1

Relationship between Toxic Masculinity and Misogyny in Boys of Segregated and Non-
Segregated Schools

A thesis
Presented to Institute of Professional Psychology,
Bahria University, Karachi Campus

In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirement for the
Degree of Bachelor of Sciences
(BS) Psychology

By
Maria Hatim
Fatima Alveera
Mahnoor Kayani
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Relationship between Toxic Masculinity and Misogyny in Boys of Segregated and Non-
Segregated Schools

A thesis
Presented to Institute of Professional Psychology,
Bahria University, Karachi Campus

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirement for the
Degree of Bachelor of Sciences
(BS) Psychology

By
Maria Hatim
Fatima Alveera
Mahnoor Kayani

INSTITUTE OF PROFESSIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, BAHRIA

PSYCHOLOGY-KARACHI CAMPUS
 3

Relationship between Toxic Masculinity and Misogyny in Boys of Segregated and Non-
Segregated Schools

By
Maria Hatim
Fatima Alveera
Mahnoor Kayani

Approved By

_______________________
(Name of External Examiner)
External Examiner

_______________________
(Name of Internal Examiner)
Internal Examiner

Dr. Areej Khan__________

(Name of Supervisor)
Supervisor

_______________________
(Name of Director/ HOD)
Director, IPP-BUKC
INSTITUTE OF PROFESSIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
BAHRIA UNIVERSITY, KARACHI
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………….………5

INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………………..6

LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………………………….14

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY……………………………...………..18

SIGNIFICANCE & RATIONALE OF THE STUDY……………………………………….21

OBJECTIVE……………………………………………………………………………………21

RESEARCH QUESTION…………………………………………………………………….22

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS…………………………………………………………………22

METHODOLOGY……………………………………………………………………………23

PROCEDURE…………………………………………………………………………………25

ETHICAL CONSIDERATION………………………………………………………… …..25

RESULTS……………………………………………………………………………………..26

DISCUSSION………………………………………………………………………………….30

REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………………………..35

APPENDICES………………………………………………………………………………….44
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ABSTRACT

The objective of the present study was twofold; first to assess the differences of toxic

masculinity and misogyny in young boys studying in segregated and non-segregated schools, and

second to determine whether toxic masculinity leads to misogyny in young boys in segregated

and non-segregated schools. The construct of misogyny consists of benevolent sexism and

hostile sexism. The following hypotheses were formulated: 1) boys from segregated schools

have higher levels of toxic masculinity than boys in non-segregated schools; 2) boys from

segregated schools have higher levels of misogyny than boys from non-segregated schools; and

3) higher levels of toxic masculinity lead to higher levels of misogyny in boys. A total of 100

participants were conveniently selected from different schools of Karachi. The participants

belonged to grades 8 to 12 and the average age of the boys was 17.84 years. 50 boys belonged to

segregated schools and 50 boys were from non-segregated schools. This was a quantitative

correlational research. To study toxic masculinity, the Male Role Attitude Scale (MRAS; Pleck,

Sonenstein, & Ku, 1993) was used and to understand misogyny, the Ambivalent Sexism

Inventory – Short Form (ASI-SF; Glick & Fiske, 199 was used. Results indicated that a) there is

no difference of toxic masculinity between boys in segregated and non-segregated schools; b)

there is a significant difference of misogyny between boys in segregated and non-segregated

schools; c) toxic masculinity has a significant relationship with misogyny; and d) toxic

masculinity has a significant impact on benevolent sexism in young boys.

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

We have used words such as "macho," "red-blooded" for years to explain the kind of

dominance that men were supposed to strive at some stage. Now we use "toxic masculinity,"

Toxic masculinity is an oppressive concept of manhood, the cultural ideology of manhood is that

power is everything and feelings are weakness, sex and violence are factors through which men

are defined, while the means by which the status as "man" can be swept aside are allegedly

female characteristics that can range from emotional sensitivity to simply not being sexually

aggressive. It defines manhood as characterized by abuse, sex, power and aggression. In many

cultures, boys are taught that crying is the sign of weakness, and not showing their emotions and

being dominant or suppressing other person is the sign of manhood.

Misogyny can be observed everywhere.  The term, meaning hatred of women

conventionally, was once a conservative allegation. But now, the gentler "sexism" and

"chauvinism" in common usage seem to have eclipsed, there are various kinds of misogyny,

including social exclusion, sex inequality, hostility,  sexism, male privilege, women's

disempowerment, abuse against women, and sexual objectification, both physical and

psychological abuse can result from misogyny. Misogynist terrorism and domestic abuse are

physical violence examples. Psychological abuse often associates with misogyny, such as toxic

masculinity, bullying, and harassment.

Misogyny is the other side to toxic masculinity. Both rely on a narrow concept of

appropriate gender specific behavior. Both view women as sensitive individuals. They believe

that men are bigger, wiser, and ideally adapted to the real world.
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It is worth stressing that, in itself, masculinity is not dangerous. Toxic masculinity is a

cultural phenomenon where, through gender stereotypes, masculinity may be taken to the

extreme and become a tool wielded against those unable to conform to behavioral regulation.

There are many other cases of toxic masculinity that have a negative effect on male suicide rates,

sexual harassment rates, STD rates, and their desire to talk with health care professionals about

health issues. The victims are majority women when men become violent, as demonstrated by

many mass shootings committed by men who identify as incels, or involuntary celibacy.

The culture of incel also dabbles in misogyny and blames women for their replies to their

misogyny. Some men also show a lack of self-awareness by blaming women for all of their

marital troubles. Instead of taking a moment to consider why women do not want to associate all

of their issues with men who are extremely willing to victimize women, rigid gender roles,

community norms can lead to the use of aggression against females by men. Family violence or

psychological abuse can be used to conform to gendered standards when men feel or consider

themselves not to be manly enough.

