Physics S1b: Lecture 8 July 20, 2022

Waves and Interference

For transverse waves, the disturbance is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Other
waves are longitudinal: the disturbance is parallel to the direction of propagation. For each kind
of wave, the wave speed is a characteristic of the wave and the medium. The most important
examples are:
Electromagnetic waves: n = index of refraction

Sound waves in a fluid:

Waves carry energy as they travel. The rate at which energy travels is the power of the wave,
and the power per unit area is the intensity. All these properties (energy, power, and intensity)
are proportional to the square of the amplitude of the wave. For a spherical wave traveling in
three dimensions, the intensity decreases as 1/r2, where r is the distance from the source.
A sinusoidal wave is also characterized by a phase, φ. If the phase is
equal to π, then the wave is “inverted” from its usual shape. When a wave reaches a boundary,
the reflected wave may acquire a phase shift. Going from fast to slow, the reflected wave will
have a phase shift of π. Going from slow to fast, the reflected wave will have no phase shift.
All waves exhibit interference. The most important question is: what is ∆φ?
If ∆φ = 0, ±2π, ±4π, ±6π, … then you have constructive interference.
If ∆φ = ±π, ±3π, ±5π, … then you have destructive interference.
If there is a difference in path length ∆s, that contributes a phase difference .

For two sources that are in phase (or two slits), with distances s1 and s2 from each source, a
distance d between the slits, and an angle θ from the normal:
Constructive interference occurs for
Destructive interference occurs for
When light from two slits travels a distance L and strikes a screen at a height y,
Constructive interference occurs for

Destructive interference occurs for

When light strikes a thin film, such as a soap bubble or oil slick, the reflected light will show
thin-film interference, and different colors will be reflected strongly (or not). Constructive or
destructive interference depends on the usual rules for ∆φ. Notably, reflection off of an interface
might result in an additional phase change of ∆φ = π, if the light is going from a region of low
index n to an region of high index.

1
Physics S1b: Lecture 8 July 20, 2022

Learning objectives: After this lecture, you will be able to…

1. Describe waves using the various parameters: wavelength, wavenumber, frequency,
angular frequency, period, amplitude, phase.

2. Understand and use the equation for sinusoidal waves: .

3. Determine the wave speed for different kinds of waves (light waves, sound waves, or
waves on a string).
4. Describe how waves will propagate from a point source, and explain the relationship
between wavefronts and rays.
5. Calculate the change in wave intensity as a wave propagates out from a source.
6. Describe the role of phase in characterizing a wave.
7. Explain how waves can combine (superposition), and describe how they can combine
with constructive or destructive interference.
8. Describe how waves reflect from a boundary (either “fixed” or “free”)
9. Describe how waves reflect from an interface where the wave speed changes.

10. Determine the relative phase ∆φ for two waves with a difference in path length.

11. Identify what kinds of phase difference ∆φ leads to constructive vs. destructive
interference.

12. Use the conditions on ∆φ in double-slit interference to find where bright or dark bands
will appear on a screen
13. Use the pattern of bands on a screen from a double-slit experiment to determine the
wavelength of light
14. Identify the phase changes that occur when light is reflected from an interface between
two different media
15. Use the phase changes, along with path length, to find constructive and destructive
interference in thin films (soap, water, oil, etc.)

2
Physics S1b: Lecture 8 July 20, 2022

Examples of Waves
• There are many wave phenomena! For each of the following waves, describe the wave,
and identify the characteristic wave speed for that type of wave:

Wave on a string
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/wave-
on-a-string/latest/wave-on-a-string_en.html

Electromagnetic Wave

Sound wave

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/ht
ml/wave-interference/latest/wave-
interference_en.html

3
Physics S1b: Lecture 8 July 20, 2022

Description of Waves
• A wave is any kind of disturbance that travels through a
medium. For instance, we can describe a sinusoidal wave
using the equation:

What are the parameters in this equation? What is this wave doing?

y= A=

k= ω=

• Earlier, we discussed the wave speed v = λf. What is the wave speed in terms of the
parameters ω and k? In terms of λ and T?

• How could you make the wave:

• Taller? • Shorter?

• Twice the wavelength, but same speed?

• Same wavelength, but twice the speed?

• Move to the left with the same speed and wavelength?

• Same wavelength and speed, but twice the frequency?

4
Physics S1b: Lecture 8 July 20, 2022

Activity 1: Waves and Phase

• We left out an important aspect of sinusoidal waves earlier. The most general expression for a
sinusoidal wave requires a phase, φ: Below is a graph at t = 0 with a phase of zero:

1. On the graph above, sketch what the wave would look like with a small, positive phase (i.e. if
φ is a small positive number).

2. Each of the following graphs shows a snapshot of a wave taken at t=0, with the
accompanying equation shown to the right. Identify the phase of each graph relative to the graph
at the top. By how much of a wavelength does each phase shift the graph?

