. of S. al-Isrā’, juz’ 15, fully
coloured); beg. of juz’ 21 (Q. 29:46, monochrome;), one other, monochrome; MO
(monochrome). Red, yellow, green, light blue, dark blue, reserved white, black.
32 20.5 cm; English paper, ‘W THOMAS 1845’.
IAMM 1998.1.3507
reserved white. 20.5 16 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3508
Qur’an. MO. Red, black, ochre, reserved white. 25 19.5 cm; Dutch paper, wm ‘C & I[?]
HONIG’ .
Figure 9. Colophon of a Qur’an copied in Bangkok in 1854. IAMM 1998.1.3501.

IAMM 1998.1.3509
Qur’an (damaged beginning and end). 3 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of
S. al-Baqarah; badly damaged); middle (beginnng of S. al-Isrā’); end (S. al-Mā’ūn –
S. al-Nās; damaged); 2 DHP (beg. of juz’ 10, Q. 8:41; beg. of juz’ 21, Q. 29:46); MO.
Red, blue, yellow, brown, black, reserved white. 32 21 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3510
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); may be recent addition?
Yellow, orange, green, gold. 21 15.5 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3514
Qur’an (lacking end). MO. Red, black. 21 17 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3515
reserved white. 21 17 cm. Colophon at end dated Sunday, 20 Syaaban, without
year: wa tamat al-Qur’an kepada hari Ahad dua likur hari bulan Syaaban waktu doha
intaha.
IAMM 1998.1.3519
Qur’an. MO. Red, black, reserved white. 20.5 16.5 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3521
Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah); MO. Red, pink, black,
yellow, reserved white. 21 17 cm.
IAMM 1998.1.3523
S. al-Kahf); end (S. al-Falaq – S. al-Nās); MO; surah headings. Red, gold, green,
black, brown, reserved white. 32 21.5 cm; painted paper covers with flap stuck on
cloth, emulating embossed leather.
Muzium Negara
Qur’an. 1 DF: middle. Red, yellow, gold, green, black. [Seen on exhibition, 27.6.2005].
MSN 32.1992
S. al-Isrā’); end (S. al-Falaq – S. al-Nās); MO. Red, gold, green, yellow, purple, blue,
reserved white. 42.5 27.5 cm; European laid paper, vertical chain lines. [Old number
DBP 13864, acquired 25 July 1962.]
MSN E.651.1973.U1.6
S. al-Isrā’); end (S. al-Falaq – S. al-Nās); MO; surah headings. Red, green, gold,
yellow, purple, light & dark blue, indigo blue, reserved white. 40 24 cm.
PNM MSS 328

Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (only left-hand page survives, with beg. of S. al-Baqarah); MO.
Red, gold, yellow, black, green. 27 18 cm. Katalog 2003: 11 (beginning; wrongly
identified as MSS 1358).
PNM MSS 1358