The hashtag #MasculinitySoFragile was trending on Twitter in September 2015 (Banet-

Weiser & Miltner, 2015). The hashtag's obvious intent was to demonstrate the precariousness of

toxic masculinity, some groups of men confessed to this assault on the idea of masculinity with

an attack on masculinity and reacted in an aggressive manner. We are in a new age of gender

wars, an age marked by unprecedented levels of negativity and abuse in online spaces directed

towards women. These types of violence are not only about gender, but are often biased with

specific targets being women and people of color. Not only from feminists, but in public culture,

where it has been widely criticized, the scope and nature of this violence has received popularity.
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  Toxic masculinity means that real men exist through struggle and injustice against those

who are weaker. Toxic masculinity induces an attitude of shame in which men are pressured to

either show their masculinity or continue to live in humiliation. It also creates a sense in which

women are also seen or treated as weak, helpless and available to help men, which can contribute

to misogyny. Toxic masculinity produces an atmosphere in which misogyny is embraced and

practiced by those who want acceptance by the dominant members of society, an attitude in

which femininity is dismissed or manifested in vulnerability, fear, dependency, and irrationality,

Males who do not behave like real men or attempt to live out a false masculinity and identity

bear humiliation. Females struggle to be recognized, valued, and treated (Clark, 2018)

In the social interaction of students to gender, as well as to social and racial relations,

schools and schooling are contradictory influences. Schools, as representatives of culture,

inevitably reinforce social conceptions of gender, while socializing agents are also primary

locations for the development of new gender norms, roles, and attitudes. Schools connect the

families from which young children come and the sex-segregated occupational environments to

which they are sent, representing the duality of serving both as conservative and liberating forces

in society (Wriegly, 2003)

Men have utilized their influence and their wealth to exclude oppressed minority

communities such as women, homosexual men, and working-class citizens. This idea has also

grown to cover certain attitudes, such as violent competition and others' sensitivity (Connell,

1980). Masculinity could be harmful indeed. Yet both conservative and liberal views on this

topic generally ignore how the word toxic masculinity operates. People prefer to treat the issue of

male violence and superiority as a psychological or moral disorder, nothing that has poisoned
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people of today and led to reproachable acts. Yet toxic masculinity is not a cure by itself. While

the definition has evolved and modified in the past 30 years, it has acted mostly as a barometer

for the gender dynamics of the day.

Considering the current popularity among feminists of the world, toxic masculinity did

not start with the movement of the women. In the 1980s and '90s, the Mythopoetic Men's

Movement inspired in part as a backlash to feminism of the second wave. Through masculine

workshops, this movement promoted male masculinity to protect what it labeled as "deep

masculine" from toxic masculinity, a protective, to "warrior" masculinity (Longwood, Schipper,

& Culbertson, 2012). According to the movement, men's violence and anger was the product of a

culture that feminized boys by refusing them the rituals and traditions they required to recognize

their true self as people.

Meanwhile, events of violence and anger from shootings at high school to road rage have

been described as manifestations of toxic masculinity yet there are more specific male abuse

actions that may further explain the severity of the issue, those involve having women feel

uncomfortable in general, owing to unwelcome attention by men. This may often be more subtle

than this, portraying women as people who are always lewd and offensive with their public

statements.

But women are not the primary victims of toxic masculinity; these acts can affect men

just as intensely. Even if men are not specifically threatened by a toxic act of masculinity, the

culture can cause them to suppress their own feelings, to fit the narrow expectations of

masculinity which suggest that emotions are weak (Veissiere, 2018). People are inherently

physically powerful under this definition, and those that are soft are considered weak.
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Masculinity in Pakistan is often defined by a variety of notion, essential to it is the notion

of dominance that is expressed in different forms. The common example of toxic masculinity is

the inequality between man and woman. The social construct of honor, which is automatically

connected to a woman in Pakistani culture and its protection as a goal, and the ideology of

masculinity are also significant in this regard.

In Pakistan, masculinity was often highlighted with keeping the female family members

hidden. In Sindh, Pakistan, the masculinity of a person is challenged if women operate outside

the house, and so a strong man does not accept such behavior. Regardless of its feminine nature,

male family members do not assist women in performing household chores in accordance with

masculinity norms (Masculinity in Pakistan, 2016). Men are required to monitor the actions of

women in their position as protectors, their dressing, events in the house, and hold them in effect

at all times. The capacity to regulate is the key to a man's integrity. The extravagance of a man

may symbolize his dignity, but that dignity does not make sense unless it is followed by the

ability to govern.

People think that masculinity is when a man shows dominance and has power and honor,

which led men in the society to feel superior to women. If any man fails to do so, the society

usually labels him as weak. Men are expected not only to safeguard the honor of their wives, but

also that of their families. In Pakistan, gender inequality has been observed in various ways

(Rotter, 2019). For instance, in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), the honor of a woman is extremely

important, so men do not tolerate any humiliation or insult of a woman's respect. Nevertheless,

the distinction between the two is difficult to demarcate, as they differ in several respects. Even

now, the prestige of a tribe requires issues, such as involvement in territorial wars and the

maintenance of one's cultural heritage. It leads to masculinity representations such as possessing

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arms. This has historically become more prominent in Pukhtoons but in Punjab it is also an

important and popular representation of masculinity and strength.