Bonus! We could also write a wave as y = A cos(kx – ωt + φ). Why don’t we bother to do that?

5
Physics S1b: Lecture 8 July 20, 2022

Traveling Waves
• When a wave travels, what is actually traveling with
the wave?

• Many kinds of waves (light, sound) can propagate out

in three dimensions. How will they propagate from a small
point source?

• For a spherical wave, we can identify wavefronts as well as rays.

• From far away, a spherical wave will look like a plane wave:

6
Physics S1b: Lecture 8 July 20, 2022

Activity 2: Energy, Power, and Intensity

•. One very important property of waves is that they carry energy. If the wave disturbance is
given by the equation:

how is that related to the energy carried by the wave?

1. To keep a wave going over time, the source must provide energy to the wave. The rate of
emission of energy is the power, or the energy emitted per unit time. What are the SI units for
power?

For a wave traveling in three

dimensions, the most
important measure of energy
is usually the intensity of the
wave, which is the power per
unit area. If you have a
spherical wave, the wave
spreads over a sphere of
increasing area as it
propagates.

2. What is the intensity of a spherical wave at a distance r from a source with power W, if
the spherical wave spreads uniformly in all directions?

3. An opera singer sings at the front of a music hall unaided by a microphone. How does the
intensity of the sound wave heard by a person sitting one meter away I1 compare to the intensity
of sound, I2, heard by a person sitting 10 m away? Choose the correct answer below.

(a) I2 = I1 (b) I2 = 10 I1 (c) I2 =100 I1 (d) I2 = 0.1 I1 (e) I2 = 0.01 I1

7
Physics S1b: Lecture 8 July 20, 2022

Superposition and Interference

• When waves from several sources combine in a medium, the resulting wave disturbances
simply add together. This is the principle of superposition. For instance, what would happen if
two wave pulses approach each other on a string?

•. When waves combine, you can have interference that can either enhance or diminish the
resulting wave amplitude. For interference, the relative phase is important!

If two waves are exactly in phase If two waves are exactly out of phase
(i.e. the relative phase is zero): ( (i.,e. the relative phase is π):

8
Physics S1b: Lecture 8 July 20, 2022

Am I getting it?
1. A wave travels to the right (towards +x)
along a stretched string with speed v = 10 cm/s. A
graph of the displacement D(x, t) at time t = 0 is
shown in the figure at right.
Which of the following is the correct
equation for D for all x and t?
A.

B.

C.

D.

E.

F.

2. Two wave pulses are approaching each other as shown below. Sketch the waveform at t=2s
and t=3 s.

At t= 2 s:

At t=3 s:

9
Physics S1b: Lecture 8 July 20, 2022

Phase Changes upon Reflection

• When a wave reaches a boundary or interface, all or part of the wave can be reflected.
For a wave on a string, the reflection will be different depending on whether the end of the string
is fixed in place, or free to move up and down.
Wave reflection at fixed end:

Wave reflection at free end:

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/wave-on-a-string/latest/wave-on-a-string_en.html

10
Physics S1b: Lecture 8 July 20, 2022

Activity 3: Phase Changes at a Boundary

1. When a wave reaches a boundary where the wave speed changes, there is once again both a
reflected part of the wave and a transmitted part of the wave. Where have we seen before this
phenomenon of both reflection and transmission at a boundary?

2. The phase of the reflected wave depends on the nature of the boundary. If the wave is
traveling to a medium with a slower wave speed, then the slower medium looks a little bit like a
string hitting a fixed end… so what will be the phase of the reflected wave? An example is a
wave traveling from a light string to a heavy string:

3. What about the opposite case: can you predict what will happen if you go from a heavy string
to a light string? In the extreme limit, the light string is like having a totally free end…

11
Physics S1b: Lecture 8 July 20, 2022

Interference: What is the Relative Phase?

• The most important question to ask about interference is: what is the relative phase
between the waves?

What is ∆φ?
• What values of ∆φ will give constructive interference?

• What values of ∆φ will give destructive interference?

• Suppose there is a difference in distance

traveled by one wave (compared with another). If one
wave travels an extra distance ∆s, the path difference
will contribute a difference in phase ∆φ.

12
Physics S1b: Lecture 8 July 20, 2022

Activity 4: Two Sources, In Phase

• What will we hear from two loudspeakers that are producing the same tone, in phase?

• Consider a point that is a distance s1 from one speaker and s2 from

the other speaker.

1. What is the difference in path length, ∆s?

2. What should ∆s be in order to have constructive interference?

(Hint: Start with the condition ∆φ = …)

3. What should ∆s be in order to have destructive interference?

13
Physics S1b: Lecture 8 July 20, 2022

Let’s make sure we get the general concept.

