P r ef a ce

A lth ou gh i nte nded p rimaril y as a textbook for stude nts o f wood

te chnology and forest utilizatio n, this book h as bee n written with
the h op e that it may also fi nd use as a source o f i nfor matio n for
.

others desiri ng a knowledge of the technica l prope rties of wood .

I n s ervi ng this obj e ctive co mprehe nsive tables prese nti ng fu nda
,
[

ment al stre ngth and related prop erties for m ore tha n one hu ndred
and fifty A m eri ca n woods as well as tables o f re co mme nded basi c

and worki ng — stress va lues for structural sp ecies have bee n in

Exa mples illustrati ng the derivatio n and
"
corp orated in the text . .

appli catio n of stress values are provided .

The treatme nt of certa in phases of the text , especially those

deali ng with fa ctors a f fe cting the stre ngth o f wood and with
worki ng stresses and the basis for gradi ng rules for structural
lumber has been m ade as co mplete as p ossible in the spa ce avail
,

able A n attem pt has bee n m ade to avoid unnecessary tech ni ca l

.

la ngua ge and descriptio ns so that it m ay be u nderstood by all

,

those i ntere sted in wood .

The prepar atio n of this book was suggested by D ea n George A

Garratt wh ose work o f the sa m
.

e title published in 1 93 1 is well

, ,

known in th e field of wood te ch nol ogy A lthough the prese nt .

publicatio n is based on G arratt s M echanical P rop erties of Wood

’
,

subsequent d evelop ments in ti mber mecha ni cs and ti mber engi

neeri ng and the i ncrease in knowl edge relati ng to the e f fects of
various fa ctors on the properties o f wood have necessitated exte n
sive revisio n The arra nge m ent and method o f treatme nt o f
.

'

its pr edecess or are retained but the presentatio n o f much of the

,

subj ect m atter is entirely new .

P a rt 1 d eals with stress and strai n relati o nships of w o od an ,

a p preciatio n of whi ch is esse ntia l to an understa ndi ng of its

me cha nical behavior M uch o f the discussio n in this se ctio n is
.

ele mentary mecha ni cs of m aterials in general although it is ,

written with spe cial refere nce to wood S tresses in co mpressio n

.
,
Vi P RE F ACE

e sio n and shear a re discussed with e mphasis on the devel op

t n ,

m e nt of stresses in bea m s and their re lati o nship to bending

m o m e nt and m o m e nt of i nertia
-

D etailed tables o f the stre ngth

.

p roperties of all co m mercial ly i mp orta nt A m eri ca n woods in b oth

'

the u nse aso ned and air — dry co nditio ns are i ncluded .

P art 2 is co ncer ned with fa ctors a ff e cti ng the m echa nical prop
“

erties of wo o d These have b ee n seg re gated i nto two m ai n

.

groups , na m ely defects and factors other tha n defects Through

,
.

out the dis cussio n an attem pt has b ee n m ade to p oi nt out as

clearly a s " possible the relati on of the var ious fa c tors to the .

serviceability of wo od and to e mphasize the i m porta nce of the

determ inable fa ctors such as de nsity m oisture co ntent and the
, , ,

m aj or defects in the selectio n of m aterial for exa cti n

,
g strength
requirem ents M a ny new ill ustratio ns of defects have bee n in
. .

corp orated A m o ng the fa ctors covered in this se ctio n are the

.

'

e f fe ct on the quality of wood of growi ng co nditio ns p osition in

“

tree heartwood and sapwood sea so n of cutti ng m ethod o f se aso n

, , ,

ing and preservative treatm e nt

,
.

P art 3 is devote d to worki ng stresses for structural lu m ber ,

although broadly co nsidered it deals with princip les that under

, ,

lie the correct use of wood for a m ultitude of purposes in w hich

its stre ngth properti es are i nvolved The signifi ca nce and ap pli .

catio n of the several factors that are i ntroduced in a dj usting

laboratory test data to a ctual servi ce co nditio ns in order to i nsure ,

thesafe and e ffi cient use of w ood in co nstructio n are co nsidere d

t
,

for structural grades of lu mber co nform i ng to the basi c require

m ents of A m eri ca n L u m ber S ta ndards N ew tab les of basi c .

stresses as re ce ntly revised by the F orest P roducts L aboratory

and of wor ki ng stresses f or stress gr ade lu m ber as re co mm e nded -

by the N atio na l Lu mber M a nufa cturers A sso ciatio n are i ncluded .

The p ri ncip le of str ength ratios u nderlying the establishment of

worki ng stresses is dis cuss ed Tables showing the re latio nship
-

betwee n defects o f varyi ng size or degree and stre ngth rati os

per m it esti m atio n of the weake ni ng effe ct of knots cr ess grain , ,

ch ecks , any loa d beari ng m e m b e r Appropriate ex

-
.

a mp les o f the ap plic atio n of worki ng stresses in determi ni ng safe

loa ds are co ntai ned in this sectio n .

P art 4 describes c urre ntly reco mme nd ed m ethods of t im ber

testi ng These are for the m ost part the methods used by the
.

'

F orest P roducts L aboratory and co nfor m to the revised sta ndard

 P REFACE vii

procedures for the testi ng of s m all clear speci me ns adopte d in

1 9 48 by the A meri ca n S ociety for Testi ng M aterials I n labora .

tories equi p ped with the necessary testi ng fa cilities the instruc ,

tio ns may be used as a m a nual in the co nductio n of me cha nical

tests .

The A ppendix co ntains a sa mple worki ng pla n for testi ng small

clear sp eci mens of wood This pla n co nfor ms to that foll owed
.

by the F orest P roducts L aboratory in its exte nsive i nvestigatio ns

coveri ng the m ech a nical p roperties of woods grow n in the United
S tates and prescribed as sta ndard by the A m eri ca n S ociety f or
Testi ng M aterials .

A list of re f ere nces has bee n i ncluded at the end of ea ch p art of

the b ook N o atte mpt has bee n m ade to prese nt a co mplete
.

bibliography of a ny subj ect and for the m ost part o nly the m ore
, , ,

ge neral and readily available publi catio ns have been listed The .

more specifi c refere nces have bee n referred to in footnotes through

out the text .

The writer a cknowledges his i ndebtedness to D ea n Garratt for

his e ncouragem ent to u ndertake the prepara tio n o f this book and
for the ma ny p ortio ns o f the for m er text that have bee n freely
used S peci al tha nk s are also due to the F orest P roducts L abora
.
-

tory to which the writer is grateful for supplyi ng m any of the

illustratio ns and for the d ata and other i nfor m atio n devel oped
,

at that i nstitutio n duri ng the p ast thirty eight years without -

which t he writi ng o f this t ext would have bee n impossib le .

A ck nowledgment i s also m a de to the A m eri ca n S ociety for

Testi ng M aterials f or permissio n to use a number o f illustratio ns
and to the N atio nal Lu m ber M a nufa cturers A ssociatio n the ,

United S ta tes D epartm e nt of Co mm erce and the A ero nautical

,

B oard for theuse of data appeari ng in their publi catio ns F i nally

. .

the writer wishes to tha nk the m any others who have co ntributed
in vari ous w ays to the preparatio n of the m a nuscript .

F REDERI CK F W A N GA ARD
.

N ew Haven , C onnecticut
Decemb er 1 9 49 .
 Co nt e n t s

P ART I . T HE B A S IC M E CHAN ICAL P R OPERT IE S oF

CLEAR w oon

Introd ucti on
Fundam ental C onsiderati ons and D efiniti ons
The S truct ural Ax es of W ood
Tensile Strength
C ompressive or Crushing Strength
Shearing Strength
Strength as a Beam i

Stresses in B eam s

K inds L oads
of

Ap pl icati on of L oads
Strength of W ood as a Be am
Stif fness
T oughness : Sh ock Resisting Ab ility
-

H ardness
Cleavage Resistance
Elastic Properties of W ood
References

P ART 2 . FACTORS A FFECTIN G T HE MECHAN I CAL

P R OP ERTIE S OF w oon

F orm ation of Chec ks

F ormati on of Shakes
Ef fect of Chec ks and Shak es on Strength

Measurem ent oi Cross Grain

'

'

Ef f ect of Cross Grain on S treng th

‘

W ood Inhab iting Fungi

-

Re quire m ents f or D ecay

 C ONTENTS

Wood Staining Fungi

-

M olds
E f fect of Decay and Sap Stain on Strengt h
C ompressi on Failures and Cross Breaks
C om pression W ood
P it ch P ock ets and P itch
'

Pitch P oc k ets
P itch and Pitch Streaks
Miscellane ous Seas oning Defects
Insect Inj uries
I nsect H oles
Minor Insect I nj uries
Bird Pec k
Ma rine B orer I nj ury
Pa rasitic Plant Inj uries
Frost I nj uries
Lightning Rings
Burls
F loccos oids
I nde nted Rings
Red Radial Streak in Spruce

Factors Other Than Defects

Estim ati on of D ensity

P ositi onin Tree
A g e of Tree
C onditi ons of Growt h g .

Microstructu re of W ood
M oisture C ontent
Re lati on of M oisture Content t o Strength of Wood
E f fect of Meth od of Drying on Strength
Te mperature
Prese rvative Trea tm ent
H eartwood and Sapw ood f
Live versus Dead Tim b er
Seas on of Cutting
Durati on of Stress
Fatigue
References

P ART 3 . W O RK IN G S TRE S S E S F OR STRU CT URAL LU M BER

Introducti on
Factors C once rned in the De rivati on of B asic Stresses
Va riati on in Strength of C l ear Wood
 C ONTENTS

Durati on of L oad
Accide ntal Ove rl oading
Bas ic—Stress Values f or Clea r W ood
E xtre m e Fib e r Stress in B e nding
C om pressi on Perpendicu l ar to the Grain
C om p ressi on P a rallel to the G rain
Max imu m H oriz ontal Shear
M odulus of Elasticity
Effect of Durati on of L oad on Basic S tress Values
-

The Basis f or Structura l Lum b er G rades

Classifi cation of Structural Lu mb er
Standard Dim e nsions
Basi c Provisi ons f or Grading Rules f or Structural Lumb er
Strength Ratios
Lim itati ons on Defects in Structura l Lumb er Grades
Working Stresses b y Lumb e r Grades
D urati on of L oad
.

C onditi on of E x p osure
App licati on of Working Stresses in D es1 g n
B ea m s
Fib e r Stress In B ending
H oriz ontal Shearing Stress
D e fl ecti on
C olumns
Sh ort C olumns
Interm ediate C olumns
L ong C olu mns
L am inated C onstruction
Tensi on P arallel t o Grain
C omb ined Bending and Ax ia l L oads
Com pression at an Angl e to Grain
Shearing Stress in Joint D etails
References

P ART 4 . TIM BER TE S TING

W orking P lan
F orm s of Material Tested
Siz e of S p ecim ens In Relati on t o Purp oses
~ of Test
M oisture D eterm ination
Machines f or S tatic Tests
Spee d of Testing Ma chine
D escrip ti on of Tests
'

Stati c Bending—Large Beam s

Static B ending—S m all Beam s
I mpact Bending
Com p ressiOn P arallel t o Grain
xii C ONTENTS

C om pressi on Pe rpendicu l ar t o Grain

Tensi on Perp endicular to Grain

Cleavag
Tension P arallel t o Grain
T oughness Test
Othe r Tests
References

AP PEND I X

N om enc l ature of American w oods

Sample w orking plan f or tests on sm all cl ear speci m e ns of Wood
 P A R T

T h e B a s ic M ech anical P rop erties of

Cl e a r W oo d

I NTR OD U CTI ON

Th e me chanical or stre ngth properties of wood measure its fi t

ness and ability to resist applied or exter na l forces B y exter na l .

forc e1 s m ea nt an y force outside o f a give n pie ce o f materia l that

tends to alter its size or shape or defor m it in any m a nner .

D e f or m atio n m ay also be brought about by force s a cti ng e ntirely

'

Withi n a piece such as are set up in wood by cha nges in its

“

moisture co nte nt but these forces are co ncer ned chiefly w ith
,

physi cal prop erties of wo od other tha n thos e s tri ctly pe rtaining to
stre ng th I t is largely the m echa ni cal prop erties that determ ine
.

the fitness Of wood for structural or buildi ng purp oses and in

nu merable other uses of whi ch fur niture vehi cles i mpl eme nt s
, , , ,

and tool h a ndles are but a f ew co mm o n exa mples I n fa ct there .

,

is hardly a si ngle use for wood that does not depe nd at least to ,

so m e degr ee on one or more of its strength propert ies

, .

K nowledge of the mecha nical prope rties of wood is obtai ned

through experi m entatio n either by m ea ns of service tests in
,

volvi ng the use oi th e m aterial under a ctual co nditio ns met with

in pra cti ce or by l aboratory exp eri m ents requiri ng the use of
,

spe cial testing app aratus F rOm the standp oint of general effi
.

ciency however laboratory tests i f prop erly co nducted are

“

, , , ,

de cid edly to be preferred F or one th ing they are m ore econOmi

.
,
-

cal of t ime and m ateria l tha n service deter mi natio ns and hence
far better adapted to the extens ive testi ng th at must be carried
on in studyi ng the natural variatio n in woo d F urther it is .
, _

p ossi ble in lab oratory exp eri m ents to esta blish sta ndard m ethods
of testi ng as we ll as to exp ress the results obtai ned in de fined
, _

units thus a f f ordi ng a pra cti ca l mea ns o f co mpar ing difi erent
,

ki nds of woo d and also m aki ng it p oss ible to sp ecif y definite siz es
’

of m ateria l f or gi v e n uses W ith laboratory m eth ods it is a l s o

.
 2 BASIC MECHANICAL PROP ERTIES OF CLE A R WO OD

p ossible to co ntrol m ost of the disturbi ng fa ctors that m ay seri

ou s ly a f fect the results obtai ned in servi ce tests .

One of the pri ncipal obj ectives of l aboratory i nvestigatio ns is

to deter mi ne values per u nit are a for the vari o us strength proper
ties of w ood These , however be cause o f the complex structure
.
,

of wo od ca nnot have a consta nt value that will be exactly

,

repeated in ea ch test eve n though no error be m ade The m ost

, .

that can be acco mplis hed is to fi nd avera ge values the a m ou nt of ,

variatio n above and below this average and the laws that gover n
,

the variatio n .

The m e cha nical properties of wood co nsidered in this b ook are :

( 1 ) tensile strength ( 2 ) co mpr essive or crushi ng strength
, ,

( 3 ) sheari ng stre ngth ( 4 ) be ndi ng stre ngth ( 5 ) sti f fness

, , ,

( 6 ) tough ness or shock re sisti ng ability ( 7 ) har dness and

,
-

, ,

( 8 ) resistance to cleavage I n co nne ctio n with these , assocI ated

.

properties of i mp orta nce are briefly treated Other properties .

,

not discussed in this text m ay also be of i mp orta nce in certal n

,

uses of woo d .

. The ter m s treng th is som eti mes used in its broa d se nse to ,
“

i nclude all the m echa ni cal prop erties of wood M ore ofte n h ow .
,

ever in com pari ng di f fere nt spe cies of wood this general ter m is
, ,

applied whe n o nly c ertai n o f the properties are i nvol ved The .

u nqualified u se o f the term in the l atter limited se nse is un f ortu

nate and co mmo nly leads to co nfusio n si nce any two uses o f ,

wood m ay i nvolve e ntirely d i ff erent properties I n every case the .

ter m should be so m odified as to de note the specifi c property or

use i nvolved as strength as a column bendi ng stre ngth sti f fness
, , , ,

or compressive strength p erpe ndicul ar to th e grai n .

I n m aki ng use o f fi gures i ndicati ng the various mecha ni cal

properties of wood f or the purpos e of co mp ari ng the relative
m erits of d if f ere nt spe cies the fa ct shoul d be bor ne in m i nd that
,

there is a co nsiderable variability in e ach ki nd of wood and that

.

s m all diff e re nces such as a few hundred pou nds in values of

,

p ou nds cannot be co nsidered as a criterio n of the quality

,

o f the ti mber I n testi ng m aterial of the sa m e spe cies and grade

.
,

occasio nal di ff ere nces as grea t as two to one are f ound in the
specifi c gravity o f individual spe ci me ns with corresp o ndi ng re
,

lated di f f ere nces in the stre ng th properties The figures g i v e n in

.

the tables in this text should not be taken as fixed va lues but ,

rather as the b est esti m ate of the true averages and as appli cable ,
 FUN D AMENTAL C ONSID ERATIONS A ND D EFINITI ONS 3

to a large nu mber of pieces collectively and not necessaril y to

i ndividual sti cks .

