The National Socialist Theory of International Law

The National Socialist Theory of International Law
Author(s): Virginia L. Gott

Source: The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 32, No. 4 (Oct., 1938), pp. 704-718
Published by: American Society of International Law
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THE NATIONAL SOCIALIST THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW
BY VIRGINIA L. GOTT
College
Radcliffe
Despitea ratherwide rangeof disagreement amongNationalSocialist
writers,a general,characteristic NationalSocialisttheoryof international
law is definitelydiscernible.Hans HelmutDietze is perhapsthe most
representativeand certainly amongthemostthoroughly NationalSocialist
writerson thissubject. HelmutNicolai,ErnstWolgast,NorbertGiirke,
HerbertKraus,and G. A. Walz maybe considered as rankingnextin im-
portancefromthe pointof viewof expounding themosttypicalNational
Socialistdoctrinesin the fieldofinternational law. The wordsand deeds
oftheFuihrer haveformed, ofcourse,thebasisuponwhichthesedoctrines
stand. Althoughthe utterances as wellas the actionsof Hitlerhave not
alwaysbeenconsistent (thisis obvious in any comparison ofMein Kampf
this
withhisspeechesas Reichskanzler), fact does not seem greatlyto have
hinderedthe formulation of an international legal theory,but thenthis
theoryitselfmay appear to many,whenviewedobjectively, as likewise
inconsistent.However,justas itis possibleto dismisscertainstatements of
Hitler as embodyingwordscoinedmorefor tacticalpurposesand not
sincerelyin line withNationalSocialistideology,so it is possibleto see
throughmanyof the inconsistencies in the NationalSocialisttheorieson
internationallaw and obtaintherealvolklich-nationale pointofview.'
A characteristicofNationalSocialistwritings on law is to be foundin the
emphasislaid uponthefactthatlaw is conditioned by theformofsociety
itgoverns. Actualsocialconditions orrelationships, notabstractnorms, are
claimedto be the basis forrecognition of all law. Reality,die konkrete
Wirklichkeit,shoulddetermine thenatureoflaw,2forit is herein thesocial
forcesthatlawhasitssource.3 The fundamental it is claimed,is the
reality,
permanent divisionofmankind intodifferent racesandnationalities (Vo6lker),
thecentralfactfromwhichall thoughtmustproceed.4Thisis at thevery
core of the NationalSocialistWeltanschauung; we findthis themerising
againand againoutofthevariations oftheirthought.
Developingupon this hypothesis,the most representative National
1 NorbertGurkedistinguishes the National Socialistpointof view,aptly termedthe
volklich-nationale,
fromthe Catholicchurch(katholisch-kirchliche), thedemocraticpacifist,
themarxistand thepositivist pointsofview. In "Der StandderV6tkerrechtsuissenschaft",
Deutsche Hamburg,1937,p. 82.
Rechtswissenschaft,
2 H. H. Dietze, "Europa als Einheit,"Zeitschrift
fuirVolkerrecht, Breslau,1936,p. 295,
"nichteineabstrakteNorm,sondern diekonkreteWirklichkeit(ist)derGeltungs
undErkenntnis-
grundallenRechts."
3 H. Nicolai,Rassengesetzliche
Rechtslehre,
Muinchen, 1934,p. 27.
4 NorbertGuirke, Grundziigedes Vol1kerrechts,
Berlin,1936,p. 16.
704
THE NATIONAL SOCIALIST THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 705
Socialisttheoriesofinternational law holdthatthereare onlytwopossible

formsof social life,the Gemeinschaft (community), and the Gesellschaft
(association).' The Gemeinschaft reachesits mostperfectexpression in a
raciallyhomogeneous nation;the Gesellschaft, on the otherhand,is best
reflectedintheorderexisting betweenstates. To understand fullyNational
SocialistconceptionsoftheGesellschaft and ofitslaw,international law,it is
above all necessaryto comprehend thenatureofand theimportance given
to theGemeinschaft. It is onlyagainstthebackground ofNationalSocialist
conceptsoftheGemeinschaft and itslaw thata trueevaluationoftheirthe-
oriesofinternational law can be attempted.
The Gemeinschaft clearlyexpresses thewillofnature. It arisesfromthose
forcesout of whichall naturalformsoflifearise;fromtheimpulseofthe
blood,fromthesap ofthesoiland fromthepowerofsimilardispositions.6
The mostintense, thehighestGemeinschaft, is theraciallypureVolksgemein-
schaft.7Racial puritythusbecomesessentialto the attainment of a real,
naturalcommunity.Racial purityis furthermore ofkeyimportance, as the
law of the community is onlydiscernible by meansof the racialinstinct.
The law ofa community is a biologicalphenomenon.The lawis preexistent
inthebloodoftherace.8 The purertheracethegreater thelegalperception
(Rechtsempfinden) ofthe Volk.9
Thislawwhichis embedded intheperception oftheVolkis a naturallaw.10
ThustheNationalSocialistsheraldthereturn ofa naturallaw in theirlegal
thought. But thenaturallaw theyenvisageis in no wayreminiscent ofthe
naturallaw of the eighteenth century. It is no ideal,universalsystemof
law to be aspiredtowardby meansof man's reason. It is a naturallaw
embeddedin thebloodand soil ofa Volk. It is a naturallaw peculiarto
each nation." It is likewisenot absolute,thoughit is connectedwiththe
5H. H. Dietze, loc. cit.,p. 295, "Gemeinschaft
und Gesellsechaft
bildendie beidengrund-
undinterna-
FormensozialenLebens";E. Wolgast,"Nationalsozialismus
satzlich m6glichen
tionalesRecht",Deutsches Recht,Berlin,1934,p. 196; G. A. Walz, Wesendes Volkerrechts
und Kritikder V6lkerrechtsleugner, Stuttgart,1930,p. 241 ff. Walz would admit the
existenceofthreefundamental formsofhumanrelationship, and hencethreefundamental
types of law. In additionto the Inordinationsrecht and the Koordinationsrecht which
correspond respectively to theGemeinschaft Walzincludesa Subordina-
and theGesellschaft,
tionsrecht,based upona powerratherthanan organicrelationship, as exemplifiedin most
states.
6 H. H. Dietze, loc. cit.,p. 296; Naturrecht in derGegenwart, Bonn, 1936,p. 39. The
Gemeinechaft is, accordingto theauthor,"eineSchopfung derNatur,wachsend wiedieseaus
denKrdften, darausallesLebenentstammt: aus demDrdngen desBlutes,denSdften desBodens
undderInnigkeit gleicher Gesinnung."
7 H. H. Dietze,loc. cit.,p. 304.
8 R. Eberhard,ModernesNaturrecht ein rechtsphilosophischer
Versuch,Rostock,1934,
p. 22, "das deutsche Bluttragt in seinerNaturanlage dieIdee desdeutschenRechts."
9 H. Nicolai,op. cit.,p. 29, "derreinrassige Menschentscheidet instinkt-
sicher,
ungekinstelt,
mdssigrichtig." 10H. H. Dietze,loc.cit.,p. 329.
11Ibid.,p. 325,"EchtesNaturrecht mussarteigen, abernichtalleneigen,d.h.allgenzeinsein
wollen."
706 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW
absolute ethical conceptof truth.32 The natural law of a Volkis relative,3