Qur’an. 1 DF: beginning (S. al-Fātihah & beg. of S. al-Baqarah). Red, brown, gold,
reserved white, green, blue. 20.5 17 cm; European paper, wm ‘PRO PATRIA’ .
Plate 1. Right-hand page, containing the Sūrat al-Fātihah, of the opening double frame of
a Qur’an illuminated in the Terengganu ‘golden shower’ style. Muzium Budaya Melaka
(Istana Kesultanan Melaka).
Plate 2. Left-hand page, containing the beginning of the Sūrat al-Baqarah, of the opening
double frame of a Qur’an illuminated in the Terengganu ‘golden shower’ style, copied by
Haji Ahmad of Kampung Menjelagi, 1859. IAMM 1998.1.3436.
Plate 3. Decorated double frame in the middle of the Qur’an, marking the start of juz’ 15,
Sūrat al-Isrā’. IAMM 1998.1.3436.
Plate 4. Decorated double frame at the end of the Qur’an, enclosing the final eight sūrahs.
IAMM 1998.1.3436.
Plate 5. Decorated double frame, illuminated in the regular ‘Terengganu’ style, at the
beginning of a Qur’an, enclosing the Sūrat al-Fātihah and the beginning of the Sūrat
al-Baqarah. IAMM 1998.1.3444.
Plate 6. Double frame in the middle of the Qur’an, marking the start of juz’ 15, Sūrat
al-Isrā’. The red and green rays stretching inwards from the outer border are in the
form of ‘M-W’ motifs. IAMM 1998.1.3444.
Plate 7. Double frame at the end of the Qur’an, enclosing the Sūrat al-Falaq and Sūrat
al-Nās. IAMM 1998.1.3444.
Plate 8. Detail of the calligraphic panel at the end of the Sūrat al-Falaq, stating that it was
revealed at Madinah and contains five verses. IAMM 1998.1.3444.
Plate 9. Initial double frames, enclosing the Sūrat al-Fātihah and the beginning of the
Sūrat al-Baqarah, from a very fine small Qur’an in the ‘Terengganu’ style, lavishly
illuminated with gold. Collection Muhammad bin Muda, London.
Plate 10. Double headpieces and a marginal ornament marking the start of Sūrat al-Mulk,
juz’ 29, in a Qur’an from Kelantan. Collection Rahizan A. Rahim, Kota Bharu.
Plate 11. The start of Sūrat Yāsīn, enclosed in frames with a continuous arched outline in
the ‘Terengganu’ style but with ‘Patani’ ‘interlocking wave’ arches at the sides, in a
Qur’an probably from Patani. BL Or.15227, ff.222v-223r.
Plate 12. Double frame decorated in the ‘Terengganu’ style, at the end of a Qur’an
lithographed in Singapore in 1870. RMV 03-240.
Plate 13. Left-hand page, containing the beginning of the Sūrat al-Baqarah, of the initial
double frames of an exceptionally fine Qur’an illuminated in the ‘Patani’ style; note
however the degradation of the black ink in the text block. IAMM 1998.1.3500.
Plate 14. Empty double frames at the end of the Qur’an. IAMM 1998.1.3500.
Plate 15. Three marginal ornaments from the Qur’an, indicating divisions of the text, from
left to right: a) rub’(i.e. a quarter of a juz’); b) juz’; c) rub’. IAMM 1998.1.3500.
Plate 16. Opening pages of a colourful ‘Patani’-style Qur’an. IAMM 1998.1.3505.
Plate 17. Unusual double frame at the end of the Qur’an enclosing the Sūrat al-Falaq and
Sūrat al-Nās, with rectangular panels containing arches on the three outer sides. IAMM
1998.1.3505.
Plate 18. A page of text from the Qur’an with the heading of Sūrat Taha in gold against a
coloured background, with a nisf (half a juz’) ornament in the margin. IAMM 1998.1.3505.
Plate 19. Initial pages from a small neat ‘Patani’ style Qur’an. IAMM 1998.1.3449.
Plate 20. Rather roughly-drawn double frames in the ‘Patani’ style, at the start of a Qur’an.
IAMM 1998.1.3440.
Plate 21. Two examples of ‘interlocking wave’ arches associated with the ‘Patani’ style,
from the same Qur’an. BL Or.15227. Top: f.304v; bottom: f.223r.
Plate 22. The ‘chili pepper’ border characteristic of the ‘Patani’ style; details from four
manuscripts. Top to bottom: PNM MSS 2648; IAMM 1998.1.3458, 1998.1.3500,
1998.1.3505.
Plate 23. Left-hand page, containing the start of the Sūrat al-Baqarah, of the initial double
frames of a Qur’an probably from Patani. A ‘chili pepper’ border surrounds the text block,
while the calligraphic panels on each of the four sides are in a floriated script which echoes
the foliate motifs in the corners. IAMM 1998.1.3549.
Plate 24. Right-hand page of the initial double frames of a Qur’an copied in 30 volumes,
each containing one juz’. Only the first volume is illuminated. The panel at the top contains
the title of the Sūrat al-Fātihah, while that at the bottom gives the place of revelation,
Mekkah, and the number of verses, seven. The panels on the left and right both contain
the verse lā yamassuhu ila al-mutaharūn, ‘which none toucheth save the purified’
(Q. 56:79). IAMM 1998.1.3430.
Plate 25. Initial double frames from a Qur’an with a magnificent set of illuminated
marginal ornaments. IAMM 1998.1.3494.
Plate 26. Detail of the calligraphic heading for the Sūrat al-Fātihah. IAMM 1998.1.3494.
Plate 27. Badly damaged double frames at the end of the Qur’an, with oval text panels
containing the Sūrat al-Falaq and Sūrat al-Nās. IAMM 1998.1.3494.
Plate 28. Detail of the heading of Sūrat al-Anbiyā’, set in a floral cartouche, with a
marginal ornament marking the start of juz’ 17. The elongated ruled sin-mim ligature in
the Bismillāh is typical of East Coast manuscripts. IAMM 1998.1.3494.
Plate 29. Double frame marking the start of the Sūrat al-Isrā’, from the middle of the
Qur’an illustrated in Plates 25-28. It is very unusual to find wide illuminated borders in
the middle of an East Coast Qur’an because of the need to fit in the prescribed 15 lines
of text according to the standard Ottoman model, hence the cramped appearance of the
script in the reduced text block. IAMM 1998.1.3494.
The spirit of Langkasuka?