1. The figure on the right shows the locations of

the wave crests of two waves with the same
amplitude. Where do the waves interfere
constructively? (Select all that apply.)

a. Point a
b. Point b
c. Point c
d. At all three points

2. Using the same figure to the right, where do the

waves interfere destructively? (Select all that
apply.)

a. Point a
b. Point b
c. Point c
d. At all three points

3. Two identical speakers are in phase. They emit

equal-amplitude sound waves with a wavelength
of 1 m. The point indicated in the figure is a
point of __________________?

a. Maximum constructive interference

b. Perfect destructive interference
c. Something in between

14
Physics S1b: Lecture 8 July 20, 2022

Constructive vs. Destructive Interference

• We can do the same thing with light, by shining light through two slits. What do we see?

• Does it look like light is made up of particles or waves?

• Let’s see if we can understand the light and dark bands on the screen. What is ∆φ?

www.falstad.com/ripple
https://www.geogebra.org/m/E2DWrjjG

15
Physics S1b: Lecture 8 July 20, 2022

Activity 5: Two Slits: Pattern on the Screen

1. As shown in the diagram, the difference in path length is ∆s = d sin θ. Find an expression
for the angles at which we will find constructive or destructive interference. (You may assume
that θ is small, in which case sin θ ≈ θ.)

2. Now determine the height y of the bright and dark fringes on the screen. Again, use the
approximation, valid for small θ, that sin θ ≈ tan θ ≈ θ.

16
Physics S1b: Lecture 8 July 20, 2022

Measuring the Wavelength

• Light strikes two slits 0.1 mm apart. The pattern on the screen (1.2 m away) shows
constructive interference at 6 mm and 12 mm from the center. What is the wavelength of the
light?

• If you make the two slits farther apart, what will happen to the pattern on the screen?

• Now let’s use what we’ve learned to understand why we see colors in a soap bubble or in
an oil slick on wet pavement…

17
Physics S1b: Lecture 8 July 20, 2022

Thin-Film Interference
• Let’s consider the soap bubble first. Remember: What is ∆φ? The phase difference
could from from reflections OR a difference in path length, OR from traveling through a
different material. Let’s check them all:

1. When light reflects off a boundary between two different materials, there might be a phase
shift for the reflected wave. What will be the phase shift in each of the two cases shown
below? (Look carefully at whether n1>n2 in each case.)

2. Now consider what happens when light reflects off a thin soap
film. There will be two reflected waves: one reflects off the
front surface of the film (call that ray 1), and the other reflects
off the back surface of the film (ray 2). What will be the phase
change upon reflection for each of these rays?

∆ϕ (ray 1, reflection) =

∆ϕ (ray 2, reflection) =

3. Ray 2 will also travel an extra distance compared with ray 1. What will be the phase shift of
ray 2 compared with ray 1, due to the extra distance alone? How does the difference in
material come into play?

18
Physics S1b: Lecture 8 July 20, 2022

Am I getting it?
1. The light from two lasers (A and B) are sent through the same double-slit apparatus. Two
interference patterns are projected on a screen a distance L away. The bright fringes from laser
A are spaced more closely together than the bright fringes from laser B. What can we say, if
anything, about the relative wavelengths of the two lasers?

a) Laser A has a shorter wavelength than laser B.

b) Laser A has the same wavelength as laser B.
c) Laser A has a longer wavelength than laser B.
d) We can’t compare the wavelengths without the slit separation d.
e) We can’t compare the wavelengths without the slit width D.

2. The graph at right shows the intensity of light as a function of position on the screen in a two-
slit interference setup. Fill in the blank: At the second-
order maximum on either side, the light from one slit
travels ______ the light from the other slit.

a) the same distance as

b) twice as far as
c) one wavelength further than
d) two wavelengths further than
e) three wavelengths further than

3. White light reflects at normal incidence off of a very thin soap film with air on either side of
it. If the thickness of the film is much less than the wavelengths of visible light, which of the
following will occur?

(a) Constructive interference will be observed for all wavelengths of visible light, so the
film will appear white.
(b) Destructive interference will be observed for all wavelengths of visible light, so the
film will appear dark.
(c) Constructive interference will be observed for short wavelengths, but destructive
interference for long wavelengths, so the film will appear blue.
(d) Constructive interference will be observed for long wavelengths, but destructive
interference for short wavelengths, so the film will appear red.
(e) The film will appear dark, but because of total internal reflection, not because of
destructive interference.

19
Physics S1b: Lecture 8 July 20, 2022

One-Minute Paper
(Answer on Canvas by the end of the day.)

• What topic left you most confused after today's class?

• What questions came up for you during today's class? Is there anything in particular
you'd like to see emphasized in section?

• Do you have any suggestions or feedback about any part of the course?

20