forit representsthecontinually changing needsofa Volkas determined by
itsrightofexistence(Lebensrecht).]4Naturrecht is Lebensrecht.
Naturallawis unwritten,itliesintheverybloodofman;16itis a biological
naturallaw. Yet thisbiological(Rassengesetzliche) naturallaw is at the
sametimedivinelaw,forthevoiceofthe Volkis thevoiceofGod.'6 It is
onlyanotherstepto thepositionthattheGermannationis thechosenVolk.
Thisfromtheverybeginning has beentheclaimofHitler.'7 In a worldof
unequalraces,Germanystandsforthebestand strongest racedestinedto
subjugatethe weakerraces. NationalSocialistlegal philosophyclosely
thisposition. The law ofa Volkshouldbe so adaptedas to enable
reflects
the Volkto enterthecompetitive struggle betweenraces."8 Law is always
on thesideofthestronger.'9NorbertGuirke clearlyexpressesthisbeliefin
thejustuse offorceto securethedominance ofa superiornation. "Not all
nationsareentrusted in worldhistory withthesameculturaland civiltasks.
Onlythosenationsand culturescan survivein worldhistory whohave the
will and the strength to protecttheirfreedom. International law takes
fromno nationits rightto fightforself-assertion."20
The positivelaw ofa community is thenaturallaw ofthatcommunity,2'
forthestateis notthesourceoflaw but merelyformulates thelaw which
alreadyexists. Thereseemsto be no questionbut thattheleadersof the
peoplewillrightly,instinctivelydiscernthenaturallaw oftheBlutsgemein-
schaft. Everything is
which forthe good of that community is Recht,
everything whichis harmful to the Volkis notRecht. Henceall legislation
mustbe interpreted freelyandis liableto change. Positivelawis dynamic,
ever changing, in keepingwiththe naturallaw of the community.The
NationalSocialistsrefuseto be boundbya static,positivelaw,to be bound
by lettersand paragraphs.
The NationalSocialistbeliefin thedependence oflaw,bothnaturaland
positive,upontheracialcomposition ofthe Volkit governs, and theclaim
that the purerthe race,the clearerthe legal perception of the Volk,has
arousedin themindsofmanythequestionas to whatexactlytheGermans
12 H. Nicolai,Rasse undRecht, Berlin,1933,p. 13.
13R. Eberhard,op. cit.,p. 40. 14H. H. Dietze,loc.cit.,p. 329.
15Ibid.,p. 326. 16Ibid., p. 329.
17 A. Hitler,Mein Kampf,Miunchen, 1933,p. 421.
18 R. Eberhard, op. cit.,p. 14. Dr. Frank,Justizcommissar, is herequotedas sayingthat
everylaw is only"das Mittelzu demZweckderNationdie heldische KraftzumWett8treitauf
dieserErdeanzuvertrauen."
19H. Nicolai,Rassengesetzliche Miinchen,1934,p. 21.
Rechtslehre,
20N. Gurke,op. cit.,p. 16, "Nichtalen V6olkern istin derWeltgeschichtegleichekulturelle
und staatlicheLeistungaufgegeben.Nur jene Nationenund Kulturenkonnenin der Welt.
geschichtebestehen,die denWillenunddie Krafthaben,ihreFreiheitzu schutzen.Das Vol-
kerrechtnimmt keinerNationihrenSelbstbehauptungskampf ab."
21R. Eberhard,op. cit.,p. 23; A. Torok,"National8taaideeund Volkerrechtsordnung",
Zeitschriftfiir
Volkerrecht, 1934,p. 256.
mean by racialpurity. The National Socialistconnotation of the word

"race" is certainly notthatscientifically
ascribedto it. Race has beende-
finedby Gunther as a "groupofpeoplewhichdistinguishes itselffromevery
othergroupof peopleby its peculiarunionof physicalcharacteristics and
spiritualattributes,andwhichcontinuously onlyproducesofitsownkind." 22
Guntheradmitsthatat present,even accordingto thisgeneraldefinition,
thereare in themain,sevenraceswhichgo to makeup the GermanVolk.
But he maintainsthattheracialkernelof the GermanYolkis nordicand
because thisracial strainpredominates, it has moldedthe Germancul-
tureand existsmoreorless in all Germans. The conclusion is drawnthat,
the GermanVolkis nordically destined(nordrassischbestimmt).Whether
whenall ofGermany hasbecomenordic,withthesamephysicaland spiritual
characteristics,everymember ofthe Volkwillinstinctively
discernthesame
law,remains to be seen. Meanwhile, eventhoughGermany hasnotreached
its nordicdestination and the Volkcannotbe considered as raciallypure,
the Ftihrerspeaksin the nameof the wholeVolk,and thosenot endowed
withthe instinctof the nordicrace may discerna different law but one
whichtheycannotdisclose. To anyoutsiderexamining NationalSocialist
theories,theattemptto developa groupofpeoplewithessentially thesame
physicaland spiritualcharacteristics does not seemas impossible, though
it mightseemundesirable, as theattemptto put overthethesisthatwith
racialpuritycomesa unified, instinctive
conceptionofthemeansand endof
lawandgovernment.
The law of a community accordingto NationalSocialists,
is, therefore,
nottheresultofa powerrelationship whichtheyclaimis thecase ofmost
statelaw today. Powercan merelyservethelaw.23 The law is there,and
mighthas the functionof seeingthat this law has a freechance for
expression.24
Proceeding fromthisNationalSocialistinterpretation oftheGemeinschaft
and its law,is it possibleto envisageany kindofa legalorderexistingbe-
tweensuch communities?NationalSocialistsdefinitely put forthsuch a
claim. H. Nicolaimaintains thatsinceeverything livingis underthejuris-
dictionofa legalorder,therefore individualstatesalso standundera legal
order.25The basis of international law lies,accordingto Dr. Bumiller, in
theconsciousness thatthesocialrelations betweenstatesalso standundera
legalorder.26HerbertKraus findsconclusiveprooffortheexistenceofan
internationallegalorderin Hitler'sownwords. Hitlerin his 17thofMay
speech demandedthe revivalof an international legal consciousness27
(Rechtsempfinden), and, as Kraus points out, the existence of an interna-

