Geoderma 187–188 (2012) 24–30

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Geoderma
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Reclamation of saline-sodic soil properties and improvement of rice

(Oriza sativa L.) growth and yield using desulfurized gypsum in the west
of Songnen Plain, northeast China
C.M. Chi a, C.W. Zhao b, X.J. Sun b, Z.C. Wang b,⁎
a
College of Plant Science, Tarim University, Alar 843300, China
b
Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130012, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Several million hectares of salt-affected land in the western Songnen Plain, in northeast China, is characterized as
Received 17 March 2011 hard saline-sodic soils because of their poor physical and chemical properties. Desulfurized gypsum, a by-
Received in revised form 29 March 2012 product of thermal power plants for removal of sulfur from coal, may be used as an external source of Ca2 +
Accepted 10 April 2012
for reclamation of saline-sodic soil in this plain because it is comparatively cheap, generally available, and has
Available online 22 May 2012
a high gypsum content (>900 g kg− 1). In the present study, the effects of desulfurized gypsum on physical
Keywords:
and chemical properties of saline-sodic soil and growth and yield of rice (Oriza sativa L.) were assessed in a
Wet stability of macro-aggregates soil column experiment. Desulfurized gypsum was added to the saline-sodic soil (ECe = 26.00 dS m− 1,
Infiltration rate (IR) SARe = 397.22 (mmolc L− 1)1/2, pH= 10.48) at rates of 0.00 g kg− 1 (control), 15.00 g kg− 1 (100% gypsum re-
Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) quirement (GR) treatment) and 30.00 g kg− 1 (200% GR treatment). The results demonstrated that desulfurized
Electrical conductivity (EC) gypsum significantly increased the wet stability of macro-aggregates (>0.25 mm), the IR and the Ks of the saline-
Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) sodic soil. Soil salinity (ECe), sodicity (SARe) and pH decreased to 2.72 ds m− 1, 8.65 (mmolc L− 1)1/2, and 8.05 in
pH the 200% GR treatment, and 4.93 ds m− 1, 24.74 (mmolc L− 1)1/2 and 8.75 in the 100% GR treatment from
24.65 ds m− 1, 390.60 (mmolc L− 1)1/2 and 10.28 in the control, respectively. The yield of rice (O. sativa L.)
increased from 0.0 g plant− 1 in control to 1.83 g plant− 1 and 2.45 g plant− 1 in 100% GR treatment and 200%
GR treatment, respectively. Desulfurized gypsum is an effective amendment for saline-sodic soil in the west of
Songnen Plain, northeast China.
© 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Soil degradation resulting from salinity and/or sodicity is a major
environmental impediment with severe adverse impacts on agricul-
tural productivity and sustainability in arid and semiarid climates
(Qadir et al., 2006, 2007; Suarez, 2001). Although recent data regard-
ing the extent and severity of salt-affected soils are limited, it is esti-
mated that 0.9 × 10 9 ha in 75 countries globally is affected by different
degrees of salinity/sodicity (Szabolcs, 1994; Tanji, 1990). These soils
possess a number of challenges that include poor physical and chem-
ical properties that affect the growth of most crops (Qadir and Oster,
2002). Of these salt-affected soils approximately 0.56 × 10 9 ha is sodic
(Tanji, 1990).
The Songnen Plain, located between N 42° 30′–51° 20′ and E 121°
40′–128° 30′, is the largest plain in northeast China and the second
largest plain of China after the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain in central
China. The west side of this plain, mainly the western portion of
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: + 86 431 85542240.
E-mail address: wangzhichun@neigae.ac.cn (Z.C. Wang).
Jilin and Heilongjian Provinces (Fig. 1), is one of the five largest salt-
affected soil regions in China (Yu and Cheng, 1991). The area of salt-
affected soil, 0.5 to 1.0% total salts, encompasses 3.42 × 10 6 ha, which
accounts for over 19. 0% of the total area (Song et al., 2003; Wang
et al., 2003). Based on the composition of 1:5 soil to water extracts,
the electrical conductivity (EC) of surface soil (0–20 cm) ranges from
0.11 dS m − 1 to 1.91 dS m − 1, its pH ranges from 7.02 to 10.16 and its
sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) ranges from 0.10 (mmolc L − 1)1/2 to
196.64 (mmolc L− 1) 1/2 (Chi and Wang, 2010). Sodium accounts for
more than 80% of the total dissolved cation concentration (Li et al.,
2006) and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) ranges from 70% to
80% (Li, 2000; Li et al., 2002).
Due to salinization, there are no naturally occurring tree species in
the western part of this plain. There are, however, some salt/sodium
tolerant grass species such as Leymus chinensis, Puccinellia tenuiflora,
and Suaeda corniculata that are able to survive and grow (Table 1).
Under extreme soil salinity/sodicity conditions, bare patches are ob-
served void of any vegetation. Soil sodicity induces poor physical con-
ditions to the soil resulting in very low permeability. A summary of
vegetation and selected soil physical characteristics related to the de-
gree of soil salinity is given in Table 1. The physical and chemical