F UN D AM ENTAL CO N S I D E RATI O N S A N D D EFINITI O N S

S tudy of the m echa nical properti es of a m aterial is co ncer ned

m ostl y with its beha vior in relatio n to stresses and strai ns and ,

the factors a f fecti ng this behavio r A stress is a distributed force .

and m ay be defi ned as the m utual a cti On ( 1 ) of on e b ody on -

a nother or ( 2 ) of one part o f a body on a nother p art I n the .

first case the stress is ex ternal ; in the other internal The sam e .

stre ss may be i nternal fr om one p oi nt o f view and external fro m

a noth er A n external fo rce is always bala nced by the i nternal
.

stresses wh e n the body is in equilibriu m

‘
.

I f no exter nal f orces act on a body , its p articles assume certai n

relative p ositions and it has wh at is called its natural s ha , p e an d
Siz e If suff icie nt exter nal force is applied , the natural shap e and
.
.

size will be cha nged This distortio n or defor m atio n of the ma .

t erial is known as the s train Every str ess produces a corre .

sp onding strai n and withi n a certai n li m it ( see p rop ortional limit

“

, ,

page 5 ) the strai n is directly prop ortio nal to the stress p roduci ng
it 1
. The sa me i ntensity o f stress do es not, however , produce the
sa m e s tra m In di ff erent materials or in di f f erent qualities of the
sa me material N o strai n would be produced in a perfectly rigid
.

body but su ch is not known to exist

'

.
,

Stress is m easu red in p ou nds ( or other unit of weight or f orce )

per unit area S tress is expressed by the relatio nship P /A in
.

which P is the a ppli ed l oad and A is the area supp orti ng the l oa d .

F or i nsta nce i f a lo ad (P ) o f 1 0 0 0 p ounds is uniform ly supported

,

by a vertical post with a cross sectio nal area ( A ) of 1 0 square -

i nche s the resulta nt com pre ssive stress is 1 0 0 p ounds per square
,

i nch .

S train is m easured in i nches ( or other l inea r u nit ) and i s f re

qu ently é xp res sed as strai n per u nit of le ngth Thus i f a p ost
’

.
,

i nches lo ng ( L ) be f ore co mpressio n is i nches long under

'

the co mp ressive stress the total strai n ( l ) is .

i nch and the , ,

strai n p er unit of le ngth is UL i nch per i nch

of le ngth .

-
This is in acc ordance w ith the disc overy made in 1 678 b y Rob ert H ooke
1 .
,

and is kn own as Hooke s law

’
.
 As the stress i ncreases there is a corresp o ndi ng increa
-

strai n This ratio may be graphically shown by m ea ns

.

gra m or curve pl otted with the i ncre me nts o f load or

“

ordi nates and the i ncre ments o f strai n as abscissas

known as the stress—
.

strai n di

previously the d ia gra m is a

li ne ( see F ig I f the r.

si m ilar experi m ents on

speci me ns are p lotted to t
-

scale the diagra m s furnish

,

m ea ns for co mp aris o n T .

the res i st ance a m at erial offers

deform atio n the ste ep er or nea
,

the vertical axis will be the m odu

line ;
There are three ki nds of i nter
stresses na mely : ( 1 ) tens il e,
,

c ompres s i ve, and ( 3 ) sh eari

W hen external f or ces
in a dire ctio n such as to
apa rt the stress is a tensile stre
,
s

whe n exerti ng a direct thrust ten

ing to shorte n the m e mber a cor ,

pr essive s tres s I n the first i nsta n

.

the strai n is an elong a tion; in t

se co nd a s hortening W henever t .

— fo rces te nd to cause one p orti o n

F IG 1
. . Typical stress strain the m aterial to s lide on a nother a
diagram f or w ood under end wise
c ompression.
j a cent to it the a ctio n is ca ll
,

s hear The aeti on is that of

.
-

ordi nary p air o f shears W he n riveted m eta l plates slide on ea

.
“

other the rivets are sheared Off

,
.

These t hree si mple stres ses may a ct together produci ng 0 0 1 ,

p ound stresses as in fi exure or be ndi ng W hen a bow is be )

,
.

there is a compress io n o f the fibers on the i nner or concave si

and a n elo ngatio n of the fibers o n the outer or c o n
.
_
vex si !

There is a lso a tende ncy o f the various fibers to slide p ast 0

a nother in a lo ngitudinal directio n p roduci ng a shear ing stre
,

I f the b ow were made o f two or more separate pieces o f eqi

le ngth it would be note d on bendi ng th at slippi ng o ccurred alo
,
6 BASIC MECHANICAL PROP ERTIES OF CLEAR WOOD

R esil i ence is
the a m ount of work do ne on a b ody in d e for mi ng
it W ithin the proportio nal li mit it is als o a m easure of the p oten
.

tial e nergy stored in the m ateri al and represents the a m ount o f

work the m aterial w oul d do on bei ng released fro m a sta te of
stress T his may be gr
.
_
aphi cally represe nted by a di agra m in
which the abscissas represe nt the a m ou nt of defl ectio n and the
ordi nates the f orce a cti ng The area i ncluded between the .

stres s strain curve and the horizo nta l axis represents the w ork
-

done ( see F ig
-
I f the defor matio n is expresse d in i nches
.

'

and the f orce in p ou nds the result is express ed in i nch p ounds

,
2 -
.

I f the proportio nal li mit is take n as the apex of the tria ngle the ,

area o f the tria ngle will represent the el astic resil ience, or w ork to '

p rop ortional l imit of the sp eci m e n This am ount of work can be

, .

applied repeatedly u nder a g iv en loading without i nj ury to the

speci men B eyo nd the prop ortio nal li mit the work do ne in d e
.
,

form i ng a body always exceeds the work given back by the body
whe n the de f ormi ng f orce is re moved since a certai n a m ou nt is ,

expended in produci ng permanent de form atio n and in other ways .

Work to maximum l oad together with that to prop orti o nal li m it

, ,

serves in p art to i ndi cate the co mb i ned be ndi ng streng th and

,

tough nes s o f a material .

P er ma ne nt set is due to the p las ticity of the materi al

. A per .

f ectly plastic substa nce would have no elasticity , and the s m all
est forces would cause a set Lea d and m oist clay are nearly .

plasti c , and woo d p osses ses this property to a greater or lesser

extent The pl asti city o f woo d is i ncreased by wetti ng heating
.
‘

, ,

and especi ally by stea mi ng and boili ng W ere it not f or this .

property it would be i mp ossible to dry wood without destroyi ng

,

co m pletely its cohesio n owi ng to the irregularity of shri nka ge

,
.

A substa nce that can u ndergo little cha nge In shape without
breaki ng or rupturi ng is s ai d to be brittl e Chalk and gl ass are .

co mmon exa mples of brittle m aterials The word brash is used .

'

to de s crib e this co nditio n in wood A brash wood breaks sud .

-

denly with a cl ea n i nst ead of a spli ntery f ra cture and without

warni ng I t is not s atisfa ctory f or uses that i nvolve shock or
.

Sudde n appli catio n o f load .

Th e measure o f the sti f fness o f wood is ter med the modul us of

A n inc h p ound is
2 -
the am ount of w o rk re q uired to raise one p ound a
distance of one inch .
 F UNDAMENT AL C ONSID ERATI ONS AND DEFINITI ONS 7

el asticity. I t is the ratio of stress per u nit of area to the defor ma

’

tion p er u nit of le ng th
stress per u nit area

M odulus of elasti city is a value i ndicative of sti f fness , not of

stre ngth and applies o nly to co nditio ns withi n the proportio nal
,

li mit I t is approxi m ately the sam e whether derived fro m tests

.

in co mpressio n p arallel to grai n or fro m static be ndi ng tests 3

‘

-
.

Numeri cally it is the loa d required to stretch a piece o f m ateria l

,

one i nch square in cross se ctio n to t wi ce its origi nal le ngth pro ,

vided it is not stressed beyo nd the prop ortio nal li m it S i nce it is .

i mp ossible to f ulfill this co nditio n this method of co nceivi ng the ,

m odulus of el asticity is theoreti cal A more pra ctical mea ns of .

visual izi ng the m odu lus of elasticity m ay be f ur nished by a nother

exa mp le A l by l i nch square stick of wo od with a modulus of
.
- - -

elasticity p ar allel to grai n o f pounds per square i nch

would bei ncreased in length by o f its ori gi nal le ng th

wh e n subj ected to a tension l oad o f one p ou nd W ithin the pro

'

portio nal li mit i ncreas es in length resulti ng fr om other l oads

,

would be prop ortio na te to this Corresp ondi ng d ecreases in .

le ngth would res ult fro m equivalent co mpressive loads .

A high m odulus o f elasti city i ndi cates a s ti f f m aterial Thus .

in unseaso ned wood tested in stati c be ndi ng it varies from

pounds p er s quare inch f or norther n white cedar and ,

p ou nd s per qu re i nch f or bla ck will ow to p ou n ds

‘

s a -

per squ are i nch f or l ong leaf pi ne and -

p ounds per square ,

i nch for pi gnut hickory The v alues derived fro m tests o f sm all
.

bea ms in the air dry co nditio n are often much greater bei ng well
-

over p ou nds per square i nch f or So me o f our co mm o n

w oods These values are sm all when comp ared with s teel whi ch
.
,

has a m odulus o f elasti city o f ab out pounds per square

i nch I n g eneral , co ni fers ra nk higher in sti ff ness than h ard
.

woods of the sa me approximate de nsity .

3 As a resu lt of shear def ormati ons inv ol ved in the b ending of b eam s
“

m odu l us of elasticity as derived from t ests in c omp ression p ara ll e l t o grain

is usua lly ab out percent highe r than that ca l cu l ated from static .

b ending t ests of s ma ll b eams D esig n of wood aircraf t s tructures ANC

Bul 1 8 Arm y—
,

Navy—
.

.
.
,
Civil Com on Aircraft Design Crite ria Aero B oard . ,
.
,

Washington 1 944 p 2 0 , , . .
8 B ASIC MEC H ANICAL PROP ERTIES OF CLEAR WOOD

T HE S T RU CT URAL AXE S OF W OOD

Wood di f fe rs f ro m m ost materials of construction in its fu nda
m e ntal orthotrop ic chara cter Unlike m aterials such as steel that
.

are essentially is otropic th at is p ossessi ng the sa me mecha ni cal

, ,

Y ale P hoto

F IG 2
. Phot omicrogra p h of a sm all b l oc k of w estern heml ock At the top .

is the cross section show ing to the right the summ erw ood of one season s
’
,

grow th and to the left the springw ood of the next season The other tw o sec
,
.

tions are l ongitudinal and show the fibrous character of the w ood T o the .

left is the radia l section with three rays crossing it T o the right is the tan
.

g ential section on w hich the rays a pp ea r as vertical strings of b eads X 3 5

“

. .
,

The l ongitudina l ax is is p arallel to the direction of the fi b ers ; the radial axis
p erp endic ul ar to the fi b ers and p aral l el t o the l ength of the w ood rays ; and the
“

tangential a xis p erp e ndicular to the fib ers and paral l el to the end of the grow th
ri ng as see n on the c ross secti on .

and elastic properties in all dire ctio ns Wood is characterized by

,

th ree mutually perpendicular axes o f symmetry Th ese axes cor .

resp ond to the longitudi nal radial and ta nge ntial directi ons o f
, ,

the wood s tructure as shown in F ig 2 Their significa nce 1 s due

. .

fu ndamentally to the orie ntatio n of the structural u nits o f fibers , .

ray cells , and other elements o f the wood The stre ng th and .
 TENSILE STRENGTH 9

elastic properti es o f wood di ff er in these three di f fere nt directio ns ,

a s dis cussed in the followi ng sectio ns I n mos t properties how .

,

ever the m aj or di f fere nces are de noted by stre ngth and elasti c
,

values p arallel and perpendi cular to the grai n as the differences ,

between these properties of wood in the ta ngential and radia l

dire ctio ns are in general relatively slight
, , .

TEN S ILE S T RE N GTH

T ension results when a force tendi ng to pull the m aterial ap art

is applied to a body This external force is co mmuni cated to the
.

i nterior so that any p ortio n of the m aterial exerts a tensile f orce

‘

on the r em ai nder the ability to do s o dependi ng on the prop erty

,

o f cohesio n The result is an e l ongatio n or stretchi ng o f the

.

m ater i The actio n is the

”

al in the d ire cti o n of the ap p l ied f orce /

.

opposite of compression
’

W ood exhibits its greatest strength in tension paral l el to the

g rain, and it is very u n co mm o n in pr a cti ce f or a clear straight
grai ne d sp eci m e n to be pull ed in two le ngthwise This is due to .

the di ffi culty of maki n g the end faste ni ngs secure e nough f or the
,

f ull te nsile stre ngth to be brought i nto p lay before the faste ni ngs
shear off lo ngitudi ally
n 4 .

W hen lo aded in direct te nsio n strai n is pr op ortio nal t o stress ,

virtu ally to ultim ate load and there is no well defi ned prop or -

tional limit bel ow this poi nt

'

W ood is a ccordi ngly cap able o f.

o nly a slight a m ount o f yield prior to ulti mate f ailur e in dire ct

tensio n .

The tensile strength of wood p arallel to the grai n depends on

the stre ngth O f the fibers and is affected not o nly by the nature
and di m e nsio ns of the woo d ele m e nts but also by their arra nge

me nt I t is gr eatest in strai ght grai ned spe ci me ns with thi ck

.
-

walled fibers Cross grain of any ki nd m aterially reduces the

.

tensile strength of wood si nce the te nsil e strength perpe ndicular

,

to the grai n is o nly a s m all fra ctio n of that parallel to the grai n .

Th e ratio oi tensile stre ngth p arallel to the grai n to that per

-

pendicul ar to the grai n is co mmo nly as high as 40 to 1 .

Relatively few data are availab le on the true te n sile stre ngth
4 Because his diffi culty tests are not usually m ade in tensi on paral l el
of t .

to the grain The standard procedure f or m aking such t ests is describ ed

.

under Timb er Testing page 3 1 9 ,

.
10 BA SIC MEC H ANICAL PROPERT IES OF CLEAR WOOD
BASIC MECHANICAL PROP ERTIES OF CLEAR WOOD 11
'

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12 B ASIC MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CLEAR W OO:

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14 B ASIC MECHANICAL P R OP ERTIES OF CLEAR WO OD

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BASIC MECHANICAL P R OPERTIES OF CLEAR W OOD 15
16 BASIC MEC H ANICAL PROPERT IES OF CLEAIR W OOD

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BASIC MECH ANICAL P RO P ERTIES OF CLEAR WO OD 17
18 B ASIC MECHANICAL PR OPERTIES OF CLEAR I

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B ASIC MECHANICAL P R OP ERTIES OF CLEAR W OOD 19

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20 BASIC MECH ANICAL PROPERTIES OF CLEAR WO OD

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22 B ASIC MECHANICAL P R OP ERTIES OF CLEAR WOOD

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 B ASIC MECH ANICAL P R OP ERTIES OF CLEAR WOOD 23

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24 BASIC MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CLEAR WO OD

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B ASIC MECHANICAL P RO P ERTIES OF CLEAR WOOD 25

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26 B A SIC MECHANICAL PR OPERTIES OF CLEAR WOOD

of w ood . d eriv ed from st atic

T he v al ues f or m od u l u s of ru p u re, t
“

b end ing t ests show n in T abl es 1 a nd 2 ( 0 0 1 5 ) m easure the

, .

ap p rox imat e m ax im u m t ensil e s tres s at the conv ex surf ace of

b eams t est ed in the green and air dry cond itions and are com -

monly used a s a conserv ativ e ex p res sion of t ensil e s trength p aral

l el to the g rain .