Misogyny was little used for the next few centuries, but in the mid-1970s its popularity

went up. In several respects, women in the United States have made big progress following its

founding 242 years ago. Women can vote and hold land and they make up 47% of the

population. Even now, they still encounter everyday disparities. The gender difference persists

with women earning 80.5 cents for every dollar that men have grossed. Girls are 38 percent more

likely to live in poverty than men, according to the National Women's Law Center (Mcilvaine,

2019). Everyone is well aware of these challenges, but the most exhausting part of being a

woman today sometimes suffers the constant micro aggression. After 2010 across England,

Wales and Scotland, cuts to government budgets for women's refuges increased to about £7 m.

There is historical evidence depicting problems associated with toxic masculinity. The

Egyptian Ebers Papyrus (Mcilvaine, 2019) portrays one of ancient medicine related as mankind's

most detailed and best-preserved written history. The oral histories of ancient civilizations still

recorded the essential and highly respected role of midwives without written documents from

Africa to India. A rivalry between the surgeons and midwives arose as Western practice became

institutionalized in the 18th century (Mcilvaine, 2019). Men who were educated in medicine

believed that their medical education was superior to the conventional mid-wives’ knowledge.

Decision leaders, attorneys, wellness groups and money, recently the MDH, McDonough District

Hospital, committed a misogynist act (Mcilvaine, 2019). Instead of openly answering a report

that employment would be revoked with three seasoned women's health providers, the hospital

administration and the board of directors withdrew to a private session.

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Alek Minasyan (Hashem, 2020) murdered 10 people including eight women as a

discriminatory act. The terror incident in Toronto in April, 2018 and Andrew Anglin, a Neo-

Nazi, was among the many visible examples of the hatred are far from unique. Perhaps no one is

more effective at bridging the worlds of men's rights, misogyny, and racism than women's

liberation. He has spent much of his career criticizing the rise of self-actualized women who

threaten white men's existence by suggesting that there may be something more to life than

"breeding six warriors while being a happy housewife". Everyday Anglin wants to remind the

women that they are fortunate to get some man, and deserving of nothing but male aggression

and contempt.

Women who joined the Women's Marches (i.e., Aurat March) carried out across Pakistan

were frequently criticized for carrying protest signs that offended many of the sensibilities of

men in the country. That was the response to the Aurat March by Orya Maqbool Jan (Javid,

2019), dedicated substantial time on his TV program to criticize women for demanding to be

spared the humiliation of getting unsolicited images of male genitals to talk openly about sexual

issues represent somehow an inherent challenge to the social structure of society. However, it

may be claimed that common conceptions of femininity and wealth are collective structures

themselves, rather than fixed concepts. When expressing opposition to the Aurat March, the

suggestion that the March and its participants were symbolic of a tiny, radical, and affluent

segment of society isolated from the daily concerns and experiences of 'true' women was one of

the stereotypes being regularly brought up. The point here was that questions around freedom of

speech and travel were somehow less relevant than problems of crime, sexual abuse, and

deprivation. In fact, the Aurat March has raised all these and more concerns, even as it has also

provided room to a wide cross-section of society.

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If they did, one would expect them to be the first to come out and denounce the

widespread abuse and sexism in Pakistan that is part of daily life. The urge to punish victims of

violence and abuse for their suffering, while at the same time providing all kinds of indulgence

to the perpetrators of such violence and abuse, exacerbates matters. In what has become an all

too familiar sequence of events, instead the outrage that should have been directed at the

perpetrator of this heinous act has been unleashed on the victim and her mother, all but

suggesting that rape is an acceptable consequence for stepping beyond the limits of acceptable

behavior dictated by the society.

It is not hard to demonstrate that misogyny is profoundly rooted within Pakistan. Actual

numbers and foreign surveys have stated for years that this country is one of the toughest

countries in the world to be a woman in and if this is not enough confirmation, women's living

realities here offer enough evidence of how difficult things are. Whether it is the widespread

violence and harassment that takes place in the world, or the atmosphere of privilege and

indulgence that encourages men to get away with it, it is obvious that things need to change and

that women and their allies need to be empowered in their attempts to overturn the power

structure.
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Literature Review

Research into masculinity and schooling has attracted increased attention recently,

especially in relation to working-class boys and academic successors. As early as 1998, work on

feminists’ view on masculinity issues arose (Skelton, 1998).

The purpose of the study was to consider the debates surrounding feminists exploring

masculinity issues and to determine the extent to which male writers/researchers' recent work on

masculinity and schooling informs and complements existing feminist agendas (Skelton, 1998).

Katsurada and Sugihara (2002) found that women have relatively strong opinions of

masculinity without any coeducational schooling experience and they appear to have a

conservative opinion towards men taking non-traditional positions. This study highlights the

significance of gender-role identity and gender-segregated school backgrounds.

There are two domains of misogyny: hostile and benevolent misogyny. A research

analyzed the reactions of male and female participants to information regarding the perceived

endorsement by a sample of men or women of either hostile or benevolent sexist views. It

predicted that it will be less likely to be viewed as sexist by people endorsing benevolent sexist

statements than by those endorsing hostile sexist views, and investigated the judgmental

mechanism by which people fail to consider benevolent sexism as a type of discrimination, The

findings confirmed that they are less likely to be perceived as sexists because benevolent sexists

are assessed more favorably than hostile sexists. Relatively independent of emotional reactions

to hostile versus benevolent sexism, this judgmental mechanism exists (Barreto & Ellemers,

2005).
 15

Weitzer and Kubrin (2009) studied that in a representative sample of 403 rap songs,

research evaluates the representation of women. In the body of music, content analysis

established five gender-related topics. Their review portrays rap music within the context of

broader cultural and music regulatory requirements and the local, community dynamics that

influenced this music in the first place. Hence, the entertainment industry has specific gender

biases whilst creating music.