22 H. Gunther,Rassenkunde desdeutschen Volkes,Miinchen,1935,p. 14.
23 H. Nicolai,op. cit.,p. 20. 24 Ibid. 26 Ibid.,p. 48.
26 Dr. Bumiller, "Die Nationalsozialistische unddas Problemdes V6lkerrechts",
Rechtsidee
Deutsches Recht,1934,p. 205.
27 Die RedenHitlers als Kanzler,Miinchen,1934,p. 53.
tional legal consciousnessestablishesthe existenceof an international

law.28
This international by theformof social
law is, likeall law, conditioned
life it governs.29Internationallaw governsthe Gesellschaft, a society
foundedupon the individualism and the egoismof its members.30Self-
interestis theonlybasisforaccordin thisHobbesiansociety. The Gesell-
schaftis not a naturalbut an artificial society,becauseit is the resultof
purposeful thoughtand not the natural,spontaneousexpression of will.3'
The Gesellschaftis a synthesis a posteriorias comparedto theGemeinschaft
whichrepresentsa synthesisa priori.32
NationalSocialistsdrawa distinction, as theydo withregardto thelaw
of a Gemeinschaft,betweena naturaland a positivelaw oftheGesellschaft.
as theGemeinschaft,
The Gesellechaft, has itsnaturallaw,becauseeveryform
ofsociallifehas a naturallegalorder.33Thisacceptanceofa naturallaw of
theGesellschaftmightseemto theimpartialobserver inconsistentwiththe
artificialcharacterof the international society,as well as somewhatin-
consistent withthetheoryoftheracialbasisofall realnaturallaw. But if
we consider thisnaturallawoftheGesellschaft as a naturallaw conceivedby
theGermanVolkratherthanby all themembers oftheGesellschaft,
we will
eradicatesomeoftheseinconsistencies and reflect moreclearlytheNational
Socialistposition. This naturallaw is likewise,accordingto National
Socialists,conditionedby the formof sociallifeit reflects.34 The natural
law ofthe is
Gesellschaft therefore
quite differentfrom thenaturallaw ofthe
The
Gemeinschaft.38 natural law of the Gesellsechaft originin,and is
has its
stampedby,thepurposeforwhichit exists. It servesas a meansforthe
fulfillmentofthispurpose.36
The purposeor primary dutyoftheinternational legalorderis to serve
and satisfytheinterests ofthevariousstates.37 H. Kraus aptlycalls this
a national(etatische),in contradistinction to a universal,conceptionof
28 H. Kraus, "Das Zwischenstaatliche Weltbilddes Nationalsozialismus", Juristische
Wochenschrift, Leipzig,Nov. 4, 1933,p. 2420.
29 H. H. Dietze,loc.cit.,p. 295; G. A. Walz, op. cit.,p. 241.
30 H. H. Dietze,loc. cit., p. 296. 31H. H. Dietze,op. cit., p. 42. 32 Ibid., p. 45.
33H. Richter,"Violkerrecht", DeutschesRecht,1934,p. 206. Richterdiffers fromthegen-
eral positiontaken,in thathe believesit a mistaketo talk ofnaturallaw conceptsin the
international sphere. NationalSocialistthought, accordingto him,can be appliedonlyto
theirownVolk. H. H. Dietze,op. cit.,p. 303,ascribesthispositionofRichter'sto thefact
thathe doesnotdistinguish betweentwotypesofnaturallaw,onein relationto theGemein-
schaft and theotherin relationto the Gesellschaft.
34H.H. Dietze,op. cit.,p. 20.
35 Ibid.,p. 302. It is noteworthy thatDietze admitsthatfewformsofsociallifemaybe
classifiedas exclusivelyGemeinschaft or Gesellschaft.Most formshave characteristics of
boththeGemeinschaft and theGesellschaft,butalmostalwaystheyhavea preponderance of
theoneortheother. International society,accordingto Dietze,is preponderantly a Gesell-
schaft, and is onlyin fewrespectsa Gemeinschaft. 36Ibid.,p. 54.
37H. Kraus,loc.cit.,p. 2421.
international law.38 H. H. Dietze bringsout this basic characteristic of