F ail ure of w ood in t ension p arall el to the grain p racticall y

al w ay s occu rs in dry w ood w hen su bj ect ed t o fi exu re or b end ing ,

ex cep t p erhap s in p ieces t hat are s o d eep f or their thick ness t hat

b u ckl ing occurs and in pieces t hat a re so short in rel ation to d ep th

that horiz ont al shear occurs ( see F ig 1 5f ) The t ension p ortion . .

of the fract ure is nearl y th e s ame as thou g h the p iece w ere p u ll ed

in tw o l engthw ise The fib er w all s are t orn across obl iq u el y

.

and u su all y in a sp iral d irection There is pract ically no p u ll ing

.

ap art of the fib ers f rom ea ch ot her th at is no sep arat ion o f th e ,

,

fi b ers al ong their w all s reg ardl ess of their thickness The nature
,
.

of tens ion f ail ure is a pp arentl y not af f ect ed by the m oistu re con

d it ion of the sp ecimen at l east not so mu ch so as the other ,

st rength v al ues 5 .

T ens ion p erpendicul ar t o th e g rain is cl osely rel at ed t o cl eav ag e

res i s t ance T he s trength of a sp ecimen of w ood in this resp ect is
.

d et ermined by measuring th e f orce ( acting p erp end icu l ar to the

grain) required to p rod uce f ail ure ( s ee F ig 8 4 and p age .

This m ax imu m l oad ( p ou nd s ) d iv id ed by the m inim um area ov er

w hich it is d istrib u t ed ( surf ace of f ail u re s qu are inches ) g iv es ,

the t ens il e S trength ( p ou nd s p er s q u are inch ) T abl es 1 and 2 .

( col 1 7 ) show the av erag e streng th in t ension p erp end icu l ar to

.

the g rain f or a l arg e nu m b er of A merican w o od s in the g reen a nd

air dry cond it ions T he s trength v al u es d et ermined in this w ay
-

are of u s e in est im at ing the resist ance of t im b er to the sp l itt ing

a ct ion of b olts and other f ast ening s .

T he d irect ion of the su rf ace of f ail u re w ith resp ect t o the

g row th ring s m ay hav e more or l ess influence on the strength of
w ood in t ension p erp end icu l ar t o the grain I n m ost w ood s the .
”

streng th is g reat er w hen th e su rf ace of f ailure is t ang ential

( p arall el t o the grow th rings ) than w hen it is rad ial ( at right
angl es to ring s ) but not abl e ex cep t ions are f ound esp ecially in
, ,

air dry m at erial and wood ch aract eriz ed by int erl ock ed g rain
-
.

5 W arren D . B rush ,
A m icros cop ic stu dy of th e m echanical f ailu re of

w ood , R ev F or S erv I nves tig a tions ,

. . . W ashing t on, V ol . 2, 1 9 13, p . 35 .
 C OM P RESSIVE OR GRUSHIN G STRENGTH 27

W hen w ood f ails in this f orm of t ens ion the thin fib er w all s are
t orn in tw o l eng thw ise w hereas the thick w all ed fib ers are u su ally -

p u ll ed ap art al ong the p rim ary w all .

CO M P RE S S I VE OR CRU S H I N G ST RE N G TH
Com pres sion p erpendicul ar t o th e g rain, or sidew is e comp res
s ion, is v ery cl osely rel at ed t o h ard ness and transv ers e shear
’

There are tw o w ay s in w hich w ood is su bj ect ed to stres s of this

k ind nam el y : ( 1 ) w ith a load acting ov er the ent ire up p er area of
,

the sp ecimen and ( 2 ) w ith a l oad concentrat ed ov er a p ort ion of

,

the area T he l att er is the cond it ion m ore com m onl y m et in

.

p ract ice as f or exa mp l e w h ere a p ost rest s on a horiz ont al sill

, , , ,

or a rail rest s on a cros s t ie and is u s ed in m ak ing t est s in com

,

p ression a cross the grain ( see F ig T he form er cond ition .

,

how ev er giv es the t ru e resist ance of the w ood to simp l e cru shing
,
.

T h e fi rs t ef f ect of comp ression p erp end icu l ar t o the g rain is t o

comp act the fib ers the l oad g rad u all y increasing as the d ens ity of
,

the mat erial is increas e d I f the Sp ecim en l ies on a fl at su rf ace

“

and the l oad is app l ied t o only a p ort ion of the upp er area the ,

b earing p l at e ind ents the w ood cru shing the up p er fib ers w ithou t
-

af f ect ing the l ow er p art A s the l oad inc. reases the p roj ect ing ,

end s somet im es s p l it horiz ont ally T he p roj ect ion of the end s
.

increas es the streng th of the m at erial d irectl y b eneath the com

“

p res sing w eight by int rod u cing a b eam act ion w hich hel p s sup
p ort the l oad How ev er this infiu ence is ex ert ed f or a short
.
,

d ist ance only .

I n t ests on this typ e of comp res sion the onl y strength v al u es ,

d et ermined are th os e f or fi ber s tres s a t p rop ortional limit w hich ,

rep res ent s th e great es t stres s t hat the m at erial w ill t ak e w ithou t

acqu iring a p erm anent s et ( f or m ethod of d et erminat ion see p a g es

T he resu lt s of su ch t ests on A m erican w ood s in the

green and air d ry cond itions are ind icated in T abl es 1 and 2
-

( col. These v al u es are u sed in calcu l at ing b earing areas f or

b eams j oist s and the l ik e and al so serv e to indicate the rel ativ e
, , ,

u t il ity of d if f erent s p ecies f or rail road t ies roll ers et c , ,

.

Compress ion p aral l el t o th e g rain, or endw is e comp res sion, is

inv olv ed in m any u s es of w ood , s u ch as col u mns , p rop s , and p ost s ,
in w hich it is s u bj ected t o load s that t end t o cru sh or shorten it
l engthw ise . How ev er in the l ong
,
co um ns ,
l that is , p ieces in
28 B A SIC MECHANICAL PROP ERTIES OF CLEAR W OOD

w hich the l eng th is great comp ared w ith their l east cross sectional -

d imension b end ing is introd uced b ef ore the fu ll crushing or com

,

p ressiv e strength is reached a nd the f ail ure is by s id ew is e b end ing

,

or fl exure inst ead of by cru shing or sp l i

,
tting I n such col umns
.

the critical load is k now n as the E ul er l oad ,

any l oad in ex cess of w hich w ill cau se f ail u re

by b end ing How ev er if a l at eral d efl ection

“

.
,

is g iven a l ong col umn or if suffi cient crook is

p res ent it m ay be m ade to d efl ect u nd er an
,

end l oad l ess t han its cri t ical Eu l er l oad Re .

m ov al of this l oad w ill p erm it the l ong col umn

t o resu me its u nbent l p osition A f amil iar .

inst ance of this action is af f ord ed by a fl ex ibl e

.

w alk ing st ick .

T he l at eral b end ing of a l ong col umn carry

ing its fu ll Eu l er load and hence near f ail ure
, ,

p rodu ces a com b ination o f b end ing w it h com

p ressiv e st res s ov er the section the comp res
“

siv e stress b eing m aximum at the s ect ion of

great est d efl ection on the concav e s id e T he .

conv ex s urf ace is und er t ension as in an ord i ,

nary b eam t est ( see F ig I f the s ame

.

st ick is b raced in such a w ay th at fl exu re i s

p rev ent ed its su ,p p ort ing s trength is increased

enormous l y s ince the comp ress iv e stress then
,

a ct s u nif orm l y ov er the section and f ail u re is ,

-

by cru shing or sp l itt ing as in small bl ock s

'

.
,

I n a col umn free to b end in any d irection the

d efl ect ion w ill be seen in the d irection in w h ich
the col umn is l east Stif f Th is sid ew ise b end ing
.

F IG 3
. . Unequal can be ov ercome in stu dd ing p rop s and com , ,
d is t r ib u t io n o f
p ression m em b ers of tru ss es by b racing The .

s tress in a l ong col

strength oi a col u mn al so d ep end s t o s om e
umn du e t o l at eral
.
,

ext ent on w het her the end s are free to turn or

bending .

are fix ed .

I n d et ermining the s trength of w ood f or col umns and simil ar

us es the comp l ex ity of the comp u t at ions d ep end s p rim aril y on
,

the ratio of the u nsupp ort ed l ength of the m emb er in quest ion t o
its l east cross sectional d im ension
-
S hort col u mns w ith u nsup
.
-

p or t ed l en gt h l ess t ha n el ev en t imes t he l eas t d im ension hav e ,

30 B A SIC MECHANICAL PR OP ERTIES OF CLEAR W OOD

cru shin g strength are simp l er easier to m ak e and l ess exp ensiv e , ,

than s ev eral oth er ty p es of tests th ey are f requ ently the onl y ,

ones m ad e in s tu d y ing the ef f ect of v ariou s cond it ions and t reat

m ent s on the strength of w ood

’

T hese test s are not necessarily .

rep res ent at iv e of the oth er strength

p rop ert ies how ev er and m ay , ,

occas io nall y l ead t o erroneou s concl u s ions F or ex amp l e it w as .

,

f ound that a cert ain heat treatment increased the crushing

st rengt h of som e t im b ers 1 0 p ercent w hil e their resist ance to ,

imp act w as d ecreas ed 5 0 p ercent 6 .

W hen a short colu mn is comp ressed along the grain u ntil it

b reak s the f ail ure t ak es p l ace in s ev eral p rog ressiv e st ag es The
,
.
.

fi rst ind ication of inj ury is the f ormat ionin the cell w all s of fi ne
crack l ik e l ines w hich Rob inson " has t erm ed s lip p l anes or s lip
-

lines These s l ip p l anes w hich are f ound to be mu ch m ore nu

.
,

m erou s in p art s of cell w alls that h av e actu all y f ail ed in comp res
sion t han in ot her p art s are not consid ered as d efi nit e reg ions of ,

f ail ure how ev er since they are of t oo common occurrence in

’

, ,

w ood s not su bj ect ed t o t est ; in su ch cases t hey are p rob abl y du e

to comp res siv e stress es resu lting from the w eight of the t ree w ind ,

a ct ion f ell ing or rou gh h andl ing or u nev en l ong itu d inal sh rink
, ,

A s the comp ression of the w ood is cont inu ed the s l ip p l anes

‘

ag e .
,

b ecome connect ed in more or l ess d efi nite microscop ic l ines or

'

z ones extend ing either horiz ont all y or in an incl ined d irection
,

across the g rowt h ring s ( m ore oft en the l att er esp eciall y in su m ,

m erw ood ) T hese l ocal iz ed inj uries are recogniz ed a s the fi rst
.

defi nit e ind ications of f ail ure and are t erm ed the initial f ailu res s 9 ’

( see d iscu ssionof C omp ress ion F ailu res a s d ef ect s p age ,

Fo ll ow ing the form at ion of the init ial f ail ures the fib ers ( tra ,

6 N ew lin and T R
J A . . . . C . W ils on M echanical , p rop erties o f w oods

g row n in the United S ta tes ,

U . S . D ep t . Ag r. Bu l 556
.
, W ashing ton, 1 9 1 7 ,

p . 16 .

7 Robins on T he m icros cop ical features of m echanical strains in

W .
,

t im b er and the b earing of these on the s tru ctu re of th e cell w all in p lants ,

P hil Trans R oy S oc , L ond on V ol 2 1 0 1 92 0

. . . .
,
.
, .

S J L B ienf ait R elat ion of t he m anner of f ailu re t o the s tru ctu re of

. .
,

w ood u nder com p ress ion p arallel t o the g rain Jou r A g r R es W ashing t on
—
,
. .
, ,

V ol 33 .
,
J u ly 15 1 9 26 , p p 1 8 5 7
,
. .

9
T he p its in the w al ls of t he fib ers
or t ra cheids w ere assu m ed by Jaccard ‘

( P Jaccard , Etu de anat om iq u e des b ois com p rim és , M it d S chw Cen

'

. . .
.

t ralanstalt f d F orst V ersu chsw esen, Z u rich , X Band 1 Heft , 1 9 1 0 ) t o

. . .
,

f orm the p laces of l east resistance in the cell w alls and t o be the p oints at
w hich the failures beg in, bu t Bienfait ( f ootnote 8 ) f ound no ev idence to
 C OM P R ESSIVE on CRUSHING S T RE N GT H 31

d in conif ers ) adj acent to the p oints of rup tu re w hich ac

obei s t as ,

holl ow tu b es b ou nd closel y t og ether either ( 1 ) bu ck le or ( 2 ) ,

crinkle p rod u cing gros s f ail u res d ist inct t o the u naid ed ey e
,
In .

“
the fi rs t case the fib ers a re b ent in su ch a w ay th at the p art s
orig inall y in one ax ial l ine are no l ong er in th at p os ition bu t , ,

w hil e rem aining p ara ll el to one another hav e b ecom e d isp l aced by ,

a cert ain ( p erhap s sm all ) d ist ance the act u al b u ckl e f orming the
’ ‘
,

connect ion b et w een the tw o p art s Crinkl ing resu lt s in a p er .

m anent d ef orm at ion ( t el es cop ing ) in the p art that crinkl es but ,

the p art s of the fib ers ab ov e and b el ow rem ain in the s am e l ine

”l 0
or al mos t s o .

Crinkl ing is typ ical of dry t hin w all ed cell s and comm onl y ,
-

charact eriz es the gros s f ail u re of s eas oned w hit e p ine s p ru ce and , ,

b al sa w ood I t is al so not ed in the early s t ages of gros s f ailure

.

in the sp ringwood ( earl y w ood ) of those w ood s su ch as t he hard y

, ,

p ines D ougl as fi r and the ring p orou s hard w ood s w hich ex hib it
-

, , ,
,
”

a d ecid ed contrast in d ensity b etw een the tw o p ort ions of the

grow th ring ; in the fi nal st ag es of f ail ure how ev er the springw ood , ,

b u ckl es to ad ap t itself to the contour of the g eneral f ailure .

B u ckl ing on the other hand is charact erist ic of thick w all ed

, ,
-

cell s su ch as m ak e u p the b u lk of the d ense summ erw ood ( l at e

,

w ood ) of sou thern p ine l arch hick ory oak and nu merou s ot her , , , ,

W ood s ( s ee F ig I n su ch w ood s it is the summ erw ood t hat

.

carries m ost of the com p ress iv e l oad I n sp ecies in w hich the .

fib er w all s s how all grad ations of thickness— in other w ord s ,

W here the tra nsition f rom the thin w all ed cell s of the earl y w ood -

to the thick w all ed cell s of the l at e w ood is g rad u al or w here the

-

thick w all ed el em ents are d isp osed more or l ess uniform l y

-

throu ghou t the grow th ring ( as in m ap l e b eech g um and sim il ar , , ,

d if fu se porou s h ard w ood s ) —the load is more ev enly d istrib uted

-

ov er the cross s ect ion and thetw o k ind s of f ail u re nam el y b u ck , ,

l ing and crinkl ing grad e int o each other I n s om e cases l ong i
, .

tu dinal sp l it s occu r w hich isol at e b undl es of el em ent s by g reat er

or l ess int erv al s .

su p p ort t his cont ention A nother theory h olds that the p lanes
. of contact
of ray s and fibers f orm p oints of w eakness at w hich failu res s tart , bu t
exam inat ion rev eals th at any s ep arat ion at t hese p oints t akes p lace only
aft er th e bu ckling of t he fib ers has w ell st arted .

10 Bienfait , f ootnote 8, p . 1 88 . These t erm s are u s ed in the sam e sens e

by Robinson, ( op cit ) , and are r esp ectiv ely sy nony m ou s t o the t erm s
“

”
“
b ending and
“
bu ckling u s ed by B ru sh, f ootnote 5 .
32 BASIC MEC H ANICAL P R OPERTIES OF CLEAR WO OD
 COMP RESSIVE OR CRUSHING STRENGT H 33

M oisture inw ood d ecreases the st if fness fib er w all s and of the

enl arg es th e reg ion of f ail ure T he curv e w hich the fi b er w all s
.

m ak e in the reg ion of f ail ure is m ore gradu al and al s o m ore irreg u
'

l ar in w et w ood t han in dry I n v ery dry w ood fa ilure oft en

.
,

occurs by spl itt ing b ef ore any not iceabl e b uckl ing t ak es p l ace
“

Such sp l itting occurs by a t earing of the fib ers or rays and not by

sep arat ion of the ray s from the adj acent el ement s ( s ee F ig

Ex amination of t est sp ecim

.

ens w hich hav e f a il ed in end w ise

compression w ill p rob abl y rev eal cons id erabl e v ariat ion in the
-

ap p earance of the gross f ail ures I n t imb er t esting comp ression

.
,

f ail ures are cl as sifi ed as f oll ow s

1 Crushing , in which the p l ane of rup ture is app rox im at el y
.

horiz ont al ( F ig This typ e of f ail ure f requ ently occurs

.

w hen the end s of t est sp ecimens are rel at iv ely w et .