0016-7061/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2012.04.005
 C.M. Chi et al. / Geoderma 187–188 (2012) 24–30 25

produces desulfurized gypsum at a rate of 400 t d− 1. The desulfurized

gypsum not only has a high content of gypsum (>900 g kg − 1) but
also has a low priceb 50¥ t− 1.
We therefore conducted a study to determine how effective desul-
furized gypsum is at reducing sodicity, improving the physical and
chemical properties of the soil, and improving the growth and yield
of rice in these saline-sodic soils in the western part of Songnen Plain.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Soil

Samples of salt-affected soil were collected from 0 to 20 and 20 to

Fig. 1. Salt-affected soils in the west of Songnen Plain, northeast China.
properties of soils presented in Table 1 shows that salt-affected soil in
the Songnen Plain can be categorized as hard saline-sodic soil.
In order to effectively utilize these saline-sodic soils, rice (Oriza
sativa L.) was planted in this plain because the flooded water not
only is beneficial to its growth but also is necessary for leaching
salts. However, no chemical amendment was added to these paddy
(O. sativa L.) fields to reduce the sodicity.
Theoretically, reclamation of saline-sodic and sodic soils requires
removal of Na + from the colloid's cation exchange sites and leaching
of the replaced Na + out of the root zone in percolating water (Ilyas et
al., 1997). Chemical amendments provide a source of Ca 2 + to replace
exchangeable Na + from the cation exchange complex (Oster, 1982)
and play an important role in the reclamation of saline-sodic and
sodic soils. The chemical amendments commonly used as a direct
Ca 2 + source include calcium chloride (CaCl2·2H2O), mined gypsum
(CaSO4·2H2O), and phosphogypsum (a by-product from the manu-
facture of phosphorous fertilizers). Of these, gypsum is the most com-
mon chemical amendment for saline-sodic and sodic soil reclamation
because it is comparatively cheap, generally available, and easy to
apply (Shainberg et al., 1989).
At the present time, there is no commercially available commer-
cial gypsum in the Songnen Plain. Therefore, a substitute for gypsum
needs to be found that can be readily used as an external source of
Ca 2 + for this region. Desulfurized gypsum, a by-product of thermal
power plants for removal of sulfur from coal, may be an alternative
source. A thermal power plant (Changshan thermal power plant of
China Datang Corporation) in Da'an county in the west of Jilin province
Table 1
A summary of vegetation and soil physical characteristics related to degree of soil
salinity/sodicity (0–60 cm depths) in the Songnen Plain, Northeast China.
Degree of Vegetation ECe Bd
salinity (dS m− 1) (g cm− 3)
40 cm depth at a degraded grassland area near the Da'an Sodic Land
Experimental Station (N45°35′58″–N45°36′28″, E123°50′27″–123°
51′31″) operated by the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Songnen
Plain. Approximately 500 kg of soil samples was collected. These sam-
ples were air-dried and passed through a 2-mm sieve. The soil basic
characteristics including salinity, sodicity, pH, sand content, silt con-
tent and clay content were measured. The average values of EC,
SAR, pH in saturated paste and ESP at 0–40 cm depth were
26.00 dS m − 1, SARe = 379.22 (mmolc L − 1) 1/2, 10.48 and 79.12%
(Table 2), respectively. Therefore, the soil at this site is characterized
as saline-sodic (USDA, 1954) with high pH.
2.2. Treatments
Desulfurized gypsum (DG) containing 981.23 g kg − 1 CaSO4·2H2O
and 11.42 g kg − 1 CaSO4·H2O with particle size b 0.5 mm was used in
this study. The soil samples were treated with three alternative treat-
ments: Control, T1 and T2 (desulfurized gypsum applied at the rate of
0%, 100%, and 200% gypsum requirement, respectively). Each treat-
ment was replicated four times.
The amount of desulfurized gypsum used to achieve the fraction of
gypsum requirement (GR) was calculated by a modified method after
Oster and Frenkel (1980), where:



−1 −4
GR molc kg ¼ 1:25  CEC  ESP i −ESP f  10 ð1Þ
The application of desulfurized gypsum at a rate of 15.00 g kg − 1 of
soil corresponds to 100% GR with the value of ESPf of 5.00.
2.3. Preparation of soil columns
Twelve concrete cylinders (50 cm long, 29 cm internal diameter)
were used to prepare the soil columns. Each cylinder was closed at
the bottom except for a hole used to collect leachate. The bottom of
each column had a 2 cm layer of sand to facilitate leaching. The desul-
furized gypsum was mixed with the soil before packing the soil
columns. In order to obtain a homogeneous soil bulk density of
1.35 g cm − 3, the soil was packed in 5.00 cm sections. Before the addi-
Ks tion of each increment, the surface of the previously packed layer
(mm d− 1)

Slight Leymus chinensis (Trin.) Tzvel. 2.00–4.00 1.33–1.50 0.85–3.42

Moderate Puccinellia tenuiflora (Griseb.) 4.00–8.00 1.43–1.47 0.04–0.20 Table 2
Scribn. & Merr. Soil chemical and physical properties of soil column experiment.
Chloris virgata Sw.
High Puccinellia tenuiflora (Griseb.) 8.00–6.00 1.45–1.51 0.03–0.14 Parameter Depth of soil (cm)
Scribn. & Merr.
0–20 20–40 0–40
Chloris virgata Sw.
Severe Artemisia anthifolia Web. 16.00–20.00 1.44–1.62 0.02–0.22 ECe (dS m− 1) 25.68 26.32 26.00
ex Stechm SARe (mmolc L− 1)1/2 392. 80 365.64 379.22
Suaeda corniculata (C.A.Mey) pH 10.47 10.49 10.48
Bunge ESP (%) 79.66 78.58 79.12
Extrem No vegetation > 20.00 1.47–1.64 0.01–0.12 Sand content (%) 23.26 24.58 23.92
Silt content (%) 39.14 35.45 37.30
ECe: electrical conductivity of saturated paste extracts. Bd: bulk density. Ks: saturated
Clay content (%) 37.60 39.97 38.78
hydraulic conductivity.
26 C.M. Chi et al. / Geoderma 187–188 (2012) 24–30
was scarified to avoid local compaction. In each column, the soil was
packed to a height of 42 cm, resulting in a soil depth of 40 cm. The soil
columns were placed vertically on brick stands. Storage bottles were
placed below each column to collect the leachate.
2.4. Planting rice
Rice seeds variety (G-19) were initially germinated in plug trays
containing compost in an unheated glasshouse. Forty-five day old seed-
lings were transplanted on May 20, 2009 into columns. Sixteen plants
(four mound, four plants per mound) were transplanted into each
column with 6 cm mound to mound and plant to plant distance. A
fertilizer containing 15% N, 25% P2O5 and 5% K2O (Sino-Arab Chemical
Fertilizers Co. Ltd) was applied to each column to ensure that nutrient
supply was non-limiting for the first month.
2.5. Leaching soil columns
After the transplanting of rice, leaching was started by ponding
water (EC = 0.92 dS m − 1, SAR = 3.15 (mmolc L − 1) 1/2, pH = 7.17) on
the surface. Two liters of water about 3 cm deep were added to
each column. After the water infiltrated the soil, an additional 2 l of
water was added. All the soil columns were leached similarly and at
the same time. The leachates were collected in plastic bottles for
analysis.
2.6. Leachate analysis
The amount of total soluble salts (TSS) and Na + removed from the
soil column was determined by using the following equations:
−6
TSSðgÞ ¼ 640  EC L  V L  10
−6
NaðgÞ ¼ 23  C Na  V L  10
where ECL (dS m − 1), VL (mL) and CNa (mmolc L − 1) are electrical con-
ductivity, volume and Na + concentration of leachate, respectively.
2.7. Wet stability of macro-aggregate (>0.25 mm)