international law,servicein theinterest ofstateneeds,whenhe defines law
(Recht)as onlythatwhichbenefits the Volk,internationallyas wellas na-
tionally(zwischenstaatlichgenauso wieinnerstaatlich).39
Suchan interpretation oftheprimary dutyand validityofinternational
law resultsin limitingits sphereofactionto a fewexternaland superficial
rules. Thustheprimary dutyofinternational lawas envisagedbyNational
Socialistsdoesnotascribeto thatlaw a function whichhas potentialities of
growthand development, but it limits
and almost destroysany law which
mightexistbetweenstates. The nationalistic of statesare today
interests
so absolutelyopposedto each other,so irreconcilable, thatlittlereal law
can be envisagedwhichcouldserveand satisfythe nationalistic interests
ofall states.
This devotionto stateneedsis a dutyofpositiveas wellas naturallaw.
Positivelaw, to have any validity,mustconform to the preceptsof its
naturallaw. The positivelaw betweennationsis just as muchsubjected
to certainmoralcommandments and certainmoralprohibitions 40 as is the
positivelaw of a community.H. Kraus clearlysums up the National
Socialistpositionin thisrespect,"the totalitarian NationalSocialiststate
. . . knows . . . no difference
betweenlaw (Recht)and ethics (Moral)." 41
Law and ethicslose theirdistinction and becomesynonymous in theinter-
as
nationalsphere, they do forNational within
Socialists their owncom-
munity. CarlSchmittmaybe quotedin thisrespect:"For us thereis only
rightand wrong,wrongand (unsittliche) unethicallaw is forus no law at
all." 42 We are forcedto admit,however,thatthisconception of "right"
is notonecommonto mankind, butlimitedto NationalSocialists.Andthe
law,bothnationalandinternational, baseduponthisconcept, ifwe areto be
realistic,is to servenot in unitingnationsbut in clearingtheway forthe
dominance oftheGermanVolk.
Let us turnnowto a consideration ofsomeofthefundamental principles
of the naturallaw of the Gesellsechaft,to whichpositiveinternational law
must conformto be valid. The fundamental principleslargelyresolve
themselves intothreeinherent and inalienablerightsheldby states,which
it is the dutyof the international legal orderto safeguard. These three
fundamental naturalrights,accordingto Dietze, are the rightof self-
preservation (therightofself-defenseflowingfromthisright),the rightof
equality(Gleichberechtigung),43and therightto sovereignty.44 No associa-
38 H. Kraus, loc.cit.,p. 2421. 39 H. H. Dietze,loc.cit.,p. 320.
40 H. Kraus,loc. cit.,p. 2418. 41 Ibid.,p. 2421.
42 Carl Schmitt,Nationalsozialismus und Volkerrecht, Berlin,1934,p. 17, "Fur unsgibtes
nurRechtund Unrecht, unddas unrichtige undunsittliche Rechtistfir unskeinRecht."
43According to Carl Bilfinger equalitymeansforstatesthesamedegreeofindependence.
"Gleichheit und Gleichberechtigung der Staaten",in Nationalsozialistischen Handbuchfur
RechtundGesetzgebung, editorDr. Hans Frank,Miunchen, 1935,p. 117.
44 H. H. Dietze, op. cit.,p. 307. The classification herefoundmay be consideredas a
710 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL, OF INTERNATIONAL LAW
tionofstatescan dispensewiththesebasicrightssurrendered to thelaw of

nature.45Nationalhonoris, of course,inseparablyassociatedwitheach
ofthesenaturalrights.46Infringement uponthesenaturalrightsis an in-
fringement uponthehonorand freedom ofa state,and is a violationofthe
law of nature. Therefore any positivelaw incorporating such infringe-
ments,cannotbe recognized as legallyvalidbyGermany, Hitlerannounced
thisto theworldon May 21, 1935. "Thus pactswhichare nothonorable,
whichdisrespect thehonorofone oftheparties,and are henceagainstthe
naturalbasis of international law, Germanydoes not recognize." 47 It is
uponthismoraland ethicalbasisthatHitlerhas launchedhisattackupon
the Treatyof Versailles. Whatis striking, however, in the continualem-
phasislaid by NationalSocialistsuponthesebasicrightsofa nationis their
flagrantdisregardof just theserightswhenclaimedby anothernation.
howanyagreement
It is inconceivable whichmaybe reachedwithregardto
Czechoslovakiacan be considered as respecting the honorof thatnation.
The basic rightsofnationsas comprehended by NationalSocialistscan be
takenonly as a demandembodiedin the formalverbiageof traditional
international legal language,camouflaging the National Socialistlimited
applicationto whattheyconceiveto be theirownbasicrightsas opposedto,
and ifnecessary in violationof,thoseofothernations.
The demandforequality48has been mostinsistently advancedby Na-
tionalSocialists,as a demandofmorality and justice. Hitlerin hisspeech
ofMay 17,1933,strongly urgedequalityofarmaments becausehis"demand
forequality of rightsexpressedin actual facts . . . (was) . . . a demand of
morality, rightand reason."49NationalSocialistsclaimthatdisarmament
belowtherequirements forself-defense,
as Germany wasforcedto acceptby
the Treatyof Versailles,is irreconcilable
withthe equal rightforsecurity
thebasisofall international
and self-defense, law.50 G. A. Walz character-
isticallymaintainsthatthepoliticalfunctionofinternationallaw liesin the
equal guaranteeto thenationalcommunities, members oftheinternational
society, oflife(Lebensbedingungen),
ofthenecessities thatis,thefunction lies
in thebringing about and of
preservation equality."1
representative one. Thesebasicrights(Grundrechte) aretheveryprerequisite fortheexist-

enceofanylaw betweennations,accordingto Carl Schmitt,op. cit.,p. 7.
45 H. H. Dietze,op. cit.,p. 307.
46 H. Rogge,HitlersFriedenspolitik unddas Volkerrecht, Berlin,1935,p. 61. Roggecon-
sidersnationalhonoras a basic rightofinternational law, in fact,thefundamental right.
Otherauthorstendto considerit moreas an impliedright.
47 A. Hitler,speechof May 21, 1935.
48Equalityis to be understood as equalityofopportunity.H. H. Dietze,loc.cit.,p. 314,
defines ofequalityas "naturlich
theprinciple nichtirgend einemechanische sondern
Gleichheit,
die Moglichkeit dergleichen Chance." 49 A. Hitler,speechof May 17, 1933.
'I H. Rogge,op. cit.,pp. 35, 36.
61G. A. Walz, "Das Verhdltnis vonVilkerrecht undstaatlichem RechtnachNationalsozial-
istischer Rechtsauffassung", Zeitschrift
furVblkerrecht,Breslau,1934,p. 149.
This demandforequalitylodgesone of themostblatantinconsistencies