2 W ed g e s pl it, in w h ich shearing and s p l itt ing f ail ures are

.

comb ined ( F ig 1 5 h)
"
.

3 S h earing ,in w hich the p l ane of rup ture m ak es an ac ut e angl e

.

w ith the ax is of the sp ecimen ( F igs 4 and 1 5 i) T his is the . .

-

norm al typ e of failu re and the one m ost oft en encount ered 1 1 It .

is d is cussed in d et ail in the f oll ow ing p aragrap h s .

4 S plitting , in w hich fa il ure is ch aract eriz ed by a t earing of

.

the fi b ers al ong a v ertical p l ane ( F ig Th is f orm occasion .

all y occurs in v ery dry sp ecimens

m
.

5 Compres sion and sh earing p arall el to g rain, a f or

. that
u su all y Occu rs in cross g rained m at erial ( F ig -
T he t est .

resu lt s obt ained w ith sp ecim ens sh ow ing this typ e of f ail ure
sh ou ld be d iscarded .

I n the typ ical shea ring typ e of f ail ure the l ine of rup tu re is
norm all y more o r l ess incl ined on the t ang ent ial ( fl at s aw n) su r
“

'

f aces but at p ractically right angl es to the grain on the rad ial
,

That the p lane of failu re w ould be inclined in one direction or another

11 “

m ig ht be exp ect ed, since exp erim ents show that m aterials w hich , like w ood,
are neither fully p l astic nor easily p u lveriz able f ail al ong inclined p lanes
’

w h en j
sub ect ed to com p ression, t he ang le of ru p tu re being su ch as to cau s e

failu re under the least l oad necessary to ef f ect a chang e .

( I n w ood ) it is
obvious th at the least am ount of friction
w ill take p lace be and shearing

tw een fibers in bu ckling when their cu rv atures fi t t og ether m ost cl osely , a

condition w hich can occu r only w hen the cu rv atu re of one fiber is a litt le

b elow that of the adj acent one Hence the z one of a s eries of
. s u ch cu rv a

tures w ould assum e an an g le w ith the h oriz ontal

”
Bienfait , . footnote 8,
p p 183 , 1 89
. .
 34 BASIC MEC H ANIC AL P R OP ERTIE S OF CLEAR WOOD

( qu arter ) f aces (s ee F ig
-
s aw n T he l ine of ru p ture is cc .

cas ionally incl ined on rad ial f aces bu t in su ch cases it s el d om ,

f orms a p ronounced angl e w ith the horiz ont al B ienf ait f ound .

that the general a ngl e w hich the f ail ure m akes w ith the v ertical
“

on s t rictl y t ang ent ial fa ces show ed the f oll ow ing av erage v al u es

in the s ev eral sp ecies stu d ied :

S itka sp ruce (air dry ) -

D ou g las fir (air dry ) -

D oug las fir ( moist )

S out hern y ellow p ine (air dry ) -

W hite oak g roup (air dry ) -

V ariou s xp l anations hav e b een adv anced t o exp l ain the normal
e

incl inat ion of f ail ure on the t ang ential f aces of comp ression sp eci
m ens T lhi 1 2
cont end ed t hat the angl e is d eterm ined by a
'

su p p os ed sp iral arrang em ent of the ray s as v iew ed on t ang ent ial

s ect ion the sp iral s a ct ing as l ines of l east res ist ance
, How ev er, .

examination of t est s p ecim e ns show s no su ch rel ation ; f u rth er

'

t est s mad e at the F orest P rod ucts L ab orat ory on Sp ecimens of

m ahog any, in w hich the ray s w ere d isp osed in horiz ont al rows ,

p rod u ced the s ame incl inat ion of f ail ure that typ ifi es the other
w ood s I t is somet im es consid ered that p ronou nced stru ctural
.

d if ferences b etw een sp ringw ood and summerw ood su ch as are to ,

be f ound in D ou gl as fi r sou t hern p ine oak and hick ory are , , ,

-

inst rum ent al in p rod u cing the p h enom enon Littl e w eight c an .

be g iv en t o this th eory how ev er since w ood s in which no p ro, ,

'

nou nced contrast exist s b etw een the tw o p ort ions of the grow t h
'

ring such as w hit e p ine sp ru ce m ap l e, and b irch act in ex actl y

, , , ,

the s am e m anner as those fi rs t m ent ioned T he m ost sat is f act ory .

ex p l anat ion of the p h enom enon has b een a dv anced by B ienf ait
“

w ho concl u d ed that it is cau sed by the s tif f ening ef f ect of the

ray s w hich increase the res ist ance t o b u ckl ing in the d irect ion of
,

their l ength ( rad iall y ) thus cau sing the incl ination of the f ailure
,

on the t ang ent ial f ace .

12 A . T hil Constitu tion

,
anat om iq u e du b ois—é tu de su r les fractu res des
b ois d ans les essais de resistance P u blié p ar commission des iné thodes
'

d essai des m a terioux de cons tru ction s ou s les au sp ices du M inis tére des
’ ’

travau x p u blics de F rance P aris T om e I I I p p 1 40 1 1 900

, , ,
.
— , .
 SHEARING STRENGTH 35

SH EARIN G S T R EN G TH

S h earing s treng th is a m easure of the

b il ity of w ood to resist a

f orces that t end to cause one p art of the m at erial to s l id e or s l ip -

on another p art adj acent to it S hearing stress es are s et up to a

.

g reat er or l ess d egree in m ost us es of w ood and the f orces that ,

-

p ro d u ce t hem a re c l assifi ed accord ing to the d irection in w hich

,

they act as 1 ) sh ear paral l el to ( al ong ) th e g rain, ( 2 ) sh ear per

,

p endicul ar t o ( across ) th e g rain, and ( 3 ) obl iqu e sh ear .

I n F ig 5 the a ct ion of the w ood stru t t end s to shear off al ong

-

the grain the p ort ion A B of the w ood tie rod and it is essential ,

that the l ength of this p ortion be

g reat enough to gu ard ag ains t “

it. F ig ure 6 sh ow s ch aract eristic

f ail ures inshear p arall el to the
”

grain T he u se of w ood f or p ins

.

or t reenail s inv olv es resist ance

to shear acros s the g rain An .

ot her com m on ins t ance of the

l atter is w here the s t eel edg e of

the ey e of an axe or hamm er
t end s t o cut off the handl e .

How ever d irect f ailure in Shear F I G 5 Examp le of shear p arallel

,
'

. .

acros s the grain in the p l ane of to the g rain .

th e cross section d oes not occur

in w ood s incethe other p rop erties are su ch th at f ail ure occu rs in
,

s om e ot her w ay as by cru shing across the grain or shear al ong the

,

grain Roll ing shear that is the action resu lting from ap p l ication
.
, ,

of a trans v erse lo ad t end ing t o cau se the fib ers t o roll across one

anot her in a l ong itu d inal shear p l an e is an entirel y d if f erent and ,

seld om encou nt ered t yp e of sh ear across the g rain T he re

“

s ist ance of w ood t o roll ing shear 1 s s om ew hat l ess than t o shear

al on g the grain T he ef f ect of obl iqu e shear is commonl y ob

“

serv ed in the incl ined p l ane of f ail ure in short col um ns t est ed in

comp ression p arall el t o the grain ( see F ig .

Und er cert ain cond itions shearing stresses m ay act b oth per
p endicu l ar t o the g rain and p arall el t o it at the s am e t ime Thu s .

in a l oad ed b eam the imp osed w eight t end s to shear the w ood
acros s the g rain This stress is equ al t o the resu lt ant f orce acting
.

p per end icu l ar t o th e ax is of the b eam at an y p oin t an d v aries in

36 BASIC MECH ANICAL P R OP ERTIES OF CLEAR WOOD

int ensity in the d if ferent

tions of the p iece accord ing to the
"
s ec ,

f orm of the b eam and the method of l oad ing I n a memb er uni .

f orml y l oad ed and supp ort ed at b oth end s the stres s is max imu m
at the p oint s of supp ort and z ero at the cent er ( F i In
g .

add it ion t o the af orem ent ioned stress there is a s h earing f orce

t end ing t o m ov e the fib ers of the b eam p ast each other in a

l ong itud inal d irection I n a b eam this f orce is k now n as h ori
.

6 .Failure of test sp ecimens in shear p arallel to the g rain In the block .

at the left the surface of failure 1 s radial in the one at the rig ht tang ential
, , , .

z ontal sh ear. The p resence of th is s h ear in the d irection of the

grain may be read il y d emonstrat ed by p l acing sev eral b oard s one
on t op of the ot her and l oad ing t hem at the Cent er as ind icat ed
“

in F ig 7 b oard s b end they sl ip ov er one another

A s the s ev eral
“

. .
, ,

s o th at the end s of each p roj ect b ey ond th ose of the one b el ow it .

I n a sol id b eam this m ov em ent is restrained , and the l ong itu d inal
shear stresses d ev el op ed a re m ax imum at the neu tral p l ane and

d ecrease t ow ard the up p er a nd l ow er s urf aces I n l arg e memb ers .

,

how ev er f ail ure by h oriz ont al shear may occur consid erabl y
'

ab ov e or b el ow the neutral p l ane ow ing t o the p resence of ch eck s

,

or shak es ( see F ig .

T he resist ance of w ood to shear p erp end icu l ar to the grain is so

much great er th an its ab il ity t o w ith st and shearing w ith the grain
that the fi rst named f orm of stress is ignored in b eams and simil ar
-
38 BA S I C M E CHA N I CA L P R OP ERTIES OF CLEAR W OOD

l arg el y d ep end ent on the t hick nes s of the cell w all s although it
"

is af f ect ed t o som e ext ent by the m oistu re cont ent of the w ood ;
thick w all ed fib ers and u nseasoned thin w all ed
-
‘

el em ent s sh ow s a charact erist ic t end ency t o

s ep arat e f rom each ot her wh il e the t hin w all ed ,

-

cell s in s eas oned w ood are commonl y t orn in

tw o l engthw ise the b reak u su all y f oll ow ing an ,

ind iv id u al fib er f or the greater p art of its

l ength 1 3 .

Obl iq u e shearin g stres ses are d ev el op ed in a

bar w hen it is su bj ect ed t o d irect t ension or _

com p ress ion If f riction is negl ected the m ax i

.
,

m um sh earing s tress occurs al ong a p l ane w hen

it m ak es an angl e of 45 d egrees w ith the ax is
of the sp ecim en ( see F ig I n this case .
,

s hear P /2 A W hen the v al u e of the angl e 0

.

F IG 8 Obliq u e
is ot her than 45 d eg rees the shear 1 4 al ong t he
. .

s hear in s hort
,
a

colu m n p l.
ane P / A sin 0 cos 0 Ow ing to the v ari .

ab il ity in the s tru ctu re of wood the p l ane of ,

f ail ure rarel y coincid es w ith the p l ane of m ax imum shearing

st ress ( seep ag e

S T REN G T H A S A B EA M 15

b
When
xternal f orces acting l n the s am e p l ane are app l ied at
e

right angl es t o th e ax is of a simp l e b eam so as to cau s e it to b end ,

13 Brush , f ootnote 5 .

14 T his relat ionship is deriv ed as f ollows

P, ( the com p onent of P a cting in shear along the slop ing p lane) P cos 0

A s ( the area resis ting shear) bears the follow ing relat ions hip t o the cross
s ectional area ( A

P, P cos 0 P
S hearing stress S l n 0 cos 0

15 There are three com m on f orm s of beam s , nam ely

( 1 ) S imp l e beam —a bar res ting on tw o s up p orts , One near each end

( F ig
—
.

( )
2 Ca ntil ev er b eam a b ar resting on one su p p ort or fu lcrum ,
or that
 STRENGTH AS A B EAM 39

the three f und ament al stresses— comp ression t ension and S hear , ,

—
are s et u p w it hin the p iece all act ing in a d irect ion p arall el t o
,

the g rain 1 6
T he com pressiv e stresses cau se a l ong itu d inal
.

— Sp n
l ‘
e a -

S imple

Cantilever

Continuous

F IG . 9 . T hree comm on form s of beam s .

s h ortening of the fib ers on the concav e s id e of the b eam ; the

t ensil e stresses an el ongation of the fib ers on the conv ex sid e ; and
the horizont al shearing stresses a t end ency t ow ard l ong itu d inal
s ep arat ion of the fib ers by s l id ing of the u pp er p art of the b eam

al ong the l ow er W ithin the p rop ortional lim it the rel ativ e el on
'

g ation ( tens ion) and contra ct ion ( com p ress ion) of the fi b ers are
d irectl y 1 7 p rop ortional t o their d is t ances f rom a p l ane int er
m ed iat e b etw een t hem—t he neutral pl ane ( N I P in F ig -

T he int ersect ion of the neutral p l ane at any cross sect ion is

p ortion of any b eam p roj ecting ou t of a w al l or b ey ond a su p p ort ( F ig

—
.

( )
3 C on tinu ou s Beamfi a b ar restin
g on m ore than t w o
‘
s u p p orts ( F ig .

T he ens u ing dis cussion p ertains p articu larly t o the fi rst f orm , since it is
the sim p les t , alth ou g h it a ls o ap p lies in g eneral t o th e other tw o f orm s
, , .

g ram ,
1 6 Com ression and S hearin s tresses als o act at ri ht an les t o the
p g g g
b u t these are of m inor im p ort ance ex cep t that cru shing f ailu res m ay occu r
,

imm ediat ely u nd er th e l oad or ab ov e the s u p p orts w hen b earing areas are of

insuf fi cient S iz e .

17 W hile in reality this ationship does

rel not ex act ly hold the ,
f orm u las
f or beam s are based on its assu m p tion .
40 BA S I C M ECHA NI CA L PROP ERTIES OF CLEAR WOOD

know n as the neutral ax is of that section Thus the fib ers half

x .
,

w ay b etw een the neutral ax is and the out er surf ace exp eri
ence onl y h alf as mu ch short ening or el ong at ion as the ou t erm ost

F IG 1 0
. . D iag m
ra of a s1 mp le beam . . N 1P neu tral p lane ; NA neu tral
axis of s ection RS .

or e xtreme fib ers S imil arl y f or other d ist ances The el ements

. .

al ong the neu tral p l ane ex p erience no t ension or comp res sion in

the ax ial d irect ion Horiz ont al Shear on the other hand is
.
, ,
_

F IG . 11 . D iag ra ms show ing distribu tion of shear along neutral p lane and of
comp ression and t ension on the up p er and l ow er sur ac f
es , resp ectiv ely , from
end t o end of a S imp l e
beam u nder dif f erent typ es of loading . 1 . Center load
3 Uniform loading
’
ing . 2 T hird p oint l oading
.
-
. . S . shear; C com

p ression ; T t ension .

m ax imum at the neu tral p l ane of a p art icu l ar s ection and de

creases to z ero at the out ermos t el em ents of the section T h e .

d istrib ution of the th ree fund ament al stresses in the d irection of

the d ep th of a s imp l e b eam is the s am e f or all typ es of l oad ing .

T he l ong itu d inal d istrib ution of the three stresses on the other ,
 S T RESS ES I N BEA M S 41

hand , S h ow s consid erabl e v ariat ion u n er d the v arious f orms of

l oad ing ,
as is indicated in F ig .