Misogyny can be both internalized and externalized. Internal misogyny tends to have a

link with external misogyny. A research explored the link between internalized misogyny and

two other types of internalized sexism, self-objectification and passive acceptance of

stereotypical gender roles (Dixon et al., 2009). The findings showed that internalized misogyny

was linked to self-objectification and passive acceptance, but conceptually distinct from self-

objectification. It also suggested that higher levels of psychological distress were correlated with

higher perceptions of sexist incidents. Moreover, the connection between external sexism and

psychological distress was exacerbated by internalized misogyny.

Starting in the 1960s, feminists argued that the psychology discipline had neglected

women and gender studies and misrepresented women in their research and theories. Such

explorations showed (a) a concentration of experiments in fundamental science areas studying

social activity and human relationships and in other areas implemented, (b) various trajectories in

prototypical study, and (c) diverse theoretical orientations usually not called feminists by readers.

The important diffusion of this work is apparent in its dispersion across a broad variety of other

publications outside gender-specialty papers, including the central analysis and principle

publications of psychology, as well as in its reporting of introductory textbooks on psychology

(Eagly et al., 2012).

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In another study by Ging and Siapera (2018), political and economic considerations

related to gender have been discussed. They emphasized the anti-woman spaces and discourses

on the internet regarding anti-feminism. This indicates the amount of anti-feminism available on

the interent, which further hampers the future of gender equality.

There have been multiple accounts where feminism is perceived as the evil in society

with various studies on the subject. People go as far as saying that the concept of feminism has

shifted from the underlying idea of equality between men and women and it has now come

towards the personal remarks to refute all that men said or did. Such an interpretation of

feminism would hinder the growth of women as well as the expected advancement and delay of

justice in gender equality (Ranjan, 2019).

A research by Scaptura (2019) aimed at understanding the relationship between

masculinity and the endorsement of gun and aggression behaviors and violent fantasies. In

addition to a newly established measure that measures characteristics associated with incels, she

examined challenged masculinity and masculine gender role tension, who claim that social

liberalism, feminism, and more sexually active men are responsible for their lack of sex with

women, The results of the study supported three hypotheses that the threat of status is positively

associated with gun and violence approval, acceptance threat is positively associated with gun

approval, violence and aggressive fantasies, and incel characteristics are positively associated

with aggressive fantasies. Men who experience the threat of status or approval or share incel

characteristics exemplify toxicity problems present in today's masculinity. Furthermore, their

support for the use of guns, aggression and violent fantasies shows the connection between male

fear, aggressive attitudes, and fantasizing about violence.

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Results of a structural equation modeling study showed that depression was correlated

with social media or social network use and toxic masculinity. The correlation between social

media use and depression measures was mediated by positive and negative social media

interactions, and the association between toxic masculinity and depression was mediated by

negative social media interactions (Parent .et al, 2019).

The hatred toward feminism and women as a whole has also led to multiple organizations

being formed as discussed above like Men Rights’ Activists and the "Involuntary Celibate" or

"Incel" campaign. This phenomenon has arisen in recent years; it has drawn criticism because of

the retaliation towards women and the link with many incidents of domestic terrorism that are

especially high-profile. A study sought to understand Incels as a reactionary social movement.

Particular attention was given to their portrayal of women, to their issue presentation and to their

political organizing tactics (Conely, 2020).

It is often seen that misogynistic attitudes are associated with poor health outcomes for

men (Fleming et al., 2018). In this research, socio-demographic conditions, drug use, and mental

health dimensions of misogynistic attitudes of Mexican men were studied that indicated high-risk

drug use and sexual behaviors. This indicates that poor health indicators are linked to

misogynistic behaviors and attitudes.

There have been recent cultural shifts in the assumptions about gender equality. Toxic

masculinity is a transcultural stereotype, or a moral trope that one should not be. Viessiere

(2018) argued that the toxic masculinity trope is useful only if presented in conjunction with a

nuanced spectrum of other gender archetypes (positive and negative). The study also argued
 18

regarding the value of clear gender roles without victimhood. It further emphasized on young

boys’ initiation and suggested that inclusive societies recognize gender roles flexibly.

Further research has studied how family, school, and romantic relationships lead to the

benevolent and hostile sexist attitudes of adolescents (Mastari et al, 2019). The findings

showed that the difference in benevolent sexist attitudes among girls and hostile sexist attitudes

among boys are particularly important for explaining social characteristics. Hostile sexism

among boys was closely linked to participation in technical and vocational education while girls

were in a romantic relationship and traditional moral values were clearly connected to

benevolent sexism.

In association with sexism Farrell et al., (2019) studied the flow of extreme language with

explicitly misogynistic members across the various website on the Internet such as Reddit. They

investigated the spread of misogynistic ideas across these communities. Findings revealed a

growing trend of misogynistic content including violent behaviors, corroborating current

feminist research theories. Hence, misogyny, aggression, and abuse is continuously increasing.

Theoretical Framework

The idea behind toxic masculinity and misogyny involves aggressively adhering to the

gender roles assigned to them, men not only learn to hate feminine things but also feminine

people, including women as a whole. This hatred for women because of strict gender roles often

leads to domestic violence and other crimes against women by men (Jennings & Murphy, 2000).

The hatred for women or misogyny is said to be a result of toxic masculinity where men are

taught to take pride in their aggressive tendencies, considering women the weaker sex and
 19

ultimately overpowering them (Wayne, 2019). The tendency of toxic masculinity seems to

increase where males associate with the same gender over a long period of time and exhibition of

toxic masculinity becomes necessary for survival, like in prison where violence and aggression

are associated with power (Toch & Adams, 1986) and sadly lead to prison rape as well (Hensley

et al., 2002).