Wet stability of macro-aggregate (>0.25 mm) of the soil samples
was determined using a modified method of Elliott (1986) and
Kemper and Rosenau (1986) that was reported by Ruiz-Vera and
Wu (2006). At the end of the experiment, all the columns were sam-
pled at 0–10, 10–20, 20–30 and 30–40 cm depths. Ten grams of air
dried soil sample (b2-mm) was transferred to a 0.25 mm sieve. This
sieve was immersed for 5 min in an aluminum can filled with enough
distilled water to cover the soil sample. The sieve was then lowered
and raised with a vertical displacement of 1.3 cm at 30 cycles per
minute for 3 min.
To separate the sand fraction from the silt and clay fractions, the
0.25-mm sieve with the retained soil was immersed in 100 mL of dis-
persing solution containing 2 g L − 1 of sodium hexametaphosphate.
Sieving, as described above, was performed for 3 min. The aggregates
that remained stable after 3 min of sieving were gently rubbed across
the screen with a rubber tipped rod.
The aggregates were dried to 105 °C for 24 h and the dry-weight
determined. The wet stability of macro-aggregates (>0.25 mm) is
expressed as relative weight (%) of the water stable macro-aggregate,
which was calculated from the mass of the aggregate >0.25 mm divid-
ed by the weight of the air dried b2-mm soil sample.
2.8. Soil infiltration rate (IR)
After the rice was harvested, the top 3 cm in each column was
sampled. The soil sample was air-dried and passed through a 2-mm
mesh sieve. Soil samples were carefully added to polymethyl methac-
rylate cylinders (diameter: 6 cm; height: 10 cm) to a depth of 1.0 cm
over a filter paper and packed to a bulk density of 1.35 g cm − 3. The
cylinders were open at the top and closed at the bottom except for
several holes for collection of the leachates. The soil columns were
compacted to the thickness of 1.00 cm by mechanically dropping
the columns 10 times from a height of 2.00 cm onto a hard surface
(Auerswald, 1995).
The soil IR, reported in mm h − 1, was calculated as:
ΔQ
IR ¼ ð4Þ
A  Δt
where ΔQ is the volume of water collected during a given time period,
Δt, and A is the cross-sectional area of the soil columns.
2.9. Soil saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks)
The Ks was measured using a soil saturated hydraulic conductivity
measurement instrument (TST-55A, Nanjing Soil Instrument Co., Ltd).
After the experiment was finished, undisturbed soil samples were
obtained from all the soil columns in a 10 cm interval using a specific
cutting ring for the TST-55A soil Ks measuring instrument (Nanjing
Soil Instrument Co., Ltd). The Ks of soil samples from the 100% GR
treatment and the 200% GR treatment were determined using the
constant water head method and the Ks was calculated by measuring
the volumes drained (V) at same time intervals (t) using Darcy's Law:
V L
Ks ¼  ð5Þ
At H
Where A is the cross-sectional area of soil column (cm 2), L (cm) is
ð2Þ
the length of soil sample, and H (cm) is the height of constant water
head.
ð3Þ
The soil Ks of the control treatment was determined using a vari-
able water head method. Therefore, the Ks was calculated as:
a  L  Ln½ðH 1 þ LÞ=ðH 2 þ LÞ
KS ¼ ð6Þ
A  ðt 2 −t 1 Þ
Where a and A are the cross-sectional area of the water supply
pipe and soil column, respectively, L (cm) is the length of the soil