of NationalSocialistthought, forinequalityis theveryfoundation oftheir
Weltanschauung. The National Socialistworldis a worldof unequals,
betweenindividuals withina nation,as wellas betweenraces. The Ffihrer-
prinzipand the unshakeablebeliefin the superiority of the GermanVolk
cannotbe reconciledwithany demandforequality. One cannotexpect
nationsto relinquish thefruitsoftheirvictoryin answerto a demandfor
equality,whenthisstatusoncegrantedis merelyto serveas thestepping-
stonefortheGermanVolkto fulfill its destiny. The Germansbelievethat
"it is God's willthatthevictoryofthebetter,thestronger be assuredand
that thesubjugation of the the be
worse, weaker, accomplished,"52 andthey
maintainthatthevolkische Weltanschauung correspondsto theinnerwil of
nature,in thatit reestablishes "thatfreeplayofforces, whichmustlead to
a higher breeding (Thherziichtigung)untilfinallyfreewayis givento thebest
partofmankind, as theresultoftheconquestofthisearth."53 Withsuch
viewstheycannotask thatmuchweightbe givento theirplea forequality.
A grantofequalitywouldnotbe consistent with"thatfreeplayofforces"
whichseemsso desirable. If we remember thattheGesellschaftis a society
existing solelyfortheselfish interestsofitsmembers, NationalSocialistsin
theirdemandforequalitymaybe accusedofdisregarding theirmuchempha-
sized theorythat law is conditioned by the formof societyit represents.
Theymustbe accusedofnotfacingthatreality,die konkrete Wirklichkeit,
whichaccording to themshoulddetermine thenatureoflaw.
A generaldemandfora readjustment ofpositiveinternational law in line
withthenaturallaw oftheinternational associationofstates,is persistently
made. This demand,thatpositivelaw shouldcloselyreflect the precepts
ofnaturallaw,is claimedto be a dynamic, as opposedto a staticinterpreta-
tionoflaw. "If thennaturallaw standsas a permanent basis ofpositive
international law,andifthepositiveis continuously measured andevaluated
by the naturalinternational law, thennecessarilyall normsof positive
international law lose theirrigidcharacter;theybecomedynamiclaw and
fulfillthereby thedemandforjustice."54 It is in thisspiritthatHitleran-
nouncedto theworldthatthoughtheymightclingto theletterofthelaw,
he clingsto the eternallymoral (die ewigeMoral).55 NationalSocialists
thusbelievethat"naturallaw is eternal,and all paragraphs transitory." 56
Hitlerhas maintained thatGermany has theright,yes,themoraldutyto
bringabouta readjustment betweenpositiveand naturallaw,to reestablish
theartificiallydisplacednatureofthingsin theinternational world.57Ful-
52 A. ffitler,
op. cit.,p. 421. 53 Ibid., p. 422.
55Ibid.,p. 321. Reference is heremadeto a speechofHitler'sat Berlin.
56 Ibid.
67A. Hitler,in a speechmade March16, 1935,partsofwhichare to be foundin H. H.
Dietze, op. cit.,p. 307.
filling
thisduty,Hitleron March6, 1936,marchedhistroopsintotheRhine-
landindisregard ofthePact ofLocarno. He justified
thismoveonthebasis
thatit was the demandoftheprimitive rightofa Volkforsecurityofits
bordersand preservation ofitsmeansofdefense,whichcausedtheGerman
Government to reestablish
its unlimitedsovereignty
in the demilitarized
zoneoftheRhineland.58PossessionoftheSaar and hencea changeofthe
internationalorderwassimilarly demandedbyDr. Frank,on thegrounds of
itsbeingin linewiththenaturalorderofthings.59
NationalSocialistsclaim,however,thattheydo notrepudiatethesanctity
of treaties,pacta suntservanda. "That famous phrase pacta suntservanda,
the hypothesis and verybasis forthe existenceof an internationallaw, is
recognized as valid by NationalSocialistsin the international
sphere."60
Pacta suntservandaremainsa fundamental preceptof internationallaw,
but it is no longeran absolute,it has becomea relativeprecept. Treaties
are to be observedif theyembodyrichtiges Recht,thatis "rightlaw". If
theyarenotin keepingwiththeprimitive, naturallaw ofnations,thenit is
no longera duty,and is in factdishonorable, to observethem. Hitlercon-
sidersit a fundamental principleof internationallaw that the "sanctity
of treatiespresumesthe existenceof honorabletreaties"(Vertragstreue
ehrenhafte voraussetzt).61Thus Wolgastlikewise,thoughhe accepts
Vertrdge
pacta suntservandaas the juristicbasis (Geltungsgrund)
of internationallaw,
demandsthat thislaw be "rightlyorientatedto justice"62 (richtigerweise
if it is to be consideredas truelaw. Richter
an derGerechtigkeit),
orientiert
quitefrankly sumsup theNationalSocialistpositionwithrespectat least
to treatiesmade in the past. "Generallyrecognizedinternational legal
principlesand internationalcustomare recognized by Germanyonlythen
whentheycoincidewiththe legal conceptsof the GermanVolk,and not
becauseoftheirinternational character,but becausebasic,ethicalideas of
Germanlawareat stake."63 Thisis perhapsputting it a littlemorebluntly
thanmostNationalSocialistswouldbe willingto do,butit doesseemto be
a realisticpresentationof the NationalSocialistattitudewithregardto
decidingupon the legalityof certaininternational
agreements.But even
Richterrefusesto abandontheprinciple ofpactasuntservanda.Withregard
to thefuture,Richtermaintainsthattheprinciple simplymeansthatGer-
manywillonlyenteruponagreements whichit can keep. Withregardto
thepast,however, pactasuntservanda standsforrevision. "WhenTruth,
58A. Hitler,speechbeforethe Reichstag,March7, 1936,"Des FihrersKampfum den
Weltfrieden", Miinchen,1936,p. 29.
59H. H. Dietze,op. cit.,p. 113. The authorquotesDr. Frankfromhis introduction to
thefirstnumberoftheZeitschrift derAkademie Recht,1934,p. 1. "Das Recht
fir deutsches
Deutschlands aufdieSaar istdas unabdingbare, vonkeinemVertrag, vonkeinerMachtanwen-
dungzu erschitternde eivgeNaturrechtwiedas RechtderMutteraufihrKind."
60 H. Kraus,loc.cit.,p. 2419. 61 A. Hitler,speechof May 21, 1935.
62 E. Wolgast,"Nationalsozialismusundinternationales Recht",loc.cit.,p. 199.
63 H. Richter,loc.cit.,p. 208.
Honor,andFaithfulness ofthemselves demandthata oncegivenwordshould