Ambivalent sexism theory centers around two aspects of sexism: hostile and benevolent

sexism. Hostile sexism seeks to devalue women to only sexual objects and enforces male power

and traditional gender roles. Benevolent sexism relies on a gentler way of male domination and

gender role enforcement by romanticizing sexual relationships with women and men’s

dependence on them. Benevolent and hostile sexism share the common assumption that women

are the weaker sex, presume traditional gender roles and justify and maintain the social structure

of patriarchy (Glick & Fiske, 1996).

The phenomenon of toxic masculinity in any given sense gives a fascinating insight into

gender politics. However, as an analytical term, feminists do not adopt toxic masculinity,

consider the origins, history, and use of the word, arguing that it appears to individualize

discourses that have targeted marginalized men historically, Accusations of toxic masculinity,

therefore also work to perpetuate gender constructs and to individualize certain men's

accountability for gender inequalities (Harrington, 2020).

Socializing institutions play a huge role in the transmission of misogyny through

generations. These include families and religious and educational institutions. In schools where

socializing is the norm, following in the steps of prevalent sexism becomes part of that norm.

These institutions, especially classrooms can become ‘primary sites for sexist socialization’ (Lee

et al., 1994).
 20

Gendered power patterns that perpetuate widespread inequalities and that schools plays an

important role in addressing these inequalities foster and are supported by toxic masculinity.

(Elliott, 2018)

We are assuming that gender segregated environments like boys-only schools lead to

higher toxic masculinity in boys. This in turn leads to an increase in misogyny. We are basing

this assumption on the Gender-Intensification theory, which states that children have more

pressure to conform to their traditionally/culturally specific gender roles during adolescence or

just after they hit puberty (Hill & Lynch, 1983). Schools are said to portray the gender system of

the society they operate in at a macro-level institutional perspective (Chafetz, 1989). If boys in

co-educational schools see girls alongside them and competing with them on equal levels, they

will learn to accept them as equal counterparts harboring less toxic aspects of masculinity.

Gender
Higher toxic Higher levels
segregated
masculinity of misogyny
schools

Co-
Lower toxic Lower levels
educational
masculinity of misogyny
schools

In this study, the focus will be on boys who experienced separation from women in

educational environments (segregated/all-boys schools) and those who studied in co-educational

institutes. The levels of toxic masculinity in both groups and its correlation with misogyny will
 21

be compared. From boys who went to all boy’s schools, those students will be selected who are

only currently enrolled in all-boys secondary schools (8th till 12th grade) since adolescence is an

age of higher pressure of stereotypical gender conformity. In this study, it is assumed that boys

who studied in co-educational schools will likely have lower levels of toxic masculinity, which

will lead to less misogyny.

Significance and Rationale of the Study

As women researchers in Pakistan, misogyny is something that is faced by us on a

personal level. Finding and eradicating toxic masculinity would not just help our male

counterparts but also us towards the road of equality. If toxic masculinity is strongly linked with

misogyny according to the hypothesis, we can work towards ways of raising boys in better,

gender-neutral environments. This will open vast opportunities for women of the world in

stepping towards stronger positions alongside men. Women leaders then would not be

discouraged and men would consider them equals. The findings of this study will help the

feminist world greatly in the fight for equality.

Objective

This research aims to study the relationship between toxic masculinity and misogyny in

boys of secondary schools and to find out if segregated educational environments may be the

link that nurtures toxic masculinity. This relationship will help identify different ways using

which one of those educational environments can take steps to promoting gender equality and

nurturing those boys with feminist ideologies so they lead lives with gender equality. If toxic

masculinity and misogyny are found to be positively linked, steps can be taken to reduce ways of

nurturing which lead to toxic masculinity and instead promote healthier ways of making young
 22

boys masculine where their pride does not reside in the subjugation and oppression of the female

gender.

Research Questions

1. Do boys from segregated schools have higher levels of toxic masculinity than boys from

non-segregated schools?

2. Do boys from segregated schools have higher levels of misogyny than boys from non-

segregated schools?

3. Does higher level of toxic masculinity lead to higher levels of misogyny?

Research Hypotheses

1. Boys from segregated schools will have higher levels of toxic masculinity than boys in

non-segregated schools.

2. Boys from segregated schools will have higher levels of misogyny than boys from non-

segregated schools.

3. Higher levels of toxic masculinity lead to higher levels of misogyny in boys.

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CHAPTER II

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

The current study aimed to identify the levels of toxic masculinity and misogyny in boys

from segregated and non-segregated schools. This research was a quantitative, correlational

survey design.

Research Sample

The participants for this research were school boys from 8th grade to 12th grade, with the

average age 17.84 years (SD = .9611). The selection of data was in accordance to convenient

sampling procedure and it was a quantitative correlational research design. There were a total of

100 participants in the research from which half of the participants belonged to segregated

schools and other half belonged to non-segregated schools.

Measures

Consent Form and Demographic Information Form

The consent form included permission to participate in this study. It comprised of

information regarding the participants’ voluntary participation. They were informed that they had

a right to withdraw from the study at any time they wanted to. They were briefed that all of their

information will be used for research purposes only and will be kept confidential.

The demographic information form comprised of gender, age, class, school name, type of

school (segregated and non-segregated), parents’ education and occupation, parents’ marital
 24

status, and family structure.

The Male Role Attitude Scales (MRAS)

In order to assess toxic masculinity in boys, the Male Role Attitude Scale (MRAS) was

used which has been developed by Pleck, Sonenstein, and Ku (1993). This is an eight-item scale

measuring traditional masculine ideology. It has been adopted from the Male Norms Scale

(Thompson & Pleck, 1986). The MRAS assesses three dimensions of masculinity: status,

toughness, and anti-feminity. The items are marked on a scale ranging from 1 to 7, where 1 =

strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree. Higher scores indicate endorsement of traditional male

role attitudes. Pleck and colleagues (1993) found good construct validity of the MRAS and a

coefficient alpha of .70.