sample, and H1 (cm) and H2 (cm) are the water pressure heads at
time t1 and t2, respectively.
2.10. Analysis of soil chemical properties
The experiment was completed on October 15, 2009. All soil sam-
ples, obtained from 0 to 20 and 20 to 40 cm depths in each soil
column, were air dried and passed through the 2-mm sieve. Soil sam-
ples were analyzed for pH, EC, soluble Na + and Ca 2 + + Mg 2 + using
1:5 soil to water extracts.
The 1:5 soil to water extracts were prepared by adding 20 mL dis-
tilled water to 4 g soil in a 100 mL bottle. The bottle was sealed with a
stopper, agitated for 15 min on a mechanical shaker (100 rpm),
allowed to stand for one hour then agitated again for 5 min, before
a sample was obtained by filtration.
The EC of 1:5 soil to water extracts (EC1:5) was determined by
DDS-307 conductivity meter (Shanghai Precision Scientific Instru-
ment Co., Ltd), the concentrations in mmolc L − 1of Na +, Ca 2 + and
Mg 2 + were determined using inductively couple-plasma spectrosco-
py (GBC‐906AAS, Australia). The SAR of 1:5 soil to water extracts
(SAR1:5) was calculated as (USDA, 1954):
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi
þ
SAR1:5 ¼ Na = Ca2þ þ Mg2þ =2 ð7Þ
 C.M. Chi et al. / Geoderma 187–188 (2012) 24–30
The EC of saturated paste extraction (ECe) was estimated from
EC1:5 (Chi and Wang, 2010):
EC e ¼ 10:88EC 1:5
The SAR of saturated paste extraction (ECe) was calculated as (Chi
and Wang, 2010):
SARe ¼ 13:19SAR1:5
2.11. Rice growth and yield analysis
The mature crop was harvested by cutting it at soil level. After
sun-drying, the heads were counted and separated from the straw
to record the number of heads and the weight of straw. Survival %
was calculated as: (number of plants survived with viable heads at
harvest/number of plants per pot) × 100. Threshing was done by
hand and grain number was recorded.
2.12. Statistical data analysis
All data obtained were the average of four replicas. Statistical anal-
ysis on one-way variance analysis (ANOVA) was performed using
SPSS 12.0. When significance at a 0.05 level was indicated, means
were separated by a Least Significant Difference (LSD) Procedure.
3. Results and discussions
3.1. Leachate volume
The data relating to leachate volume indicate that a minimum
amount of leachate was passed through the soil columns in the con-
trol treatment (Fig. 2). The leachate volume increased from
152.0 mL in the control treatment to 18,027.0 mL and 37,816.0 mL
in the 100% GR treatment and 200% GR treatment, respectively.
3.2. Cumulative TSS and Na + leached
A greater amount of TSS (P b 0.05) was leached out of soil columns
in the 200% GR treatment compared with the control and 100% GR
treatments (Table 3). The cumulative TSS leached through soil
columns in the 200% GR treatment reached 168.42 g. This was due
primarily to the large volume of leachate from columns in this
treatment.
50000
40000
Leachate volume (ml)
30000
b
20000
10000
c Table 3
0 Total soluble salts (TSS) and sodium removal efficiency of the reclamation treatments.
Control 100%GR 200%GR
Treatment
Fig. 2. Effect of reclamation treatments on leachate volume. The values are means
(± SE) of four replicates and different letters represent significantly different at
P b 0.05.
27
The cumulative removal of Na + was found in the order 200%