S t res s es in B e a m s

An u n ers and ing of the Stress es d ev el op ed in a l oad ed b eam

d t
req u res s om e k now l edg e o el em
i .
f e n m
t a y ech a cs
r ni 1 9 The ten .

sil e and comp ressiv e stresses d ev el op ed at any p oint in a b eam

su p p ort ing a l oad may be cal cu l at ed by the fl exure f ormu l a com

m only ap p l ied in engineering p ract ice ,

My
I
in w hich
in t ension or comp ression p ou nd s p er s qu are inch
'

S t
s ress ,

M b ending m om ent indu ced by the app l ied l oad p ou nd inches ,

-

y distance from neu t ral axis inches ,

4
I m om ent of inertia of the section inches ,

T he b end ing m om ent ( M ) a t any section of a b eam is a measure

of the t end ency of the f orces a ct ing on the b eam t o ind u ce

rot ation ab ou t th is p oint W hen a b eam is in a s t at e of equi .

l ib rium it is necess ary t o d et ermine the m oment resu lting from

,

the app l ication of f orces to one sid e onl y ( cu s t om aril y the l eft
s id e) of the p oint f or w hich the cal cu l at ion is m ad e .

Sup p ose f or ex amp l e that the b end ing m om ent w ere d esired
, ,

1 3 W ith u nif orm or rollin l oads th e t ension and com ression st resses in
“
g p
beam s decrease f rom the cent er of the leng th of a b eam t ow ards the ends
The distribution is t he sa m
f or b oth typ es of l oading , althoug h f or t he
e

s am e load the s tress resu l ting f rom th e rolling l oad is tw ice t hat of the u ni

f orm load T he stress es d ev elop ed by the third p oint m ethod of l oading

'

-
.

u sed in t es ting are constant ov er the cent er one third of the l eng th , and -

decrease from the cent er third t ow ard the ends . W ith t he sam e in
t ensity of s tress at t he cent er of th e l eng th, the f
u ni orm , rolling ,
and third
p oint l oading w ill g iv e identical stresses at the qu art er p oints
s T he m axi .

f
m u m dif erence is at t he third p oints, w here the third p oint l oading g iv es -

1 1 p ercent hig her stres ses The l ong itu dinal distribu tion of the shear
.

stresse s is the s am e f or rolling as f or u ni orm f l oads, increasing in int ensity

S tru ctu ral timbers
”
t ow ard the ends . J A N ew lin and R P A J ohnson
. . . . .
,

d ef ects and th eir infl u ence on s treng th P roc A m S oc ,

. . . T es t M a t , P hiladel
. .

p hia, V ol 24, P t 2 , 1 924, p 982

. . . .

1 9 T h ose d esirin
g f
u rther in orm ation on this f j
sub ect are re erred f to any

textbook dealing w ith s treng th of m aterials!

42 BA S I C M E CHA N I CA L P R OPERT I E S OF CLEA R W OOD

at the mid p oint of a s imp e

b eam sup port ed at the end s and
l
carry ing a concentrated cent er l oa d as show n in F ig 12 T he
tw o reactions at the su p p orts m
. .
_

u st each be equ al t o one h alf the -

t ot al l oa d ( P ) and the b end ing m om ent at m id sp an w ou ld

,

F IG . 12 . B ending mom ent

-
and v ertical s hear
-
diag ra m s f or a simp l e b eam
sup p orted at t he ends and carrying a concentrated load at midsp an
“

theref ore be P l/4 the p rodu ct of the l eft reaction P /2 and the
,

d ist ance l/2 b etw een the reaction and the mid p oint of the b eam .

S imil arl y the b ending m om ent at a p oint one f ourth the l eng th
,
-

of the b eam f rom its l eft end w ou ld be P /2 l/4 Pl/8 and at ,

a p oint t hree f ou rths the l ength of the b eam f rom the l eft end
-

P
X
3l
_

X _ E l
5 . S u ch a resu l t might ha v e
2 4
b een ticip ated in v iew of the symm etry of the l oad ing I t
an .

m ay be not ed t hat m oments acting to cau se clockw ise rot ation .

ab ou t the p oint in q u es t ion are cons id ered as p osit iv e and t hos e

“

t end ing to ind u ce count ercl ockw ise rot ation are consid ered neg a .

tiv e .
 S T RE SS E S I N B EA M S 43

Unif orm ly distrib ut ed l oad s are treated as concentrat ed l oads

act ing at t heir cent ers of g rav ity accord ing to the p roced u re ou t

l ined as f oll ow s F or the b eam show n in F ig 1 3 carry ing a dis

. .
,

trib ut ed l oad ( W ) b end ing m om ent at m id span is cal cu l ated f rom

,

W Z W Wl W l lK / l
( T he neg at iv e mom ent in
2 2 2 4 8 8
this cal cu l ation is the resu lt of g the l oad ( W/2 ) dis
cons i erin d
trib uted ov er the l eft half of the b eam as a concentrat ed l oad
acting at it s cent er of g rav it y w it h a m om ent arm of l/

F IG . B end ing m om ent

-
and v ertical shear
-
diag ra ms f or a si mp l e beam
su p p ort ed at the ends and carry ing a f orml
u ni y distribu ted l oad .

I t is v id ent that there can be no b end ing m om ent at the end

e

of a f reel y su p p ort ed b eam in eq u il ib riu m since t here is no op p os

ing m oment to res ist any t end ency t ow ard rot at ion A nal y sis .

of st res s es in a b eam t hat is not sy mm et ricall y l oad ed is d ep end ent

'

on this f act Tbu s f or a b eam l oaded as in F ig 1 4 the reaction

“ '

. .
, ,

R I at the l eft end sup p ort can be d et erm ined by consid ering the
44 BA S I C M E CHA N ICAL P ROP ERT IE S OF -
CL EA R WOO D

su m of the mom ent s actin g ab out the p oint of ap p l ication

reac tion f orce R2 as z ero .

6P l Pl 8P l
4 2

RI 2P

F IG 1 4
. . Bending moment and vertical shear diag rams f or a simp le beam
- -

sup p orted at t he ends and carrying an u nsymmetrical l oad .

S ince the su m of the

l oad s acting on a b eam mu st be equ al to
the sum of the sup p ort ing react ions ,

R2 3P
_
2p =
fP
Once the tion f orces R 1 and R2 h av e b een d etermined cal
reac ,

cu l at ion of the b end ing m oment at any p oint al ong the l eng th of

the b eam is read il y carried out .

P l otted v al ues of b end ing m om ent at v arious p oint s al ong the

46 BA S I C M E CHA N I CA L P R OPERT I E S or CL EA R woon

9P X 1 2 71 )

I n this cas e,
32 32
3

and , if P 1 0 0 0 p ou nd s , S 2 7 ,00 0 /3 2 8 45 p ou nd s p er s qu are

inch .

T he m ax imu m com p ress i e or

tens il e stress in this b eam w ou ld
v
al s o occur at m id sp an, a s show n by ref erence t o the m om ent dia

gram ( F ig S ince m ax imum stress at any cross s ection

.

occu rs in the s u rf ace fib er ( it is ev id ent f rom the fl exu re f ormu l a -

that stress is d irectly p rop ortional t o y distance f rom the ,

neu tral ax is ) , the m ax im u m v al u e Of y ( oneh alf the d ep th -

of b eam ) is s u b st itu t ed in equ at ion 1 w hen s olv ing f or m ax imu m

st ress The eq u at ion is ex p r

. ess ed co nv ent ionall y as

Mc
I

in w hich 0 V; d ep th of b eam .

' 9P X 2 5 4P
I 11 t his case
32 32
3

and, if
R is a aing 1 0 00 p ound s, S 32 1 6 90 p ou nd s p er
s q u are inch .

Horiz ont al and v ertic al shearing s tress es are b oth d ev el op ed in

- i

a b eam as a resu lt of the v ert ical f orces ex ert ed by the l oad and
“

by the sup p orts T he rel at iv e m ag nitu d e of these stresses at

.
-

v arious p oints al ong the neu tral p l ane of a simp l e b eam 1 s I nd i

cated in F ig 11 Vertical shear at any sect ion is m erel y the
. .

alg eb raic s um of the l oad s ( t ak en as neg ativ e ) and the react ion
.

f orces ( t ak en as p osit iv e) acting to one sid e of the s ection

.
.

P l otted v al u es f or v ert ic al sh ear at v ariou s p oints a l ong the

l ength of a b eam constitu t e a v ertical shear d iagram Vertical -
.

shear is nev er d irectl y resp onsibl e f or th e f ail u re of wood b eam s ,

bu t it s d et erminat ion is necess ary as a st ep in the cal cu l ation of

horiz ont al shear
Horiz ont al S hearl ng stress ( H) m ay be cal cu l at ed f rom the
-

eq u at ion ,
 S T RE SS ES I N BE AM S 47

in w hich

V v ertical shear p ou nd s ,

Q st atical m om ent ab ou t the neu t ral ax is of th e area b etw een

the su rface and the p oint at w hich shearing stress is t o be

3
d eterm ined inches ( S tatical m om ent is the p rodu ct of the
,
.

area as d efi ned and the v ertical d is t ance f rom t he cent er of

g ravity of this area t o the neu tral axis ) .

4
I m om ent of inertia of the s ect ion inches ,

t w id th of b eam at th e shearing p l ane inche

‘

s ,

A 2 by 4 inch
-
b eam s upp orted at the end s as in F ig 1 2 and
- -

,
.

carrying a 1 00 0 p ou nd concentrat ed l oad at m id sp an w ill d e

-

v el op a v ert ical shear amounting t o 50 0 p ou nd s ( the react ion

f orce) at the l eft supp ort A s ind icated in F ig 1 2 this const ant
. .
,

s tress is the l ength of the b eam The .

chang erel y a ch ang e in d irect ion not ,

in mag nitu d e of v ertie ,

S u b stitut ing in equ at ion 4 to cal cu l at e the horiz ont al shearing -

s tres s at the end of the b eam 1 inch ab ov e or b el ow the neu t ral

,

pl ane w e hav e
,

I f the b eams of rect angu l ar cross s ection is d esired

t
s ress in
onl y at the neu tral p l ane w here f or any p art icul ar p oint al ong
,

the l eng th of the b eam shearing s tres s is m ax imum equ at ion 4

, ,

m ay be S impl ifi ed to

from w hich, in this case

3 x 5 oo
9 4 p ou nd s p er s qu are inch
2X 2 X 4

I t is q
v id ent
e 4 that no horiz ont al —
f rom e u at ion shearing st re ss

ex ist s at the u p p er or l ow er su rf aces of t he b eam since th e st atical

m oment ( Q) red u ces to z ero und er these cond itions .

48 BA S I C M E CHA NI CA L P R OPERTI E S OF CLEA R W OOD

In l ting v ertical shear it S hou ld be not ed f rom F igs 1 2

l
ca cu a
‘

, ,
.

and 1 3 that a concentrat ed l oad o r p ort ion of a d istrib u t ed l oa d ,

l ocat ed to the l eft of the p oint at w hich shearing stress is to be

d et ermined is consid ered as neg ativ e ( d ow nw ard ) and reaction
,

f orces t o the l eft of th e s ame p oint are consid ered as p osit iv e

( up w ard ) in obt aining the algeb raic sum of v ertical f orces .

F a il u res in B e a m s

b eam is l oad ed too heavil y it w ill b reak or f ail in some

If a

charact eris tic m anner These f ail ures m ay be classifi ed accord

.
-

ing to the w ay in w hich t hey d ev el op as comp ression t ension and , , ,

h oriz ont al shear and accord ing t o the ap p earance of the b rok en
,

s urf ace as b rash and fib rou s

, A num b er of f orms m ay d ev el op .
_

if the b eam is comp l et el y rup ture d .

S ince the t ensil e strength of w ood p arall el to the grain is nor

m all y tw o t o fi ve t im esas great as the comp ressiv e s trength in the
s am e direct ion a b eam shou ld t heref ore be ex p ect ed to f ail by
, , ,

the f orm ation in the fi rs t p l ace of a f old on the comp ress ion sid e
du e t o the crushing act ion f oll ow ed by f ail u re on the t ens ion sid e
, .

T his is not abl y the case in unseas oned w ood I n dry m aterial . .

the comp ress ion f ail u re m ay be ind istinct and the fi rst v isibl e
“

f ail ure ma y occur on the l ow er or t ension sid e a p henom enon ,

that may be du e in p art to the f act that d rying app arentl y in

creases the com p ress iv e strengt h of th e w ood t o a g reat er ext ent
.

t han the t ensil e strength 2 2 .

th in comp ression
the g rain t o t he
“
22 T he ratio of the s treng al ong

streng th in t ension al ong th e g rain has an im p ortant rel ation t o the t ou g h

ness of w ood and its su itability f or p erm anent bending A piece in w hich .

the t ensile s t reng th is sev ei al tim es that of the co mp ress ive streng th can

be bent a g reat d eal bef ore it breaks , becau se of the bu ck ling of th e fibers
m
.

w hich takes p lace on th e co p ression S id e b e ore ailu re occu rs on the t en f f

s ion s id e On the othei h and , if the t ensile s treng th is not mu ch g reat er
.

t h an t he com p ressiv e streng th , the stick w ill snap across on th e t ension

sid e w ith com p arativ ely little b ending . In su ch a cas e t he fractu re occu rs

m ore or less ab ru p t ly across th e g rain, g iving the w ood the charact eristic

ap p earance of w hat is comm only know n as brash .

M oistu re and heat decrease the streng th in com p ression m ore than the
s treng th in t ension, boiled p iece of w dod can be
and , hence, a s team ed or

bent m ore b ef ore it breaks on th e conv ex side than can a cold dry p iece .

A K oehler, The p rop erties and u ses of w ood, M cGraw Hill B ook Co ,
.
-
.

N ew Y ork , 1 924, pp 95 6 .
-
.
 FAI LURES I N BEA M S 49

W ithin the prop ortional l imit it is assumed that the el ong ations
and short ening s are equ al and in a b eam of sy mm etrical cross

s ect ion that th e neu tral p l ane l ies m id w ay b etw een the u p p er

and l ow er su rf aces ( see F ig L at er the top l ay er of fib ers

.

on the u pp er or comp ress ion sid e f ail s and as the l oad increases , , ,

the next l ay er of fib ers f ail s and s o on ev en thou gh this f ailu re

, ,

m ay not be v isibl e A s a resu lt the short ening on the up p er sid e

.

of the b eam b ecom es cons id erabl y great er than the el ong ation

on the l ow er s ide T he neut ral p l ane mu st be p resum ed t o b eg in

to sink grad u all y t ow ard the t ension S id e as s oon as the p rop or
tional l imit is p as sed althou gh its Iocat ion at any tim e is v ery
,

u ncert ain This migrat ion of the neutral p l ane increases the
.

comp ression area and red u ces the t ension area W hen the .

st res ses in the the t ension area b ecome suffi cientl y

g reat the fib ers are
,
d T he rup ture is oft en irreg ul ar . [
,

as in d irect t ens ion t F ail ure m ay occur p artiall y in

singl e b undl es of fib ers s om e t im e b ef ore t he fi nal f ail ure t ak es

p l ace .

T here is consid erabl e v ariat ion in t ension f ailures d ep end ing ,

on the t ou gh ness or the b rittl eness of the w ood the arrang em ent ,

of the grain d ef ect s and s o on th u s m ak ing f urther cl assifi cat ion

, , ,

d esirabl e T he f our most common f orms are

.

1 S im pl e tension in w hich there is a d irect p u ll ing in tw o of the

.
,

w ood on the und er sid e of th e b eam du e t o a t ensil e stress p arall el

t o the grain ( s ee F ig l 5 a ) This is common in straight grained
. .
-

b eams p articu l arl y w h en the w ood is seasoned

,
.

2 Cros s g rained tension

.
-

, in w h ich the f racture is cau sed by a

t ensil e f orce acting obl iquel y to the grain ( see F igs 1 5 b and ,

This is a common f o rm of f ail ure w h ere the b eam has d iag onal ,

sp iral or other f orm of cross grain on its l ower sid e S ince the
“

.
,

t ensil e strength of w ood across the grain is only a sm all fract ion
of th at w ith the grain it is easy t o see w hy a cross g rained t im ber
,
-

w ou ld f ail in t his m anner .

3 S plintering tens ion in w hich the f ail ure z igz ag s b ack and
.
,

f orth p roducing a ragg ed or sp l int ery b reak on the t ension sid e

,

of the b eam ( see F ig 1 5 c) This is comm on in t ou gh w ood s

. . .