The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory – Short Form (ASI-SF)

To measure misogyny in boys, the short version of Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI;

Glick & Fiske, 1996) was used. The ASI-SF has two subscales: hostile sexism (HS) and

benevolent sexism (BS). Hostile sexism is an adversarial perception of gender roles in which

women are viewed as trying to seek control of men and seizing their power. Benevolent sexism

idealizes women as pure beings who must be protected and supported; they are necessary for

men but they are weak and suitable for the conventional gender roles (Rollero, Glick, &

Tartagalia, 2014). Overall ASI scores predict ambivalent attitudes towards women. The ASI – SF

indicates strong psychometric properties; coefficient alphas are .80 for BS and .85 for HS

(Rollero, Glick, & Tartagalia, 2014)

 25

Procedure

Permission was sought from the authors to use the scales for this study. The researchers

approached schools using convenient sampling. After this, permission was taken from school

authorities. Participants were briefed regarding the nature of the study. They were explained

regarding confidentiality and they were informed regarding voluntary participation. Data was

collected in classroom settings in groups. The participants’ consent was taken and then they were

given the demographic form to fill out after which they were provided with the measures. The

researchers explained the questionnaire to participants in length and were present throughout to

clarify the queries of participants. Upon completion of the study, participants were thanked.

Ethical Considerations

The present study was conducted keeping in mind the rights and welfare of the

participants. APA ethical guidelines were followed in order to conduct the study. Participants

were informed regarding the objective of the study. They were assured that their provided

information will remain confidential and will only be used for research purposes. They were

informed that their participation was voluntary and that they had the right to withdraw from the

research at any given time during the study. Full anonymity was ensured.

Operational Definitions:

Following are the important operational definitions which are used in this research.

Toxic Masculinity:

Toxic masculinity refers to traditional male cultural standards that can be harmful to men,

women, and society at large, this concept of toxic masculinity does not reject men or male
 26

characteristics, but rather stresses the negative impacts of compliance with some traditional male

ideal (Pleck et al, 1994).

Misogyny:

As a reflection of hostility towards women, sexism has usually been defined on the view

that neglects subjectively positive emotions towards women, an important element of sexism

(Glick & Fiske, 1996).

Misogyny consists of benevolent sexism and hostile sexism. Benevolent sexism refers to

subjective positive attitudes toward men and their role as protectors and providers; it further

refers to the belief that men need women to provide domestic and maternal care at home

(Rollero, Glick, & Tartaglia, 2014). Hostile sexism, on the contrary, refers to the expression of

hostility toward male dominance. It is the cultural and traditional view that displays men as

superiors which also reflects in the way men exert dominance and control within intimate

relationships.
 27

CHAPTER III

RESULTS

The purpose of this study is to find out the levels of toxic masculinity and misogyny in

boys from segregated and non-segregated schools. It further aimed at understanding whether

toxic masculinity leads to misogyny. This chapter gives an overview of findings of this research.

Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive analysis was done in order to understand the sample characteristics.

Participant information on gender, education, family structure, and school system are added in

the following table.

Table 1

Sociodemographic Characteristics of Participants

Characteristics N %

Gender (Males) 100 100

Education

9th grade 13 13

10th grade 13 13

11th grade 23 23

12th grade 51 51

Family Structure

Nuclear 36

Joint 64
 28

Segregated school 50 50

Non-segregated school 50 50

In order to assess the first two research questions, t test analysis was carried out to

determine the difference of toxic masculinity and misogyny (hostile sexism and benevolent

sexism) between boys of segregated schools and non-segregated schools. Table 2 depicts

insignificant difference of toxic masculinity between boys of segregated and non-segregated

schools (t = 1.728, p = .087). Furthermore, significant difference was observed in hostile sexism

and benevolent sexism between boys of segregated and non-segregated schools (t = 4.545, p

= .000; t = -3.709, p = .000, respectively).

Table 2

Comparisons of Toxic Masculinity and Misogyny between Boys of Segregated Schools and

Non-segregated Schools

Variable M SD M SD t p

Segregated Non-segregated

1. Toxic masculinity 25.02 2.796 24.08 2.641 1.728 .087

2. Hostile sexism 19.68 5.355 15.38 4.010 4.545 .000*

3. Benevolent sexism 20.10 5.474 23.44 3.252 -3.709 .000*

*p < .05
 29

To analyze the third research question, Pearson’s product moment correlations were used.

Table 3 indicates a weak, significant, and positive relationship between toxic masculinity and

hostile sexism (r = .173, p < .05). Furthermore, linear regression analysis was carried out in

order to understand the impact of toxic masculinity on misogyny. Table 4 depicts that toxic

masculinity has a significant impact on benevolent sexism in boys (t = -2.399, p = .018); toxic

masculinity does not have a significant impact on misogyny in boys (t = 1.741, p = .085).