GR > 100% GR > control (Table 3). This was attributed to the dissolu-
tion of desulfurized gypsum in treated columns whereby Ca 2 +
ð8Þ replaced Na + from the colloidal surface and subsequently excess
water leached the replaced Na + out of the cylinder.
In addition, the removal Na + from the column may be related to
enhanced root growth in this study. During active root growth, H +
is released outside the cell through two processes. One is the active
ð9Þ electrogenic transport mechanism which is common in plant root
cells accumulating Na + salts under saline environment (Gorham
et al., 1985). The other is an indirect mechanism, which involves:
(1) release of CO2 in the root zone as a result of root and microbial
respiration, (2) formation of H2CO3 owing to CO2 dissolution in
water, (3) dissociation of H2CO3 resulting in H + and HCO3− (Qadir
and Oster, 2004). The released H + might have directly gone to the
clay complex for the Na +–H + exchange.
3.3. Wet stability of macro-aggregate
Significant increases in the wet stability of macro-aggregate were
observed for desulfurized gypsum treated soil (Table 4). The overall
efficiency of the reclamation treatments for increasing wet stability
of macro-aggregate was in the order: 200% GR > 100% GR > control.
The increase in the relative weight of the water-stable macro-
aggregates from the saline-sodic soil was likely due to the application
of Ca 2 + in the form of desulfurized gypsum that flocculated the dis-
persed clay. This is supported by the fact that the cumulative volume
of leachate from the 200% GR treatment was twice that of the 100%
GR treatment which received only half the amount of Ca 2 + as com-
pared to the 200% GR treatment.
All treatments were more efficient in enhancing macro-aggregate
stability of the upper 10 cm soil layer than the other lower soil layers.
For example, the relative weight of water-stable macro-aggregate
increased from 3.91% and 26.79% of the 30–40 cm soil layer to 5.62%
and 31.47% of the 0–10 cm soil layer in the control and 100% GR treat-
ment, respectively. This may be correlated with the root growth.
As mentioned above, root growth will increase H + in the root zone
and this ultimately facilitates Ca 2 + replacing exchangeable Na +,
which leads to the flocculation of dispersed clay. Furthermore, the
plant roots could release exudates causing coagulation of the dis-
persed clay and improve of soil structure (Malik et al., 1986).
3.4. Soil IR
In the present work, the IR increased substantially in treated col-
umns as compared to those in non-amended columns throughout
a the experimental period (Fig. 3). The stable IR of the saline-sodic
soil increased from 0.02 mm h − 1 in the control treatment to
1.33 mm h − 1 and 2.89 mm h − 1 in the 100% GR treatment and 200%
GR treatments, respectively. This may have been attributed in part
to the increased aggregation stability. The efficiency of Ca 2 + applica-
tion to improve permeability of sodic and saline-sodic soils had been
demonstrated in previous research (Agassi et al., 1986; Ilyas et al.,
1997; Oster, 1982; Qadir et al., 1996).
Treatment TSS leached (g) Na+ leached (g)
Control 14.98 c 5.27 c
100% GR 357.61 b 121.43 b
200% GR 502.57 a 168.42 a
Mean values followed by different letters in a column differ significantly at P b 0.05.
28 C.M. Chi et al. / Geoderma 187–188 (2012) 24–30