I n this case the surf ace of fracture is fib rou s

-

4 Brittl e tension in which the b eam f ail s by a cl ea

.
,
n b reak
ext end ing ent irel y t hrou gh it ( see F ig 1 5 d) I t is charact eristic . .

of a b rittl e w ood w h ich g iv es w ay su dd enl y w ithou t w arning l ik e ,

50 B A S I C M E CHA N I CA L P R OPE RT I E S OF CLEA R W OOD
‘

15 . T y p es of failu re I n sir
np l e beam s su b ectedj t o bendi
ng ( a —
f) and -
in
S hort colu m ns s ub ected j to com p ression p arall el t o the g rain .
(g S ee t ext
f or classification .

a piece of chalk . I n this case the su r ac f eof f ractu re is d es cribed

2 3
as bras h .

23 B rashness or brittleness is ev ident ly ass ociat ed , at l eas t in certain cas es ,

w ith v ariations in the anat om y of t he w ood Thu s , s p eci m ens of l ow

“

density f or a in w hich the p ercent of su m m erw ood is sm all

g iv en S p ecies ,

or t he fibers are unu su ally thin w alled , are lik ely t o be b rash S ee C C '

. . .

F orsaith , Th e m orp hol og y of w ood in relation t o brashness , Jour F or ,

—
. .

W ashing t on, V ol . 1 9, M arch 1 9 2 1 , pp . 23 7 49 .

Freq u ently ,
how ev er t he , condition can be definitely attribu t ed t o t he

p res ence of com p res sion w ood , com p ress ion failu res ,
or incip ient d ecay ,
or

to exp osu re of the m at erial t o extrem ely hig h tem p eratures . S ee t ext d is
T em p erature ( p ag es 1 88
cu ss ion of D ecay ( p ag es 1 17 Comp res
and

sion F ailu res and Cross Breaks ( p ag 1 20 A lso A rthu r K oehler

“

es ,

Cau s es o f bras hness in w ood, U . S . D ep t . Ag r. T ech . Bu l 3 42 ,

. Washing ton,
1 933 .
 F A I LU RE S I N B EA M S 51

In dd ition to
a t ens ion f ail u res the f oll ow ing typ es m ay l
a so

occur

Compres sion f ail ure ( F ig 1 5 e) h as f ew

v ariations ex cep t that
.

it ap p ears at v ariou s d ist ances f rom the neu tral p l ane of the b eam .

I t is p articu l arl y consp icu ou s in uns eas oned timb ers T he com .

p ressiv e s tress p arall el t o the fib ers cau ses them t o b u ckl e or b end
as in an end w ise com p ress ion t es t T his action u su all y b eg ins on
.

the t op sid e S hortl y aft er the e l ast ic l im it is rea ched and ext end s
d ow nw ard s omet im es pass ing the neutral p l ane b ef ore comp l et e
,

f ail ure occurs F requ entl y tw o or more f ailu res d ev el op at ab ou t

.

the s am e t ime I n d ense w ood s comp ression f ail ures m ay tak e

.

f ormof d iag onal 1 5 i) or w edg e sp l it ( F ig 1 5 h) . .

Failures

F IG . 16 . F ailu re of a larg e bea mb y horiz ontal shear.

Horiz ontal sh ear f ail ure, in w hich the up p er and l ow er p ort ions
-

of the beam s l id e l g each other f or a p ortl on of their l ength

a on
'

at eit her one or b ot h ends ( F ig 1 5 f ) is f airl y comm on w hen.

,

the ratio of the h eight of the b eam t o the sp an is rel ativ el y l arg e ,

s ince it is the short d eep b eam t h at is of t en s u bj ect ed t o l oad s

,

that d ev el op the m ax imum s hearing stress I t is not common in .

s m all cl ear sp ecim ens of the st and ard s iz e u s ed in t ests I t is .

.

n du e to s hak e or seas on check s comm on in l arg e tim bers

of t/ a
'

, ,
52 BA S I C M E CHA N I CA L P ROPERT I E S OF CLEAR WOOD

w hich d
re u ce the ting the shearing action con
t
ac u al . area res is

siderably b el ow the cal cu l at ed area u sed in the f ormu l a f or hori -

z ont al s hea r F or t his reason it is uns af e in d esigning l arg e

.
,

t imb er b eams to u se shearing stresses higher than those cal cu l at ed

,

f or b eams that f ail ed in horiz ont al shear The ef f ect of a f ail ure .

in horiz ont al shear is t o d iv id e the b eam int o tw o or more b eam s ,

the comb ined strength of w h ich is mu ch l ess th an that of the

orig inal b eam F or this reas on a cont inu ou s l oad th at is g reat
.
,

enou gh t o cau se horiz ont al s hear w ill p rob abl y al s o caus e com

p lete f ail ure of t he b eam unl ess shearing is ind uced by check s
'

or shak es or the b eam is v ery s hort and d eep F igure 1 6 s how s .

a l arg e b eam in w hich tw o f ail ures in horiz ont al S hear occu rred

at the s am e end That t he p arts b ehav e ind ep end entl y is shown

.

by the comp ression f ail ure b el ow the orig inal l ocat ion of the
neu tral p l ane .

T abl e 3 giv es an anal ysis of the cau ses of first f ail ure in 8 40
s tru ctu ral b eams o f nine d if f erent sp ecies of conif ers Of the .

t ot al numb er t ested 2 6 5 w ere air dried and the remaind er w ere -

u nseasoned ; T he f ail ure occu rring fi rst signifi es the p oint of

great est w eakness in the Sp ecimen und er the p articu l ar cond itions
of l oad ing emp l oy ed ( in th is cas e, t hird p oint l oad ing ) -
.

K in d s of L oads

T he k ind s l oad s to w hich b eams are subj ect ed may be cl as si

of

fi ed ( 1 ) accord ing to their d istrib ution as unif orm or coneen ,

trat ed l oad s and ( 2 ) w ith reg ard to th eir p ermanence as l iv e

, ,

or d ead l oad s .

U nif orm l oad occu rs w h ere the l oad is d istrib ut ed ev enl y ov er

the b eam ( s ee F ig .

Concentrated l oad occurs w here the load is app l ied at a s ingl e

p oint or p oint s I n t est ing s mall cl ear b eams the l oad is concen
.

trated at the cent er of the sp an ; in m at erial of structu ral siz es ,

cont aining d ef ect s it is u su ally app l ied at tw o p oint s one third

,

of the sp an of the b eam apa rt ( s ee F ig s 1 1 and This l att er .

ty p e of l oad ing w hich is know n as third p oint l oading , is ex

,
-

tremely imp ort an t in stu d ying the influ ence of d ef ect s on the
strength of w ood S ince the resu ltant stres ses are unif orm th rou gh
‘

ou t the cent er third of the b eam .

L ive or immediate l oad is one th at is not fix ed and may be

remov ed f rom a stru ctu re at any t ime Su ch a l oad may be im .
 54 BA S I C M E CHA N I CA L P R OPE RTIE S OF CLEA R W OOD

A m om ent ary l oad tw o or more times as great as the d ead

l oad or l ong continu ed l iv e lo ad m ay be sup p orted by a w ood
-

b eam L oad s g reater than the p rop ortional l imit are u ns af e and
.

w ill g enerall y resu l t in f ail ure if cont inu ed l ong enou g h A b eam .

m ay be consid ered saf e u nd er l ong cont inu ed l oad w hen the -

increment s of d efl ection d iminish during equ al successiv e period s

of tim e A cont inu ed increase in d efl ection ind icat es an u ns af e
.

l oa d which is al most cert ain t o rupture the b eam ev entu all y .

Variations in the hu m id ity Of the surround ing air infl u ence the
d efl ection of dry w ood u nd er d ead l oad and lOng continued l iv e -

l oad and increased d efl ect ions d uring d amp w eather are cumu l a
,

tiv e and not recov ered by su b s eq u ent dry ing I ncreas ed m oisture
-

cont ent due t o g reat er hum id ity of the air l ow ers t he p rop or
, ,

t ional l imit of w ood s o that w h at w as a s af e l oad f or the dry

m at erial m ay b ecome u nsaf e .

W hen a l ong continued l iv e l oad not great enou gh to rup ture a

-

b eam has b een remov ed the b eam tends grad ually to recov er it s
,

f orm er shap e but the recov ery is not al w ays comp l et e I f sp eci
,
.

mens from su ch a b eam are t est ed in the ord inary t est ing machine ,

it w ill be f ound t hat the a pp l ication of the l oad of l ong d uration

did not af f ect the st iff nes s u ltim ate streng th or p rop ort ional
w , ,

l imit of the mat e ial I n other w ords the d efl ections and recov
r
.
,

eries p rodu ced by m om ent ary l oad s are the s am e a s w ou ld hav e

b een p rod u ced had not the b eam p rev iou sl y b een su bj ected t o a
i 24
l oad of l ong d urat on .

S af e l oad is the l oad co nsid ered s af e f or a m at erial t o su pp ort

in actu al p ract ice I t is a l w ay s l ess t han the l oad at p rop or

.

tional l im it and is u su all y t ak en as a cert ain p roport ion of the

u lt im at e or b reak ing l oad .

T he ratio of the b reak ing l oad to the saf e l oad is p ref erabl y
t erm ed the redu ction f actor, rather than f actor of saf ety, a t erm
s om etimes u s ed incorrectl y I n ord er t o m ak e du e all ow ance f or
.

the natural v ariat ions and im p erf ections in w ood and f or t he

ef f ect of cont inu ed s tress as w ell as f or v ariat ions i
,
n the l oad ,

app l ied in the agg reg at e st ru cture the red u ct ion f act or is oft en ,

24 S ee Harry D T iem ann S om e resu lts of dead load bending

.
,
tests of tim
.

ber by m eans of a recording defl ect om eter, P roc A m S oc TEs t M at ,

—
. . . . .

Philad elp hia, V ol 9 , 1 909 , p p 53 4 48

. . .

”
T he t erm d ead l oad as here u sed by Tiem ann is considered, in this
“

”
text , t o be a
“
liv e load of long du ration .
 A P P L I CA T I ON OF L OAD S 55

as high 4 m 6 esp ecially if the s af ety of human l if e d ep end s

as ,

on the stru ctu re T his m eans that only one f ou rth to one S ix th
.

of t he a v erag e com p u t ed streng th v al u e is consid ered s af e t o u se

in stru ctural t im b er T he s ignifi cance and app l icat ion of the

.

red u ct ion f act or in comp u t ing s af e w ork ing s tres ses are d is cu ssed

und er Work ing S tres s es f or S tru ctural Lu mb er in P art 3 .

A p p l ica t ion of Lo a d s

T here a re t hree 2 5 g en eral m ethod s by w hich l oad s m ay be ap

p l ied to b eam s ,
nam el y :
1 . S tatic l oading ,
imp osition of l oad so that the
m ov ing p art s acq u ir m ent um . L oad s are s o

app l ied in the or d inary testing m achine .

S ud den imp osition of l oad w ith out initial v el ocity

2 . T hu s -
.

in the case of p l acing a l oad on a b eam , if the l oad be b rou ght int o
con ac t w ith the b eam bu t its w eight sustained by ext ernal means
t , ,

as by a cord and t hen t his ext ernal s u p p ort be su ddenly ( inst an

,

t aneou sly ) rem ov ed as b y q u ickl y cu tt ing the cord then al

, , ,

thou gh the l oad is al read y t ou ching th e b eam ( and h ence there is

no real imp act ) y et the b eam is at fi rst of f ering no resist ance as
, ,

it has as y et suf f ered no d ef orm ation F u rtherm ore as the b eam .

,

d efl ect s the resist ance increases but d oes not com e t o be equal t o
,

the l oad unt il it has att ained it s norm al d efl ect ion I n the mean .

time there has b een anu nb al anced f orce of g rav ity acting of a ,

const antl y d iminishing am ou nt equ al at fi rst to the ent ire l oad , ,

but now red u ced t o z ero w hen the resist ance h as com e t o be
eq u al t o the l oad at the norm al d efl ect ion
,
Bu t at this inst ant .

b oth the lo ad and the b eam are in m otion the hithert o u nb al anced
.

f orce ha v ing p rodu ced an accel erated v el oc ity and t his v el ocity ,

of the w eight and b eam g iv es t o them an energy or vis viv a

“

, ,

Which m u st now sp end it sel f in ov ercom ing an exces s of resist ance

ov er and ab ov e the imp os ed l oad and the w hol e m ass w ill not ,

s t op u nt il the d efl ect ion ( as w ell as the resis t ance) has com e t o

be equ al to twice th at corresp ond in g t o the st atic l oad imp osed .

Hence w e s ay the ef f ect of a su dd enl y imp osed l oad is to p rod u ce .

tw ice the d efl ection and stress of the s am e l oad st aticall y p l aced .

I t mu st be ev id ent how ev er t hat this cas e has nothing in com

, ,

25 A f ourth ty p e of l oading m ig ht be add ed , nam ely , v ib rat ory , or h ar

m onic rep etition, w hich is freq u ently s eriou s in the cas e of bridg es .
 56 B A SI C M E CHA NI CA L P ROPERT IES OF CLEAR W OOD

m on w ith either the ord inary st atic t ests of stru ctural m at erial s ‘ ’

”2 6
in t est ing m achines , or w ith imp act t est s
-

3 I.m a t
p c, s h o k r l
c , o b ow 2 7 T here are v arious common u ses .

of w ood t hat subj ect the m at erial t o su dd en shock s a nd j ars or

,

imp act S u ch is the act ion on a drop f org e hammer b oard , on a

.
-

hamm er h andl e w hen a bl ow is s truck , or on a m au l w hen it

s ri es a
t k w edg e .

Resist ance t o imp act is resist ance t o energy w hich is m easu red
by the p rodu ct of the f orce and the d ist ance throu gh w h ich it
mov es, or by the p rod uct of one h alf the moving m ass w hich -

cau ses the S h ock and

v el ocity T he w ork d one the s u are of
q its .

on the p iece a t the inst ant t he v el ocity is ent irel y rem ov ed from .

the striking b od y is equ al to the t ot al energy of that b od y I t is .

imp ossibl e how ev er t o st ore all the energ y of the strik ing b od y
, ,

in the sp ecimen th ou gh the g reat er the m ass and the sh ort er

,

the d ist ance th rou gh w hich it mov es or in other w ord s the , , ,

great er the p rop ortion of w eight and the s mall er the p rop ortion
of v elocity mak ing u p the energy of t he s trik ing b od y the more ,

energy the sp ecimen w ill ab s orb The rest is l ost in frict ion .
,

vib ration h eat and m otion of the anv il

, ,
.

I n imp act the stresses p rod u ced wbecome v ery comp l ex and
d ifficu lt to m easure esp ecially if the v el ocity 1 s high or the m ass
, ,

of the b eam it self 1 s larg e comp ared t o that of the m ov ing w eight .

T he d iffi cu lt ies att end ing the measurem ent of the stresses be
y o n d t h e p rop o rt iona l l m
i it are s o g "
reat th at t hey are not com

m only d et ermined W ithin the p rop ortional l imit the f ormu l as

.

f or cal cu l ating the stresses are b ased on the assumpt ion that the
d efl ection is p rop ortional to the stress in this case as in st at ic
tests .

The st and ard m ethod of mak ing t est s on the resist ance of w ood
to s h ock is to sup p ort a sm all b eam at the end s and d rop a
h eavy w eight on it at m id sp an 8 ( see F ig
2 R esu lt s of .

26 J B Johnson The m aterials of cons tru ction J ohn Wiley S ons

—
. .
, , ,

New Y ork 1 902 pp 8 1 2

, ,
. .

y D T iem ann The theory of imp act and its app lication t o
0

2 7 S ee Harr .
,

t esting m aterials Jou r F ranklin I ns t , P hilad elp hia V ol 1 6 8 Oct N ov 1 9 09

—
. . . .
.
, , , ,

—
,

p p 23 5 59 , 336 6 4 .

9
.

A ls o A rm in E lm endorf , S tresses I n imp act , I bid , V ol 1 82, D ec 1 1 6 , p p . . . .

77 1 —
90 .

23 F or dis cu ssion of v arious f orm s of im p act tests see T R C W ils on, . . .

I m p act t ests of w ood , P roc A m S oc T es t M a t , P hiladelp hia, V ol 22 ,

—
. . . . . .