be held,so do theyalso demandwithdrawal fromdishonest and dishonorable
commitments." 64 Thus the National Socialistinterpretation whichhas
been morerecentlyemerging wouldseem to make of pacta sunt servanda
a relative,insteadofan absoluteprinciple.
We mustconcludewith0. Koellreuter that pacta sunt servanda,in the
formoftheabsolutemaintenance ofcertainlegalnormsofinternational law,
is no longerforNationalSocialiststhehighestvalue,butthatthepreserva-
tionof states,"evenin the case of conflict," is the highestvalue (Wert).66
Koellreuter concludesfromthisthatthe clausula rebussic stantibusis the
positivebasisofall international law actuallyin force. Rebus sic stantibus
is forNationalSocialistsa vitaland fundamental partofanyinternational
law. International law exists,accordingto them,as we have seen,in the
interests ofstates,and whentheseinterests change,thestatescan no longer
be boundby meretechnicallaws.66 The violationof the Concordatwith
Romewas justified by theGermanson thegroundthat"observance ofany
treatybecomesimmoralif the evolutionof the nation is endangered
thereby." 67 The Volkischer Beobachter defended theviolationofthetreaty
withtheHoly See by statingthata "treatymustobservelivingevolution
ifit is notto becomepowerless." 68 Rebus sic stantibus has takentheplace
of pacta sunt servandain the international legalorderas envisagedby the
NationalSocialists. Pacta suntservandain therelativeformin whichit is
stillacceptedbytheNationalSocialistsowesitschangeofcharacter precisely
to thisemphasisuponand expansionof theprincipleof rebussic stantibus.
Thereare otherprinciples ofinternational law,as emphasized by theNa-
tionalSocialists,whichmustbe presented to obtaina fullpictureof their
conceptions on thissubject. Amongtheseare the demandsfora positive
systemof law as comprehensive as possible,69and forcontractlaw (Ver-
tragsrecht)within thissystem.70 Both these demands areclaimedtoemanate
fromtheverynatureoftheGesellschaft.Justas theGesellschaft arisesout
ofa contract, so also doesits positivelaw comeintoexistence as the result
ofcontract, ofagreement betweensovereign states.7" But NationalSocial-
istsare carefulto point out thatthe willof nationsas suchis notsufficient
to createvalidagreements, thewillmustbe accompanied witha communal
interest betweenthepartiestoanytreaty, andmustnotviolatetheirhonor.72
64H. Richter,loc. cit.,p. 208.
Grundriss
650. Koellreuter, derAUlgemeinen
Staatslehre,
Tubingen,1933,p. 229.
66Norbert Giirke,Volkund Volkerrecht, Tiubingen,1935,pp. 48-53.
67New YorkTimes,June1, 1937,p. 8. 681
Ibd.
69H. H. Dietze,op. cit.,p. 55. The authorspeaksof"das naturrechtliche Verlangennach
moglichst umfassender positiverNormierung."
70Ibid.,p. 309, "Ein weiteres MerkmaldiesesVolkerrechtsistdie Auffassung
des positiven
als einesvertraglichenRechts." See also G. A. Walz,op. cit.,p. 255.
72 Norbert Giurke,Grundztige des Vblkerrechts,
p. 14.
International law is formulatedbythewillofstates,whichat presentare

the only subjectsof thislaw. NationalSocialistlawyers,however,look
towardthedevelopment ofan internationallaw wherenationalities as well
as stateswillbe subjects. Dietze thinksthatthefactthatminorities are
recognized as havingsubjectiverightsunderinternational law is indicative
ofa periodoftransition.73 T6rok,a Hungarian, considerably influencedby
NationalSocialistthought, butbyno meansgoingto thefullextentoftheir
position,pointsout thatinternational law at presentis out ofkeepingwith
the sociologicalfacts. The newsociologicalfactin the modernlegal con-
sciousnessis thatthe personality of thenationis the sourceof law. The
factof the personality of the Volk (Volkspersonlichkeit)has legal conse-
quences.74 International law mustbe made to conform to thisnewfact.
ErnstWolgastsupportsthisview. "Europe,it wouldseem,mustreturnto
a personalistic, orderof life."75 SimilarlyG. A.
as well as a territorial,
Walz believesthat "the rightsof co-nationals and ofthenationality must
and willfindtheirplace in a futureinternational legal order,theyare an
essentialelementfora permanent and satisfactoryEuropeanlegalorder".7"
Contractsbetweentwoparties,thatis bilateraltreaties, are forNational
Socialistsmuchto be preferred to multilateral
treaties. Bilateraltreaties
can expressand servestateinterests, whereasmultilateral treatiesby their
verynaturereflect unimportant formulae, forany realconcordofinterests
is not possibleamongmanystates.77 SinceGermanystandsforconcrete
agreements as opposedto mereabstractsettlements, bilateraltreatiesare
demanded in thesphereofinternational law. Furthermore, becauseofthis
lackofcommoninterests amongstates,international law can onlyproduce
a few externallegal maxims (Rechtsdtze).78Internationallaw representsa
of law, as comparedto the
thin,technical,essentiallypositivestructure
comprehensive,
almostcompletely naturallaw ofthecommunity.
Anotherfundamental principleoftheinternationalordermaybe said to
emanatefromthe NationalSocialistprincipleof nationalself-sufficiency
(nationale Saturiertheit),or of racial contentedness (rassischen Selbst-
geniigsamkeit).79This principleholds that every communityshould only
comprisethoseofa similarrace,and it is interpretedas layingthebasisfor
theelimination ofimperialismfrominternational politics. Thisprinciple
is
represented as creatingan atmosphere of peace amongstthe variousna-
tions.80In orderto ascertaintherealNationalSocialistconception of the
legalorderas existing
betweenstates,itis necessaryto questionandevaluate
73 H. H. Dietze,toc.cit.,p. 319. 74A. Torok,loc.cit.,p. 257.
75ErnstWolgast,"V6lkerrecht,
eineKritik",in V6lkerbund
und Volkerrecht,
3. Jahrgang,
1936/37,p. 610.
I G. A. Walz,"Deutschlands RechtaufdieSaar", in Nationalsozialistisches
Hanrdbuch
fur
RechtundGesetzgebung, editorDr. H. Frank,Miunchen, 1935,p. 116.
t7H. H. Dietze,op. cit.,p. 306. 78H. Nicolai,op. cit.,p. 48.
4H. H. Dietze,op. cit.,p. 304. 80E. Wolgast,loc.cit.,p. 198.
Germany'sclaim that this principleof nationaleSaturiertheit createsthe