173
Plate 30. Marginal ornaments indicating text divisions from the Qur’an illustrated in Plates
25 –29: a) juz’; b) maqra’; c) rub’; d, e & f) thumn. IAMM 1998.1.3494.
Plate 31. Marginal ornaments indicating juz’ and nisf from a number of different Qur’ans
in the IAMM: a) 1998.1.3462; b) 1998.1.3505; c) 1998.1.3561; d) 1998.1.3440; e)
1998.1.3446; f) 1998.1.3561.
Plate 32. Double headpiece with the ‘chili pepper’ border typical of the ‘Patani’ style.
Kitab mawlid, in Arabic with interlinear Malay translation. PNM MSS 2940.
Plate 33. Decorated double headpiece in typically simple ‘Patani’ colours of orange,
khakhi green, reserved white and black ink, in a Kitab mawlid. PNM MSS 2858.
Plate 34. Left-hand page of a fine double headpiece with composite ‘Patani’ and
‘Terengganu’ features, from a Kitab mawlid. PNM MSS 819.
Plate 35. Left-hand page of a double headpiece, with a fine calligraphic panel and a
‘chili pepper’ border, from a manuscript containing selections from the Qur’an. Leiden
University Library, Cod.Or.4827, f.3r.
Plate 36. Triangular tailpiece from a kitab mawlid, with a variety of complex composite
roundels and whorls. PNM MSS 2858.
Plate 37. Composite roundels from kitab mawlid manuscripts. Left to right: a) & b) six-
petalled roundels made of seven intersecting circles, PNM MSS 2940; c) eight-petalled
roundel made of nine intersecting circles, PNM MSS 630.
Plate 38. On the left, the pulpit (minbar) of the Prophet, and on the right, the tombs
(rawdah) of the Prophet, Abu Bakr and ‘Umar, from a copy of the Dalā’il al-khayrāt.
PNM MSS 1273.
Plate 39. Depictions of Mekkah (right) and Medinah (left), from a kitab mawlid. PNM
MSS 2940.
Plate 40. Illustration of unknown significance, from a manuscript of the Dalā’il al-khayrāt.
PNM MSS 1273.
Plate 41. Binding in maroon leather

with gold cartouches of a Qur’an
from Terengganu. DBP MS 79.
Plate 42. Two cloth bindings with intricate stitched headbands of Qur’ans from Patani.
Top: IAMM 1998.1.3476; bottom: 1998.1.3475.

The Spirit of Langkasuka Illuminated Man

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The Spirit of Langkasuka Illuminated Man

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This art icle was downloaded by: [ Brit ish Library]

On: 04 Novem ber 2011, At : 03: 38

Indonesia and the Malay World

The spirit of Langkasuka? Illuminated

Available online: 22 Jan 2007

To link to this article: ht t p:/ / dx.doi.org/ 10.1080/ 13639810500282417

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTI CLE

THE SPIRIT OF LANGKASUKA? ILLUMINATED

ANNABEL TEH GALLOP

The East Coast style of manuscript illumination

The architecture of the East Coast style of illumination

headpieces on two facing pages of a book, with the text block on

. Tailpieces adorning the colophon or end of a text are sometimes

found in manuscripts from other parts of Southeast Asia, in their most

. In addition to the illuminated frame around the text block on two

Figure 1. Characteristic features of the ‘Terengganu’ style of illumination, in the right-

Figure 2. Characteristic features of the ‘Patani’ style of illumination, in the right-hand

other, unlike the continuous construction of the arches in Terengganu-

. There is frequent use of a border containing a row of small seed-like

The art of the East Coast Qur’an

Early in the twelfth/eighteenth century, Ottoman copyists apparently

Lithographed Qur’ans in the East Coast style

Illumination in non-Qur’anic manuscripts

Paper, page size and bindings

The British Library

Abbreviations used in the descriptions:

Appendix I: A preliminary list of manuscripts illuminated in the East

MNK MZ(KN) 146:86

MNK MZ(KN) 106:86

MNK MZ(KN) 1:84

PNM MSS 175

PNM MSS 219

PNM MSS 484

PNM MSS 630

PNM MSS 819

PNM MSS 1273

PNM MSS 2314

PNM MSS 2336

PNM MSS 2343

PNM MSS 2367

PNM MSS 2488

PNM MSS 2648

PNM MSS 2746

PNM MSS 2809

RAS Raffles Malay 42

Manuscripts in private collections

Collection Allahyarham Nik Rashiddin Hj. Nik Hussein, Kelantan

Collection Muhammad bin Muda, London

Collection Rahizan A. Rahim, Kelantan

Appendix II: Lithographed Qur’ans in the East Coast style

frames black-black-black-red; marginal ornaments circles with the borders coloured

RMV 03-240 (enclosure)

Foundation. (The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art; Vol. XXIII).

Figure 9. Colophon of a Qur’an copied in Bangkok in 1854. IAMM 1998.1.3501.

PNM MSS 328

PNM MSS 1358

Plate 16. Opening pages of a colourful ‘Patani’-style Qur’an. IAMM 1998.1.3505.

The spirit of Langkasuka?

Plate 41. Binding in maroon leather

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