P t 2 , 1 922 , p p 55 70
. A ls o L J M arkw ard t and T R C Wilson, S treng th
. . . . . . .
 A PP L I CA T I ON OF L OA D S 57

t d d imp act t ests on A m erican w ood s are p resented in

s an ar

T abl e 4 The height of the w eight is increased after each d rop

.
,

and record s of t he corresp ond ing d efl ect ions are t ak en u nt il

f ail ure T he t ot al w ork d one on the sp ecim en is equ al t o the

.

s cal ed area u nd er the cu rv e of the resu lt ant s tress— s train d iag ram

p l us the eff ect of l ocal inert ia of the m ol ecu l es at p oint of cont act .

Val u es f or fib er s tress at p rop ortional l im it as d et erm ined from ,

imp act t est s on u nseas oned w ood av erag e m ore than tw ice as ,

great as s1 m1 l ar v al u es from st atic b end ing t ests 2 9 and ab out 30 -

p ercent g reat er th an rup ture E l ast ic .

resil ience av era ee tim es as great as in

s t atic b end ing f or w ork to p rop ortional
“

l imit in imp act T abl e 4 w ith thos e in st atic b end ing T abl es 1
, , ,

and

The t
s ress es inv olv ed in imp act are comp
l icat ed by the f act
that there are v arious way s in w hich the energy of the strik ing
b od y m ay be sp ent :
1 I t p rod u ces a l ocal d ef orm at ion of both b od ies at the surf ace
.

of cont act w ithin or b ey ond th e p rop ortional l imit

,
I n t est ing .

w ood the comp ression of the su b st ance of thest eel s trik ing w eight
m ay be negl ect ed since the st eel is v ery h ard in comp arison w it h
,

the Wood I n a dd ition t o the comp res sion of the fib ers at the
.

surf ace of cont act res ist ance is al so of f ered by the inert ia of the
,

p articl es there the comb ined ef f ect of w hich is a stress at the

,

surf ace of cont act oft en e nt irel y ou t of p roport ion t o the com

p ression that w ou ld resu lt from the action of a st at ic f orce of

the s ame m ag nitu d e I t f requ entl y ex ceed s the crus h ing strength
.

at the extrem e su rf ace of cont act as in the cas e of the sw ag ing ,

act ion of a h amm er on the head of an iron s p ik e or of a l ocom o ,

tiv e wh eel on the st eel rail This is al so theca se wh en a b u ll et is

"

shot t hrou gh a b oard or a p ane of gl ass w ithou t b reak ing it as a

w hol e .

2 I t m ay m ov e the stru ck b od y as a wh ol e w ith an accel erat ed

.

v el ocity the resist ance consisting of the inertia of the b od y This

,
.

ef f ect is s een w hen a g olf b all is stru ck w ith a cl u b .

3 I t m ay d ef orm a fix ed b od y ag ainst its ext ernal sup p orts

.

and rela tedp rop erties of w oods g rown in the United S ta tes, U . S . D ep t . Ag r.

T ech Bu l 479 , W ashing t on, 1 935 , p 1 4

. . . .

29 This s erv es to exp l ain w hy a s m al l beam , w hen su ddeny l oaded, b ends

l
about twice as f ar to the p rop ortional limit as when l oaded slow ly .
58 BASI C ME CHA N I CA L P R OP ER T IE S OF CLEA R W OOD

T A BLE 4 . I M PA CT B E N D I N G S T R E N GT H P R O P E RT I E S
-
OF

A M E R I CA N W oons *

Heig ht of D rop
Cau sing Com
p l ete F ail ure,
Sp e0 1 es in ( 50 p ound
.
-

Hamm er)

A ir—
’
Green A ir dry r Green
-
d y T Green
r Air dry j
-
‘

Hardw oods
A l der, red 2 6
.

A sp en, larg etooth

B assw ood
B eech
B eech, bl u e ( Hornb eam
Am erican )
Birch , A l ask a w hite

2 6
2 7

B uck ey e, y ell ow
B u stic
B ut ternu t
B uttonw ood
Cascara

Cat alp a, hardy

Cherry , black
Cherry , p in
Ches tnu t 2 8
Chinq uap in, g ol den

From L J . . M arkw ardt and T R C W ilson S treng th

. . .
,
and rela ted p rop erties
in the United S tates , U S D ep t Ag T ech B ul 47 9 , 1 935 ,
'

of w oods g rown . . . r. . .

T abl e 1 .

TA ir dried to 1 2 p ercent m oistu re

-
content .
 I M P A CT S T RE N GT H P R OP ERT IES 59

T A BLE 4 IM P A CT BE N D I N G S T R E N GT H P R O P E R T I E S OF AM ERI CA N
—
-
.

W OOD S *
Continu ed

Heig ht of D rop
Causing Com
p lete Failu re
—
.

S p ecies in ( 50 p ou nd
.

Ha m mer)
’
Green Air dry j -
‘

Green A ir dry r -

Hardwoods
Cott onw ood , eastern
Cott onw ood, northern
black
D og w ood
D og w ood , Pacific
Elder, blu eberry

E lm , Am erican ( Elm
w hite)
E lm , rock
Elm, slip p ery
F ig , g olden
Gum , black ( T u p el o,
black )

Gum , blu e
Gu m , red ( Gum , sw eet )
Gum , tu p elo ( T up elo,
w at er)
Gumbo limbo
Hackb erry

Haw , p ear
Hickory , big leaf shag

Hickory bitternut ,

Hickory m ock ernu t

,

Hickory nutm eg ,

Hickory p ig nu t ,

Hick ory shag bark,

Hick ory , w at er
Holly
Honey locu s t

Hop hornbeam

From L J . . M arkw ardt and T R C W ilson S treng th and

. . .
,
rela ted p rop erties
D ep t
.

f
o woods g rown in the United S ta tes, U S Ag T ech B ul 479 , 1 935 ,
“

. . . r. . .

Table 1 .

f Air dried to 1 2jp ercent mois ture

-
content .
60 BA S I C M E CHA N I CA L P ROPERT IES OF CLEA R W OOD

T A BLE 4 I M PA CT BE N DI N G S T RE N GT H P R O PE RT IE S OF A M E R I CA N
—
-
.

WOOD S *'

Continu ed

Heig ht of D rop
Cau sing Com
p l ete F ailure,
S p ecies in ( 50 p ou nd
.
-

Ham mer)

Green A ir dry t Green Air dry T Green A ir dry T

-
'
- -

Hardwoods
I nk w ood
I ronw ood, black ( L ead
w ood )
L au rel, California
Laurel, mountain
Locu st black
,

M adrono, P acifi c
M ag nolia, cu cu mber
M ag nolia, ev erg reen
M ag nolia, mou ntain

Oak , California black

Oak , cany on live
Oak , chestnut
Oak, lau rel
Oak , l ive

Oak, Oreg on w hite

Oak , p in
Oak, p ost
Oak , northern red
Oak , R ocky M ou ntain
w hite ( Oak , Gambel )

From L J . . M arkw ardt and T R C W ilson S treng th

. . .
,
and rela ted p rop erties
f
o w oods g row n in the United S tates , U S . . D ep t . Ag r. T ech Bu l
. . 479 , 1 93 5 ,
T abl e 1 .

1 Air dried to 1 2 p ercent moisture

-
content .
02 B A S I C M E CHA N I CA L P ROPERTIE S OF CLEA R W OOD

T A BL E 4 I M P A C T BE N DI N G S T R E N GT H P R O P E RT I E S OF A M E RI CA N
—
-
.

W OOD S * ’
Continu ed

Heig ht of D rop
Cau sing Com
p lete F ail u re,
S p ecies —
in ( 50 p ound
.

Hamm er)
’ ’
Green Air dry T Green A ir dry r Green A ir dry r
- - -

S of tw oods
Cedar, A lask a
Cedar, incense
Cedar, P ort Orf ord
Cedar, east ern red

Cedar, s ou thern red

Cedar, w es tern red

Cedar, northern w hite
Cedar, s ou thern w hite
( Cedar, A tla ntic
w hit e)
Cyp ress , sou thern ( Cy
p ress , bal d )
D oug las fir ( coast typ e )
D ou g las fir ( interm edi
at e typ e)
D oug las fir ( Rocky
M ou nt ain ty p e )
F ir, alp ine
F ir, bals am
F ir, corkbark

F ir, low land w hite

F ir, noble
F ir, California re
F ir, silv er
F ir, w hite

Hem lock , eastern

Heml ock m ou ntain ,

Hemlock w estern ,

Junip er allig at or
,

L arch w estern
,

Pine, j ack

From L J . . M arkw ardt and T R C Wilson, S treng th and

. . . rela ted p rop erties
f
o w oods g rown in the United S tates , U S . . D ep t . Ag r. T ech B ul
. . 47 9, 1 9 3 5 ,
T able 1 .

TAir dried to 1 2 p ercent moisture

-
content .
 I M P A CT ST RE N GT H P R OP ERT IES 63

T A BLE 4 I M PA C T BE N D I N G S T RE N GT H P R O P E RT I E S OF A M E R I CA N
—
-
.

W OO D S *
Conclu ded

Heig ht of D rop
W ork st o Cau sing Com
P rop p rf l onal
i p lete F ailu re,
Ll m t ,
S p ecies
é in ( 50 Po‘ind
-

3
.

m l /m
, . .
Ham m er)
’
Green A ir dry r Green Air dry r
- -
‘

P ine, l ong l eaf

Pine, m ountain
Pine, northern w hite
( Pine, eastern White)
P ine, N orw ay (Pine, red )
Pine, p it ch

Pine, p ond
Pine, p onderosa
Pine, sand
P ine, shortl eaf
Pine, slash

Pine, su g ar
‘

P ine, w est ern w hite

P iny on
R edw ood ( virg in)
R edw ood ( second
g rowth , Op enly g row n)

R edw ood ( second

g rowth , closely
g row n )
S p ru ce, bl ack
Sp ru ce, Eng elm ann
S p ru ce, red
Sp ruce, S itka

From L J . . M arkw ardt and T R C Wilson, S treng th

. . . and rela ted p rop erties
fwoods g in the United S ta tes , U S D ep t Ag T ech B ul 47 9 , 1 935 ,
'

o rown . . . r. . .

Table 1 .

rAir dried to 1 2 p ercent moistu re

J
-
content .
 64 BAS I C M E CHA N I CA L P ROPERTIES OF CLEA R W OOD

and resis tances . I n m ak ing imp act t est s in the l ab orat ory the
t est sp ecim en is in real ity a cu shion b etw een two imp act ing
b od ies nam el y the strik ing w eight and the b ase Of the m achine
, ,
.

I t is imp ort ant t hat the m ass of this b ase b e suffi cientl y g reat
t hat its rel ativ e v el ocity t o that of the common cent er Of gra v ity
Of it self and the st rik ing w eight m ay be d isreg ard ed .

4 I t m ay d ef orm the st ruck b od y as a w hol e ag ains t the re

.

s ist ing st res s es d ev el op ed by its ow n inert ia as f or ex amp l e

, , ,

w hen a b aseb all bat is b rok en by st rik ing the b all .

Im p act t est ing is d iffi cu lt to condu ct sat is f act oril y and the d at a
obt ained are of v al u e chiefl y in a rel at iv e sens e that is f or com , ,

p aring the S hock resisting ab il ity Of w ood s of w hich l ik e S p eci

-

m ens hav e b een su bj ect ed t o id ent ical treatm ent Y et t his t est .

is one Of the m ost im p ort ant m ad e on w ood as it b ring s out ,

p rop erties not ev id ent f rom other t est s D ef ect s an . d b rittl eness
are rev eal ed by imp act b ett er t han by any other k ind Of t est .

I n comm on p ract ice nearl y all ext ernal s tresses are Of the nature
of im p act I n f act no tw o m ov ing b od ies can com e t og ether
.
,

w ithou t d ev el op ing imp act st ress I mp act is theref ore the m ost
.

comm on f orm Of app l ied st res s althou gh the m ost d ifficu lt t o

,

m easure .

S t ren g t h of W ood as a B eam

The b reak ing strength (if a b eam is exp ressed in t erms of st ress
p er unit area by a m odu lus of rup tu re w hich is the comp u t ed m ax i
mum fib er stress in the extrem e u pp er and l ow er surf ace fib ers
Of the b eam M odu l us Of rup tu re is an app rox imat ion of the
.

tru e stress since assump tions on w hich the f ormul a f or com

,

p u ting it a re b ased are v al id onl y u p t o th e p rop ortional l imit .

How ev er the t erm is univ ers all y accep t ed and f or p ract ical p u r
, ,

p os es the comp ut ed v al u es are qu it e comp arabl e f or v ariou s

sp ecies and siz es of t imb er V alu es f or m od u l u s of rup tu re are
.

u sed in cal cu la t ing the st rengt h of m at erial t o be u sed as b eam s

and f or d eriv ing s af e w ork ing st resses f or j oist s string ers and , ,

l ik e f orms of w ood ( see p ag es 246

T he v al u es f or mod u l u s of ru p ture ( s ee T abl es 1 and 2 col 5 )
'

.
,

are u su all y d eriv ed f rom st at ic b end ing t est s on sm all cl ear sp eci
-

m ens rect angu l ar in cross s ect ion freel y su pp ort ed at b ot h end s

, ,
 S T RE N GT H OF W OOD A S A BEA M 65

l d ed at the cent er of the S p an ( see p ag es 2 93—9

and oa and F ig .

T he f oll ow ing f ormul a3 0 is u sed :

in w hich
R the m odu l us Of ru p nds p er s qu are inch
P the m axim u m ]
1 the di ts ( l eng t h of sp an ) ,
inches
31
5 and d the eam , resp ecti e v ly ,
inches
30 This eq u ation is m erely a sp ecial f orm Of the fl exu re f ormula ‘
( eq u a
tion 3 ) and is ap p licabl e only t o simp le b eams , rectang u lar in cross s ection,

sup p orted at th e ends and carry ing a concent rat ed l oad at the cent er of the
s p an. Under these conditions

M P l /4, I bd 3
/1 2 ,
and c % d ep th of beam ( d) . s M e /I then
becom es

2
‘

Since m odulu s of rup ture (R ) is the com p uted stress, R 1 5 P l /bd

.

31 F or other s tatic l oading i

condit ons on rect ang ular p ris m atic beam s , the
f ollowing f ormulas are used :

( 1 ) F or sm all siinpl e beams ,

f
uni ormly loaded

0 75 P l
.

2
bd

F or small sirnp le beams, l oaded at t he third p oints

-

Pl
2
bd

(3 ) F or larg beams, l oaded at t he third p oints (s ee F ig

e sirnp l e -
. in
w hich the w eig ht of the b eam is considered :

(0 75 W
. P)l
2
bd

in w hich W t he wig ht of
e the b eam , p ounds .

F or beams, and beam s fi xed rig idly

cantilev er and continu ou s at one or

both ends, as w ell as f or dif ferent form s of cross section, and s o on, other f or
mulas are req uired (see any book on m echanics ) .
66 BA SI C M E CHA N I CA L PR OPE RT IES OF CLEAR W OOD

By transp osing this f orm u l a it is ev id ent that f or rect angu l ar

p rism at ic simp l e b eam s of the s ame m aterial m od e of sup p ort , ,

and l oad i ng the s l ow l y app l ied l oad ( P ) that a g iv en b eam can

,

s up p ort v aries a s f oll ow s :

1 I t is inv ers ely p rop ort ional t o the l ength of sp an f or b eam s

.

Of the s am e w idth and d ep t h D ou bl ing the S p an red u ces the

“

l oad w hich the b eam w ill su pp ort by hal f .

2 I t is d irectl y p rop ortional t o the w idth f or b eam s of the

.

s am e sp an and d ep th I f its w idth is d ou bl ed a b eam w ill sup

.
,

p ort tw ice as much l oad .