basisforthepeacefulrelationsofstates,and dispenseswithall imperialism.
Imperialismmay be generallydefinedas the extensionof the political
powerofa stateoverterritory whichis notoccupiedbyitsnationals. May
Germanyherselfbe accusedof havingany imperialist designs,or is her
aggressiveforeignpolicylimitedmerelyto the acquisitionof contiguous
on whichhernationalsreside? True,Germanyclaimsto respect
territory
theexistenceofothernationsas wellas to opposetheassimilation ofpeoples
ofdifferentracialcomposition.8'Viewedwiththisassurancein mind,one
wouldbe inclinedto admitthatimperialism mustfallby theboardin the
foreignpolicyof a v6lkisch state. Yet thereare innumerable statements,
in
made particular byAdolfHitler,which cannot be ignoredwhileattempting
to answerthisquestion. It is to theopinionsexpressed by Hitlerin Mein
Kampfthatwemustturnfora straightforward and sincereexpressionofhis
aims. The statements ofHitlerbeforetheReichstagare oflittlevalue,as
theyareinvariably opportunisticandphrasedforthebenefit ofothernations.
Such,forinstance, is thefollowingassurancegivenbyHitlerto theworldin
hisReichstagspeechofMay 17,1933:"The GermanGovernment wishesto
cometo a friendly understandinig questionswith
withregardto all difficult
othernations. It knowsthateverymilitaryactionin Europe,even pre-
sumingits completesuccess,as comparedto the sacrifices would bring
profits."
negligible 82 In MeinKampfon theotherhandHitlervigorously
maintainsthat"suppressed countriesarenotwonbackto thebosomofthe
commonReichbyprotests, butbythestrokeofa mighty sword.""I Hitler
looks
definitely beyonda Grossdeutschland he
when says that"onlywhenthe
boundariesof the Reich include even the last German . . . [a goal toward
whichHitleris at presentmakingrapidstrides]does therearisefromthe
needofits ownpeoplethemoralrightto acquireforeign soil. The plough
thengivesplace to thesword."84 Federlikewisestatesthat"the dutyof
theGermanforeign GermanVolkterritory
policyis to obtainforthegrowing
for settlementand for subsistence" (Erndhrungs-und Siedlungsraum)
.
Againto quote Hitler,"we reversethe eternalGermanicmigration to the
Southand to the West of Europe and look Eastwards."88 The German
notto remainstationary,
Volkis therefore butit is to growand to expand.
"The GermanReichas a statemustembraceall Germans;its dutyis not
onlyto rallyand to preservethe mostvaluableoriginalracial elements,
butto lead themonwards.slowlybutsurely.to a positionofdominance."87
81Dr. Bumiller, loc. cit.,p. 205. Hitler'sradiospeechof May 27, 1933,is herequoted,
"So sehr iir als Nationalsozialisten es ablehnen, aus fremdenVolkernDeutschemachenzu
wollen,so fanatischwehren wiruns gegenden Versuchdendeutschen MenschenseinemVolke
zu entreissen."
8 Die RedenHitlersals Reichskanzler, Milnchen,1934,p. 61.
op.cit.,p. 708.
83 A. Hitler, 84 Ibid., p. 1.
8 G. Feder, Das Staats und Wirtschaftsprogram der NationabsozialistischenD.A.P.,
Mtinchen, 1932,p. 13. 86 A. Hitler,op. cit.,p. 152. 87 Ibid.,p. 439.
But whatis to becomeof the non-German racesoverwhoseterritory the

growingGermanVolk wouldexpand? Wouldthe Germansstillrefuseto
assimilateforeignelements? Would this be feasible? What about the
minoritiesor possiblyeven the foreignmajoritiesin the Sudetenland?
Couldtheinhabitants ofsouthern Russiaforinstance,certainly notnordi-
callyconditioned, be drivenout oftheirland? We are no longerlivingin
an age whereemigration on a large scale is possible. The Germans,it
wouldseem,do not facethisproblem, or at least theydo not push their
positionto its logicalconclusion.The principleof self-determination is
receivingin the handsof the Germansthatsame one-sidedinterpretation
whichdisregards therightsofothernations."7,Forcealone in sucha case
becomesthe arbiter,mightmakesright. As Nicolaiplainlyputsit, "the
stronghavetherightovertheweakand theyhavetherightto demandthat
theweakgivewayto them,thattheyrelinquish landwherethestrongcan
settleand providefortheirdescendants." 88
NationalSocialistconceptions indicatea strongreactionto the juristic
idealismandnormativism ofthepost-war schools.89The monistic construc-
tionwiththe primacyof international law is vehemently opposed. That
nationallaw shouldfinditsultimatesourcein a normat thepeakofinterna-
tionallaw,is to disregard
theverybasisofall purposeful law. Kelsenwith
his "bloodless"normis antipathetic to the NationalSocialists. As much
disclaimedis theinterpretationofinternational law as beingmerelyexternal
state law, Aussenstaatsrecht.90 Internationallaw is acceptedmore and
moreas partofa pluralistic legalorder. To theextentthatno realfunda-
mental,generallegalprinciples existforall nations,but onlyspecificrules
forspecific
concrete internationalsituations, to thatextentonecannotspeak
a
of lawofnations. The Rechtsuniversum is madeofnumerous independent
legalsystems.9'This pluralistic interpretation ofinternational law is also
noticeablyheldby ErnstWolgastand G. A. Walz.92
87. Hans Kohn,in his brilliantprefaceto thethirdeditionofhis Forceor Reason,Cam-
bridge,Mass., 1938,pointsout thefundamentally inapplicableuse oftheterm"self-deter-
mination"in a worldas conceivedby fascists. "Some bear witnessto the dangerous
confusion ofthoughtproducedby fascistpropaganda,by speakingof 'self-determination.'
As if self-determination wouldbe an abstractionin itself,and not the concretepartof a
wholesystemoflibertyand individualism, indissolublylinkedup withtheliberalism ofthe
FrenchRevolutionwhichthe fascistsso vehemently combat. A r6gimedenyingliberty
and equality,cannotdemandtheapplicationofliberalism whenever it fitsintoits plansof
ruthlessdestruction ofliberalism."
88 H. Nicolai,op. cit.,p. 20. 890 . Koellreuter,op. cit.,p. 230.
90E. Wolgast,"Nationalsozialismus undinternationales Recht,"loc.cit.,p. 198.
91Otto v. Sethe,"DeutscheV61kerrechtswissenschaft seit1933," DeutschesRecht,Berlin,
1935,p. 126.
92 ErnstWolgast,"Volkerrecht, eine Kritik,"loc. cit.,pp. 607-8. G. A. Walz, loc. cit.
LawrencePreuss,in an extremely interesting and thoroughstudyon "NationalSocialist
Conceptionsof InternationalLaw," AmericanPoliticalScience Review,August,1935,
claimsthatthispluralisticinterpretation is at bottoma monisticsystembased upon the
primacyofstatelaw (p. 603).
The distinction betweenGemeinschaft and Gesellschaft,it mustbe noted,