Table 3

Pearson’s Product Moment Correlations for Toxic Masculinity and Misogyny in Boys of

Segregated and Non-Segregated Schools

Variable 1 2 3

1. Toxic masculinity - .173* -.236*

2. Hostile sexism .173* - -.042

3. Benevolent sexism -.236* -.042 -

*p < .05
 30

Table 4

Regression Coefficients of Toxic Masculinity on Misogyny in Boys

Model Variable Unstandardized Standardized t P

Coefficients Coefficients

B SE β

1 Constant 9.513 4.634 2.053* .043*

TM × HS .327 .188 .173 1.741 .085

2 Constant 31.841 4.224 7.538 .000*

TM × BS -.410 .171 -.236 -2.399 .018*

Note: TM = Toxic Masculinity; HS = Hostile Sexism; BS = Benevolent Sexism

*p < .05

Dependent Variables: Hostile Sexism, Benevolent Sexism

 31

CHAPTER IV

DISCUSSION

The present study emphasized on toxic masculinity and misogyny in boys of segregated

and non-segregated schools. The first hypothesis stated that boys in segregated schools will have

higher toxic masculinity than boys in non-segregated schools. Findings show insignificant results

(see Table 2), which indicated that there is no difference of toxic masculinity in boys of

segregated schools and boys in non-segregated schools. One reason of these findings could be

that the boys from both the segregated and the non-segregated schools are brought up in the same

environment or culture, where men and women are assigned their own roles and have pressure to

follow. They may have similar values, similar culture, ethics, morals and principles at home, in

their friend circle, and in the institutions, which has distributed gender roles for each gender that

they have to follow; women are designated to do home chores and feminine activities, whereas

men are supposed to work and earn for home and perform difficult tasks. Women in the society

are seen as less dominant and somehow inferior and emotional. Men are seen as authoritative and

strong individuals. Living in similar environments might have caused the lack of difference

between the two school types with regards to toxic masculinity. Cohn and Zeichner (2006) found

that gender role stress had a major moderating impact on the relationship between identity and

anger. Gender role stress and masculine identity also have major main effects, suggesting that

they account for a significant amount of variation in violent behavior in men, both separately and

together. In the background of gender role socialization in men, the effects of masculine identity

and gender role stress on the initiation and maintenance of aggressive acts.

In addition, the participants were young and due to their young age, they might not have
 32

fully developed toxic masculinity. The mean age of the current sample is 17.84 years; there is a

possibility that the boys in this age range do not have the prominent or developed traits of toxic

masculinity and are too young to understand this concept. There is a likelihood that toxic

masculinity emerges in males in their 20s or 30s, when they enter adulthood and they are capable

of holding opinions. Research reveals strong associations between power over women and self-

reliance in college men between the ages of 18 to 20 years (Iwamoto, Brady, Kaya, & Park,

2018); the sample age of the current participants was younger than the sample of this research.

This indicates that if masculinity is tested in adults, it may lead to different viewpoints regarding

this phenomenon.

While studying the levels of misogyny in boys from segregated and non-segregated

schools, a significant difference was found. Benevolent sexism was found higher in segregated

schools and non-segregated schools (see Table 2). One reason for these results could be that boys

who do not study with girls have higher misogyny traits as a result of lack of understanding the

problems of girls and less interaction with the girls. They may also lack affectionate relationships

with the opposite gender, which prevents them to have any emotional attachment with females.

Having interaction with females could lead toward the development of protective behaviors for

females, which may fall under benevolent sexism. Moreover, the basic idea behind hostile

sexism and benevolent sexism is that the latter is used to reward women following conventional

gender roles and power relations (Glick & Fiske, 2001). This ideology is used to justify gender

inequality. Moreover, hostile sexism elicits hostile counter reactions among females, which is

avoided in such a young age. Studying in co-educational schools might lead to boys thinking of

benefitting the females by using their gender role and understanding them better by having more

interaction with them.

 33

Another study has found out that protective paternalism attitudes were identified by male

students more than hostile sexism attitudes (Kuchynka et al, 2017). In the light of these

researches, it can be concluded that males who have interactions with the opposite gender may

show sexism in a protective manner but not in the hostile form. Males have relationships which

may affect them on an emotional level and cause them to behave in an overprotective,

benevolent manner.

The overall analysis found a significant relationship between toxic masculinity and

hostile sexism, however no relationship was found between toxic masculinity and benevolent

sexism. Furthermore, toxic masculinity does not lead to misogyny in boys (see Table 4).

The third hypothesis stated that the toxic masculinity leads to higher levels of misogyny

in boys. The findings show that toxic masculinity has a significant, positive relationship with

hostile sexism and a significant, negative association with benevolent sexism (see Table 3).

Furthermore, it was found out that toxic masculinity predicts benevolent sexism but not hostile

sexism (see Table 4). Our cultural norms indicate that toxic masculinity and sexism create

prejudices that can be applied on the opposite gender. Therefore, females are thought of as

inferior affirming the irrational belief of self-portrayal of superiority. The person who perceived

manhood as being superior to the opposite gender would automatically think that women are

weak or need a man to support or protect them. Sometimes toxic masculinity shows the trait of

hostile sexism and sometimes in some individuals, it is shown as benevolent sexism. It may

depend on how an individual interacts or perceive other gender.

According to the current study’s findings, toxic masculinity does not lead to misogyny
 34

(see Table 4). There could other be other factors that could lead to misogyny, which is not

represented in this study. A research by Stickel and Johannes (2020) stated that the mass use of

pornography, brutal use of pornography and sexual frustration may be possible factors

underlying misogynistic attitudes. On the basis of these observations, sexual frustration was

found to be a significant factor in contributing to misogyny. Hence, such factors play a

significant role in the formation of hostile sexism, which may be lacking in the participant

population. The current study did not focus on this factor affecting misogyny in boys. Sexual

frustration is a primary cause of psychopathology in men, which increases the likelihood of toxic

masculinity and misogyny. The young age of the participants may be another factor that the

phenomenon of hostile sexism was not prevalent; due to their young age, hostility may not have

been fully developed.