Table 4 Table 5
Effect of desulfurized gypsum on wet stability of macro-aggregates of saline-sodic soil Effect of desulfurized gypsum on soil saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks).
expressed in relative weight (%).
Treatment Ks (mm d− 1)
Treatment Relative weight of water stable macro-aggregate (%)
0–10 cm 10–20 cm 20–30 cm 30–40 cm
0–10 cm 10–20 cm 20–30 cm 30–40 cm
Control 0.31 c 0.11 c 0.08 c 0.07 c
Control 5.62 c 4.13 c 4.06 c 3.91c 100% GR 26.43 b 26.38 b 25.96 b 25.87 b
100% GR 31.47b 30.86 b 29.44 b 26.79 b 200% GR 76.78 a 76.62 a 75.81 a 74.69 a
200% GR 57.85 a 56.72 a 55.93 a 54.86 a
Mean values followed by different letters in a column differ significantly at P b 0.05.
Mean values followed by different letters in a column differ significantly at P b 0.05.

3.7. Soil sodicity (SARe)

3.5. Soil Ks
The soil Ks was found in the order of 200% GR > 100% GR > control
in the four soil layers of 0–10, 10–20, 20–30 and 30–40 cm depths
(Table 5). For example, with respect to the upper 10 cm soil layer,
the Ks of soil increased to 26.43 mm h − 1 and 76.78 mm h − 1 in the
100% GR treatment and 200% GR treatment, respectively, from
0.31 mm d − 1 in the control treatment. This increase likely due to
the increased stability of macro-aggregates in the soil leading to in-
creased soil macro-porosity.
As far as the control soil was concerned, a significantly greater
value of Ks (P b 0.05) was observed in the upper 10 cm soil layer com-
pared with other soil layers (Table 5). Similar results were also found
in other treatments. This may be a result of the rice roots facilitating
water flow. Roots are known to improve the physical conditions of
the soil (Elkins, 1985), which would provide larger pores for soil
water movement. Ilyas (1990) reported that the root caused pores
could modify the soil profile leading to improved soil hydraulic con-
ductivity. In addition, Peterson et al. (1987) reported that soil hydrau-
lic conductivity was linearly related to root mass in a variety of soils.
A significantly higher efficiency in decreasing soil sodicity (SARe)
was observed in the 200% GR and 100% GR treatments compared
with the control (Table 7). This was due to desulfurized gypsum, in-
creasing Ca 2 +in the soil solution and promoting the displacement
of adsorbed Na +, followed by subsequent leaching.
A decrease in SARe was also found in the control treatment. This
was attributed to the removal of Na + from the soil as presented in
Table 3. It also may be because of the “valence dilution” mechanism
as reported by Reeve and Bower (1960). In a soil–water system,
there is an equilibrium between the monovalent and divalent cations
on the soil's exchange site and those in solution. The equilibrium con-
dition will be altered if water is added to the system. This dilution of
the soil solution favors the adsorption of divalent cations like Ca 2 + at
the cost of monovalent cations such as Na +. Besides, if the soil solu-
tion is diluted by a factor ΔC, maintaining the same ionic ratios, the
initial SAR decreased by the factor (ΔC) 1/2, i.e.:
SARfinal ¼ ðΔC Þ
0:5
 SARinitial ð10Þ

Because of the dilution, the (ΔC) 1/2 b 1. Thus, SARfinal b SARinitial.

3.6. Soil salinity (ECe)
3.8. Soil pH
Significant reductions in soil salinity were found in columns treat-
ed with desulfurized gypsum compared with the un-treated control The desulfurized gypsum treatments were found to be effective at
(Table 6). With respect to the average salinity of the 0–40 cm soil lowering soil pH as well (Table 8). The significant decrease in soil pH
layer, soil ECe decreased from 24.65 dS m − 1 in the control to in the 200% GR and 100% GR treatments may be attributed to leaching
4.93 dS m − 1 and 2.72 dS m − 1 in the 100% GR treatment and 200% of exchangeable Na + replaced by Ca 2 + from desulfurized gypsum.
GR treatment, respectively. The 200% GR treatment was more effec- This pH decrease was partly associated with the degree of soil recla-
tive than the 100% GR treatment at lowering soil salinity because mation and especially with the reduction in soil sodicity hazard
the maximum amount of TSS was leached out of soil columns in (USDA, 1954; Ghafoor, 1984).
this treatment (Table 3). The pH of alkaline soils is a function of the activity of CO3 + HCO3
(A), partial pressure of CO2 (PCO2), and ionic strength (I) (Mashhady
and Rowell, 1978):
30
0:5
control pH ¼ Log A− Log P CO2 −I þ 7:85 ð11Þ
25 100% GR
200% GR
The presence of soluble Na + increases the pH of calcareous soils
20
by increasing the activity of carbonate and bicarbonate. Sodium
IR (mm h-1)

carbonate (Na2CO3) and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) are relatively

15 soluble, and their removal by leaching can substantially reduce pH.
Thus, the decrease in pH was in part associated with the leaching of
TSS.
10

Table 6
5
Effects of desulfurized gypsum on soil ECe.