is notuniversally madeamongNationalSocialists.93In generalit maybe
said thatthe distinction has beenstressedby theardentracialdoctrinists.
It has beenstressedby them,however,to the pointwherethe distinction
maybe considered as fundamental, and characteristicofNationalSocialist
thought. It is this denialof an international community, and the pos-
sibilityof such,whichconstitutes one of the severestblowsinternational
lawhasas yetreceived. The racialdoctrinists have,however, hadtomodify
theirlimitedconceptionof a community.Hitlerhas frequently referred
to Europeas a community of nations(V6lkergemeinschaft). As a result
of Hitler'suse ofthe word"community" and his conception ofEurope as
a familyofnations,writers haveat leastconcededthepossibility ofa more
comprehensive law as betweenEuropeannationsto the west of Russia.
Russiais, of course,notincludedwithinthiscommunity.Dietze justifies
theapplication oftheterm"community" to theEuropeansocietyofnations
westofRussiaon thegroundsthat"Europewithinthisarea is to a certain
extentcomposedof raciallysimilarpeopleswithsimilarculturalexperi-
ence."95 TheacceptanceofEuropeas a Gemeinschaft muststandas another
inconsistent NationalSocialistposition. It follows as an anti-climaxto the
much-labored distinctionbetweentheartificial and theracially
Gesellsechaft
homogeneous, naturalGemeinschaft. The veryfact that Europe is con-
sideredas beingcomposedofraciallysimilarpeoples,and is henceaccepted
as a Gemeinschaft, destroysmuchofthevalidityofanyimpressions onemay
have received as to the division of mankind intoirreconcilable and hostile
races.
It remainsforus to drawa fewobviousconclusions as to the National
Socialisttheory ofinternational law. It is basicallydistinguishablefrom the
theoriesheldbythehistorical orsociological schoolsofjurisprudence by the
premisesupon whichit is erected. The theoriesare foundedupon the
assumption oftheabsolute valueoftheVolkaroundwhichis builtthewhole
comprehensive NationalSocialistWeltanschauung. The democratic method
has proceededuponrelativegrounds;thefascistmethodis absolutein its
approach,9" it acceptsthe Volkas a naturaland eternalfact. Hence the
fundamentally unbridgeable gulfbetweenNationalSocialistand Western
democratic theoriesof international law. Anotherfundamental difference
liesin theshiftofemphasisas to thesubjectofinternational law,fromthe
930. Koellreuter, legal ordera
op. cit.,p. 228, acceptsas the basis foran international
community ofnations. Ofcoursethiscommunity is weakand has itslimits,but it exists.
Carl Schmitt,in Nationalsozialismus und Volkerrecht,
Berlin,1934,talksthroughout of a
Volkerrechtsgemeinschaft. SimilarlyNorbertGiirke,"Der Stand der V6lkerrechtswissen-
schaft," DeutscheRechtswissenschaft, Hamburg,1937,p. 57.
94A. Hitlerin hisReichstagsrede of March7, 1936.
95H. H. Dietze,loc.cit.,p. 297.
96N. Gurke,Volkund Volkerrecht, p. 15. NationalSocialismis based upon "der natur-
lichenLebenseinheit des Volkesals absolutem Wert."
ratherstaticsovereign stateto the dynamicVolk-nation.The stateis no

longersovereign, buttheVolk. The stateis onlytheoutwardformserving
theneedsofthecollective entityofthenationality, theVolk.97Andbecause
theVolk,as faras Germany is concernedat least,is notyetcomprised within
the orbitof the Germanstate,Germantheoriesof international law are
necessarilyof a politico-ethical nature,ratherthan strictlylegal; they
emphasizenotenforcement,98 butthecontentofanysystemoflaw. Time
andagainwefindthestatements thatinternational lawis essentially
political
ist
law, "Volkerrecht politisches Recht,"9 and that law must be "richtiges
Recht"before it can be considered as reallaw.
Despitethefactthatthevolklich-nationale pointofviewclaimsto cast off
all democraticideas,nevertheless it maybe said thattheacceptanceofcer-
tainfundamental rightspertaining to nations,especiallythatofequality,is
notthoroughly consistent withthisvolklich-nationale philosophy.It would
seem as thoughin the international spherecertaindemocratic ideas, or
ratherthe mereshellof certaindemocratic ideas,werestillbeingclasped,
perhapsbecausetheyare thestrongest weaponsthatcan be used by a na-
tion,whatever itspurpose. Inconsistencies are,however, in theverynature
of NationalSocialistthought. The verywordWeltanschauung denotesan
emotional,intuitive, ratherthanrationalapproachto therealmofthought
and action.'00 Certainhypotheses areacceptedas a matteroffaithand are
notto be questioned. To theextentthenthatNationalSocialisttheories
soonerorlaterdissolveintothenon-rational realmoffaith,theymustremain
to themindsofmanynevercomDletelv understandable.
97Ibid., p. 28, "YVolk
undGebietsindnicht'Elemente'desStaates,sondern derStaatistdie
Lebensform einessesshaftenkulturschaffendenVolkes."
98 N. Gurke,Yolkund Volkerrecht, p. 5.
990. Koellreuter, op. cit.,p. 227. N. Gurke,op. cit.,p. 30.
100H. Mankiewicz, Le Nationalsocialisme Allemand,Paris,1937,p. 15.

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The National Socialist Theory of International Law

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The National Socialist Theory of International Law

Author(s): Virginia L. Gott

Socialisttheoriesofinternational law holdthatthereare onlytwopossible

absolute ethical conceptof truth.32 The natural law of a Volkis relative,3

mean by racialpurity. The National Socialistconnotation of the word

(Rechtsempfinden), and, as Kraus points out, the existence of an interna-

tional legal consciousnessestablishesthe existenceof an international

international law.38 H. H. Dietze bringsout this basic characteristic of

tionofstatescan dispensewiththesebasicrightssurrendered to thelaw of

representative one. Thesebasicrights(Grundrechte) aretheveryprerequisite fortheexist-

This demandforequalitylodgesone of themostblatantinconsistencies

Honor,andFaithfulness ofthemselves demandthata oncegivenwordshould

International law is formulatedbythewillofstates,whichat presentare

Germany'sclaim that this principleof nationaleSaturiertheit createsthe

But whatis to becomeof the non-German racesoverwhoseterritory the

The distinction betweenGemeinschaft and Gesellschaft,it mustbe noted,

ratherstaticsovereign stateto the dynamicVolk-nation.The stateis no

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