Another factor that can lead to misogyny in boys could be moral values or spiritual

reasons, like the way the boys are brought up in the society with the moral belief that a woman is

not equal, or similar sexist beliefs, and spiritual reasoning. Rachel and McPherson (2019) explain

in their research that there is an important link between the theory of misogyny and moral

foundations and a negative association between sexism and empathic personality. It can be

concluded by this study that if males perceive women as inferior, they may have less empathy

for them. If an individual is taught from an early age that women are inferior beings, they might

develop a sense of dislike towards women.

Conclusion

In the light of the current findings, it can be concluded that toxic masculinity does not

differ between boys of segregated and non-segregated schools. Boys from both educational
 35

backgrounds tend to be similar in context to toxic masculinity. The upbringing and societal

teachings may not differ in segregated and non-segregated setups, indicating that boys from a

young age are taught about this toxicity.

Furthermore, benevolent sexism is found to be higher in both segregated and non-

segregated schools than hostile sexism. Young boys tend to have higher benevolent thinking

rather than hostility. Due to their young age, hostility is slightly suppressed and fully developed

and displayed in later ages.

Findings also reveal that toxic masculinity is positively linked with hostile sexism and

negatively linked with benevolent sexism. In addition, toxic masculinity leads to benevolent

sexism in young boys. Boys view maternal figures and other female figures in their households

in the common role of providers for the house. These perceptions are generally easily formulated

in the young minds of boys. However, toxic masculinity can cause hostility at an older age,

hence not prevalent in the current study’s age group.

Implications

The findings of this study will help clinical psychologists and mental health practitioners

in dealing with young clients coming with problems associated to misogyny. Moreover, these

results are a major breakthrough for parenting strategies. Parents can be provided workshops and

trainings regarding raising their children (both boys and girls) with the idea of gender equality.

Such gender neutral upbringing can help in raising boys with healthier mindsets. In addition,

school teachers can benefit with such findings as they witness this on a daily basis in classrooms.

They can learn and correct the faulty thinking patterns of young boys associated with toxic

masculinity and misogyny.

 36

Limitations

The current study provides with various information regarding the idea of toxic

masculinity and misogyny in young boys. However, certain limitations exist. A comparison with

an older age group would provide better analysis and a thorough understanding of how these

concepts develop with age. In addition, a larger sample size would bring about reliable results. A

recommendation for future researches would be to study males working in different

organizational settings to understand how toxic masculinity and misogyny take place.
 37

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Appendix:

Consent Form

Institute of Professional Psychology,

Bahria University, Karachi Campus

Relationship between Toxic masculinity and Misogyny.

We, the students of Institute of Professional Psychology, Maria Hatim, Fatima Alveera, and

Mahnoor Kayani, are conducting a research to find out whether or not the type of educational

environments nurture toxic masculinity in boys which further lead to misogyny. The purpose of
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your participation in this research is to help the researchers to complete their thesis for their

Bachelor’s degree. The records from this study will be kept confidential. No individual identities

will be used in any reports or publications resulting from the study. All data will be given codes

and stored separately from any names or other direct identification of participants. Research

information will be kept in locked files at all times. Only research personnel will have access to

the data and only those with an essential need to see names or other identifying information will

have access to that particular file. Your decision whether or not to participate in this study is

voluntary and you have the right to withdraw from the study whenever you want.

Signature: ________________________________

Date: ________________

Demographics Form

Gender: o Male o Female o Other

Age:

Class:

School Name:
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Is your school: o All boys/ segregated o Co-educational

Father’s Education & Occupation:

Mother’s Education & Occupation:

Parents’ Marital Status: o Married o Separated o Divorced o Widow/Widower

Family Structure: o Joint o Nuclear

Please indicate the degree to which you agree or disagree with each statement using the
following scale:

0 = disagree strongly; 1 = disagree somewhat; 2 = disagree slightly; 3 = agree slightly;

4 = agree somewhat; 5 = agree strongly.

A list of difficult words with their meanings is given at the end of the scale
Statements 0 1 2 3 4 5

1. Many women have a quality of purity that few men possess.

2. Women should be cherished and protected by men.

3. Women seek to gain power by getting control over men.

4. Every man ought to have a woman whom he adores.
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5. Men are incomplete without women.

6. Women exaggerate problems they have at work.

7. Once a woman gets a man to commit to her, she usually tries to put him on a
tight leash.

8. When women lose to men in a fair competition, they typically complain

about being discriminated against.

9. Many women get a kick out of teasing men by seeming sexually available
and then refusing male advances.

10. Women, compared to men, tend to have a superior moral sensibility.

11. Men should be willing to sacrifice their own well-being in order to provide
financially for the women in their lives.

12. Feminists are making unreasonable demands of men.

Word Meanings
Item 1: Many women have a quality of purity that few men possess
Possess = to have a quality/attribute

Item 2: Women should be cherished and protected by men

Cherish = to hold dear or have/show affection for

Item 4: Every man ought to have a woman whom he adores

Ought to = should

Item 6: Women exaggerate problems they have at work

Exaggerate = to increase further from normal/the truth
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Item 7: Once a woman gets a man to commit to her, she usually tries to put him on a tight leash
Put on a Leash = put restrictions
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From the statements mentioned, please select the option (only one) best applied to you and your
beliefs.

Statements Disagree Disagree Agree a Agree

a lot a little little a lot

1. It is essential for a man to get respect from 1 2 3 4

others.

2. A man always deserves the respect of his wife 1 2 3 4

and children.

3. I admire a man who is totally sure of himself. 1 2 3 4

4. A man will lose respect if he talks about his 1 2 3 4

problems.

5. A young man should be physically tough, even if 1 2 3 4

he is not big.

6. It bothers me when a man acts like a woman. 1 2 3 4

7. I do not think a husband should have to do 1 2 3 4

housework.

8. Men are always ready for physical relationship. 1 2 3 4