Treatment ECe (dS m− 1)

0
0–10 cm 10–20 cm 20–30 cm 30–40 cm 0–40 cm
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600 660 720 780 840 900 960
Control 23.96 a 24.78 a 24.89 a 25.01 a 24.65 a
Time (min.)
100% GR 4.68 b 4.80 b 5.07 b 5.17 b 4.93 b
200% GR 2.59 c 2.63 c 2.77 c 2.89 c 2.72 c
Fig. 3. Effect of desulfurized gypsum on infiltration rate (IR) of saline-sodic soil. The
values are means (± SE) of four replicates. Mean values followed by different letters in a column differ significantly at P b 0.05.
 C.M. Chi et al. / Geoderma 187–188 (2012) 24–30 29

Table 7 Table 9
Effects of desulfurized gypsum on soil SARe. Effects of desulfurized gypsum on growth and yield of rice.

Treatment SARe (mmolc L− 1)1/2 Parameter Treatment

0–10 cm 0–20 cm 20–30 cm 30–40 cm 0–40 cm Control 100% GR 200% GR

Control 377.32 a 389.28 a 394.50 a 401.26 a 390.60 a Survival (%) 0.00 b 100.00 a 100.00 a
100% GR 22.76 b 24.14 b 25.38 b 26.68 b 24.74 b Height (cm) 12.31 b 74.84 a 75.43 a
200% GR 7.93 c 8.31 c 8.87 c 9.49 c 8.65 c No. of plants column− 1 16.00 c 38.5 b 47.5 a
No. of grains plant− 1 0.00 c 76.32 b 99.81 a
Mean values followed by different letters in a column differ significantly at P b 0.05.
Grain yield plant− 1 (g) 0.00 c 1.83 b 2.45 a
Straw yield plant− 1 (g) 0.61 b 1.76 a 1.82 a
1000-grains weight (g) – 23.97 a 24.55 a
Further the decrease in soil pH may also be related to the increase
in the partial pressure of CO2 presented in Eq. (11). The increase of Mean values followed by different letters in a row differ significantly at P b 0.05.
CO2 partial pressure in the root zone is a result of root and microbial res-
piration. Ponnamperuma (1984) found a dramatic increase in CO2 par- 200% GR treatment, and the average ECe value of 4.93 in root zone
tial pressure in rice grown under ponded conditions. Ponnamperuma of 100% GR treatment may correspond to the 75% relative yield of
(1972) explained why pH decrease under ponded conditions in sodic rice according to the relationship between soil salinity (ECe) and
soil in terms of the Na2CO3–H2O–CO2 system. Moreover, theoretical yield potential of rice as discussed by Ayers and Westcot (1989) and
descriptions of the CaCO3–H2O–CO2 system in soils, its influence of Maas and Hoffman (1977). Thus, desulfurized gypsum is an effective
soil-solution pH and its influence on concentrations of Ca 2 +, HCO3−, amendment as an external source of Ca 2 + for reclamation of saline-
and CO32 −, including their interactions with other soluble and exchange- sodic soils in the west of Songnen Plain, northeast China.
able ions, have been discussed by several authors (e.g. Ponnamperuma,
1967; Robbins, 1985).
Acknowledgments
3.9. Rice growth and yield
This study is supported by the Knowledge Innovation Program of
All the growth and yield components of the rice in desulfurized the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the Non-profit Industry Financial
gypsum treated soils showed an improvement over those in the Program of Ministry of Agriculture of China, the National Key Tech-
untreated columns (Table 9). The height of rice increased from nology R&D Program of China, and Chinese Academy of Sciences
12.3 cm in the control to 74.8 cm and 75.4 cm in 100% GR and 200% Action Plan for the Development of Western China.
GR treatments, respectively. The improved growth and yield response
of rice in the 200% GR treatment compared with 100% GR treatment
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