3 I t is d irectl y p rop ort ional to the s quare of the d ep th f or

.

b eams Of the s am e S p an and w idth I f the d ep th of a b eam is .

d oubl ed its breaking strength w ill be increased f our t imes It is

, .

on account of t his rel at ion of d ep t h t o b end ing s t rength that b eam s

and S imil ar f orm s Of t im b er are u su all y p l aced on edg e w it h the ,

w id er f aces v ert ical How ev er if the d epth of a m em b er ex ceed s

.
,

f ou r tim es its w idth th ere is a great t end ency f or the p iece t o

,

tw ist w hen l oad ed I t is to ov ercome t his t end ency that fl oor

.

j oist s are b raced ( cross b ridg ed ) a t frequ ent int erv al s

-
.

I n add it ion t o m od u l u s of ru p ture valu es are al s o d eriv ed f or ,

fi ber s tress at p rop ortiona l limit in st atic t est s On small cl ear .

b eam s ( see T abl es 1 and 2 0 0 1 S u ch v al u es d enot e the

,
.

s tres s in ext rem e fib er t o w h ich a b eam m ay be su bj ect ed w ithou t

ex ceed ing the p rop ort ional l im it ; in ot her w ord s the m ax imu m ,

l oad the b eam w ill supp ort f or a S hort t im e w ithout acquiring a

i

p erm anent d ef orm at ion A lthou gh it is ind icat iv e Of the s af

.

l oad that cl ear w ood w ill sup p ort fib er stress at p rop ortiona l ,

l imit is not S O rel iabl e as m odu l u s of rup ture f or comp u ting s af e

w ork ing stresses I n cal cu l at ing th e fib er stres s at p rop ort ional
.

l imit the same formu l a ( equ ation 6 ) is u sed as f or mod u l u s of rup

ture ex cep t that the l oad at p rop ortional l imit ( P I ) is su b stitut ed
,

f or the m ax im um l oad ( P )

S T IF FNES S
T he stif f nes s Of w ood , u sed l ong ( or inter
ei her as a
t b eam or

m ed iat e) col umn is a m easure of its ab ility t o resist d ef orm at ion

,

or b end ing I t is exp ressed in t erms Of the m odu lus of elas ticity
.

and ap p l ies onl y w ithin the p rop ort ional l imit B ecau s e Of its .

orthotrop ic nature w ood is ch ara ct eriz ed by t hree m od u l i of

,
 ST I FF N ES S 67

l
e as ticity one f or each stru ctural d irection ( F ig
, V al u es f or .

m od u l u s Of el ast icity in the tw o d irections p erp end icu l ar to the

grain are rel ativ el y l ow app rox imat el y to of the v al u e
,

p arall el to the g rain ( see T a bl e I ns of ar as s ol id w ood b eams

“

are concerned the v al u e f or m od u lu s of el ast icit

, y p aral l el to the
g rain is the onl y one of imp ort ance .

M od u l u s of el ast icity res entativ e of the st if f ness of

m
b ea s a e dr ng t est s 3 2
( see T abl es 1 and 2 ,

00 1 . T hey are u ting the d efl ection of b eam s ,

j oists string ers and so f orth and in comp uting s af e l oad s and
, , ,

Work ing stresses f or lOng and int ermed iate colu mns T he f or .

m u l a f or the mod u l us of el ast icity of a simp l e b eam l oad ed at

'

the cent er and rest ing f reel y on su pp orts at either end is 3 3

3
/
P1l
48g ]

in w hich
E m odu lu s of el asticity , p ou nd s p er squ are inch
l l eng th of sp an ( d istance b etw een sup p ort s ) , inches
y m axim u m d efl ect ion at m id sp an, inch es, corresp on d ing t o the
l oad P I , _

PI any l oa d at or b el ow the p rop ort ional l im it , p ou nd s

4
I m om ent of inertia of the sect ion inches ,
-

F Or a b eam of rect ang u l ar cross section t his equ ation b ecom es

3
P1l
3
4ybd

in w hich b and d are the W id th and d ep th of the b eam ,

resp ec

tiv ely , in inch es

'

By transp osing this f ormu l a it is e v id ent that f or t

rec an u ar g l
32 Valu es f or m odulu s m ew hat dif fer
of elasticity are als o deriv ed in a so

ent m anner f rom endw is e com p ression t ests on sh ort colu m ns ( see p ag es
—
3 0 4 0 9 f or m ethod and f ormu la ) The v alu es com p u ted from su ch t ests .

are sim il ar t o those obtained from static b ending t ests w hen the b ending
“

sp ecim ens are l ong enou g h in relation t o dep th s o that shear d ef orm ations

are s m all ; they ar e, how ev er s om ew h at hig her than the v alu es ob t ained
,

f rom the standard static bending S p ecim ens -

.

3 3 F orm u las and their d eriv ation a

pp licable t o other typ es of l oading are
‘

p res ent ed in C C F orsaith, Technolog y of N ew Y ork S ta te tim bers, N Y

“

S tat e Col F or T ech p ubl 1 8 Sy racuse, 1 926 p p 1 85—

. . . .

. . . 219
. S ee also any
, , . .

t extbook on streng th of m aterials .

68 BA S I C M E CHA N I CA L P ROP ERT I ES OF CLEA R WOOD

b eams Of the same mat erial m od e of supp ort and l oad ing the
, , .
,

d efl ection y is aff ect ed as f oll ow s ;

1 I t is d irectl y p rop ort ional t o the cu be of the l eng th of sp an
.

f or b eams of the sam e w idth and d ep t h Trip l ing the sp an g iv es .

2 7 tim es the d efl ection .

2 I t is inv ers el y p rop ortional to the w idth f or b eam s of the

.

s am e sp an and d ep th I f the w idth is trip l ed the d efl ection is one

.
,

third as g reat .

3 I t is inv ersel y p rop ortional t o the cu be of the d ep th f or

.

b ea ms Of the s ame sp an and w idth I f the d ep th is trip l ed the .

,

d efl ection is % 7 as g reat F or this reason t im b ers are p l aced

.

w ith the w id er f aces v ert ical w here s tif f ness as w ell as b end ing ,
.

strength is an im p ort ant consid erat ion

, .

T he f act that the b end ing strength v aries as the s qu are of the
d ep th and the stif f ness as the cu be of d ep th exp l ains the rel ation
ship of b end ing t o thickness W ere the ratio the same f or .

strength and s t if f ness a t hin p iece of w ood su ch as v eneer cou ld

, , ,

not be b ent any f urther w ith ou t f ail ure than a thick er p iece,
su ch as inch l umb er .

T he num b er of p ou nd s th at concentrat ed at the cent er w ill

d efl ect a regu l ar prismatic simp l e b eam 1 inch m ay be f ound from
the p reced ing f ormu l a by substituting by 1 inch and s olv ing
f or P 1 .

T he f ormu l a then b ecomes

N ecessary l oad (P 1 )

In th is v al ues f or E are read f rom t abl es of averag e

cas e the
v alu es prep ared f rom d at a Obt ained by ex p eriment ation on the -

g iv en mat erial I t is essential of cours e that the l oad be w ithin

.
, ,

the p rop ortional l imit and that m at erial be of av erag e qu al ity .

A l thou gh st if f ness is ind ep end ent of b end ing strength w ood s

'

w hich rank high in one resp ect al so u su all y rank h ig h in the

other .

T OU G HN ES S : S HO CK RE S I S T IN G A B I L I T Y
-

T oug hnes s ist erm th at is commonly app l ied to more than

a

one rop erty of w ood T hu s w ood that is difliC

u lt to sp l it is s aid
p .

to be t ou gh A g ain, a t ou gh w ood is one th at w ill not rup ture

”

.
70 B A S I C M E CHA N I CA L P R OPERT I ES OF CL EA R WOOD

a sin gl e bl ow are al s o used in d et ermining the ab il ity of w ood

,

t o ab s orb energ y und er shock s w hich p rod uce comp l ete f ail ure 3 6 .

This f orm of t est is S imp l er than the increm ent d rop t yp e and -

is consequ entl y b ett er ad ap t ed to m ak ing accep t ance t est s f or the

el iminat ion of b rittl e a nd otherw ise u ns atis f act ory m at eria l ; it is
l ess v aluabl e f or st and ard t esting how ev er since v alues f or fi b er , ,

s tress at p rop ortional l imit and m od u l us of el ast icity cannot be

s at is f a ct oril y d et ermined A m achine f or mak ing t est s of th is

.

typ e ad ap ted f rom one originall y d esigned by the F orest P rod u ct s

L ab orat ory is d escrib ed on pa g es 3 2 1 —
, _

, 39 3 7 ( see F ig 88 ) .

I n add ition to the strength p rop ert ies d eriv ed from imp act
t ests the v al ues f or w ork to p rop ortional limit, w ork to maximu m
,

l oad and total w ork as d et ermined in s tatic b end ing t est s on

, ,
-

sm all cl ear b eams al so ind i cat e the rel at iv e s hock resist ing ab il ity
,
-

Of w ood s ( s ee T abl es 1 and 2 col s 7 8 and Work to p ro

, .
, ,

p ortional l imit is a m easure of the w ork that a b eam is abl e to

res ist or the shock that it can ab s orb w ithout b eing st res sed
, ,

b ey ond the p rop ortional l imit as d taermined und er S l ow l y ap p l ied

a
l oad s ; that to m ax imum l oad rep res ents the ab il ity of tim b er
j

t o ab s orb shock w ith a s l ig ht p ermanent or s emip erm anent de -

f ormation of the mat erial T he l att er is a measure of the com

.

bined strength and t ou ghness of a m at erial u nd er b end ing

stress es
38 T ot al w ork is a m eas ure of the t ou gh ness of w ood
.

w hen l oad ed t o comp l et e f ail u re in st at ic b end ing V al u es f or .

these three p rop erties are d et ermined from the areas und er the
l oad defl ect ion curv es Obt ained from st atic b end ing t ests as
- -

ind icat ed in F ig 1 7 ( s ee R esil ience p ag e 6 )

.
,

A nother typ e of t est som et im es u s ed in d et ermining the t ou gh

ness of w ood is the t orsion or tw is ting t est If the end s of a .

shaft are t urned in op p osit e d irect ions or one end is t urned and ,

the other is fix ed al l the fib ers ex cep t those at the ax is t end t o

“

assu m e the f orm of h el ices T he strain p rod uced by t orsion or

.
-

tw isting is essentially sh ear comb ined w ith l ong itu d inal t ension
and transv erse comp ress ion W ithin the p rop ortion al l imit the
.

strains increas e d irectl y as the d ist ance f rom the a x is of the

36 F or com p aris on of sing le drop

-
and increm ent drop im p act tests
-
s ee

Wilson f ootnote ,
28 .

37 F ores t P rodu cts L abora tory tou g hness tes ting m achine, F or P rod . .

L ab Rep t 1 3 0 8 , M adison, 1 9 41
. . .

3 3 N ew lin and W ils on f ootnot e 6 15

, p
. .
,
 HA RD N E SS 1

S p ecimen . T he
l ou er e em en s are su
t t bj ect ed to t ensil e stresses
and as they b ecom e tw is t ed t end t o comp ress those near the ax is .

T he el ong at ed el em ent s al so contract l at erall y Cross sections .

that w ere original ly p l ane b ecome w arp ed W ith increasing .

strain the l at eral adhesiOu of the ou t er fib ers is d est roy ed all ow

- -

m g them to sl id e p ast each ing greatl y t heir

0 A B
Def lection ( inches)

F IG
. 17 . T yp ical load defl ection — cu rv e f or w ood j
su b ect ed t o static bending .

The areas OP A , OQ B , and ORC rep resent v alues f or w ork t o p rop ortional
limit , w ork t o m aximu m l oad, and tot al w ork , resp ectiv ely .

p ow er of resist ance I n this w ay the s trains on the fib ers nearer

.

the ax is are p rogress iv el y increased unt il fi nall y al l the el em ent s

are sheare d ap ar t . t ou gh est m aterial s that the

I t is l y in
on the
full ef f ect of this act ion can be ob serv ed B rittl e w ood s snap .

off su ddenl y w ith onl y a sm all amount of t orsion and their frac ,

ture is irregu l ar and Obl iqu e t o the ax is Of the p iece inst ead of
fray ed out and m ore nearl y p erp end icu l ar to the ax is as w ith
t ou gh w ood s .

HA RD NE S S

Hardness, as com monly d in connection w ith w ood is

u se ,
a

m easure of its resis ance t to ind ent at ion al thou gh the t erm
,
is
 72 BA S I C M ECHA N I CA L P ROP ERT IES OF CLEA R W OOD

l
a s o u se d b il ity of the m at eria l t o w ith st and ab ra
t o ind icat e the a

sion or s crat ching I n the l att er S ense hard ness com b ined w ith
.

t ou ghnes s is a meaSure of the w earing ab il ity of w ood and is an

'

imp ort ant consid erat ion in the u se of w ood f or fl oors p av ing
'

bl ock s b earing s and roll ers A lthou gh resist ance to ind ent ation
, ,
.

is d ep end ent m o s tl y on the d ensity of the w ood the w earing ,

q u al ities m ay be g ov erned by other f act ors such as t ou ghness ,

and the s iz e coh esion and arrang em ent of the fib ers

, , I n u se f or .

fl oors some w ood s t end to comp act and w ear sm ooth w hereas ,

others b ecom e s p l int ery and rou gh This f eature is af f ect ed to .

u

s om e ext ent by the m anner in w hich the w ood is s aw ed ; thu s edg e -

grain p ine fl ooring is much b ett er than fl at s aw n f or unif ormity -

of w ear .

T he d d hard ness test m ad e to d et ermine the resist ance of

t
s an ar ,

w ood to ind ent ation by a st eel p unch or b all ( s ee p ag es 3 1 2— 14

'

and F ig is of v al u e f or comp arativ e p u rp oses onl y A s a

. .

"
ru l e there is l ittl e or no consist ent d if erence b etw een the hard
, f
nes s of the radial and t ang ent ial surf aces but end h ard nes s g en ,

erally ex ceeds th at d et ermined tra m the sid es of a p iece ( See

"

T abl es 1 and 2 col s 1 3 and ,

F or th is reas on w ood p rod u ct s
.
,

in w h ich h ard ness is the g ov erning f act or su ch as p av ing bl ock s , ,

are S O u sed th at t he end g rain is ex p os ed to S

n I ce l oad s T est s .

f or ab rasion are al s o of comp arat iv e v alu e onl y These m ay be .

m ad e by m easu ring the w ear ( l oss of w eight ) of w ood w hen

scru bb ed by s and p ap er Or oth er ab rasiv e u nder controll ed con

ditions .

CLEA VA GE RE S I S T AN CE

Cl eavag e resistance t erm

d to d enot e the resist ance
is the u se

th at w ood of f ers to sp l itting A sp l itting stress is one in w h ich

.

the f orces act l ik e a w edg e ( see F ig L ow resist ance to .

cl eav ag e is v ery d esirabl e in the p rep arat ion of fi rew ood and of
'

b ill et s and s qu ares On the other hand resistance to Sp l itting

.
, ,

or p oor cl eav ab il ity is d esirabl e W h ere w ood mu st h old nail s or -

s crew s .

T ests in cl eav ag e are m ad e to d et ermine the f orce req uired to

l t ll
S p i S p ecia y p rep ared s p ecim ens ( s ee p a g es 3 1 8—1 9 and F ig .

8 6 D ) the p l ane of cl eav ag e b eing p arall el t o the grain and either

'

rad ial or t ang ential These t ests are s omew hat simil ar to th ose
.
 ELA S TI C P ROPERT I ES OF W OOD 73

in tension d icu l ar to the g rain but

p erp en ,

onl y a p ort ion of the fib ers are und er st ress

at one t ime T he u nit v al u es Ob tained

.

(p ou nd s p er inch o f w idt h of sp l itt ing s u r

.

f ace) are of comp arat iv e v alue only T abl es .

1 and 2 ( col 1 6 ) g i
. f cl eav ag e
tests on A merican g reen and
air dry cond itions
-
.

M ost w ood s sp l it m ore read ily al ong the

ray s t han p arall e
'

l t o the g row th ring s A s .

might be ex p ected this d if f erence is m ost ,

mark ed in w ood s in w hich the ray s are

highl y d ev el op ed su ch as oak sy camore and
, , ,
F 1G 18 Cleavag e Of
b eech A m ark ed excep tion to th is g eneral
“
“ '

a straig ht g rained -

,
ru l e is t o be f ound l n w ood s W ith int erl ck ed
o s tiff w ood T he cl eft .

gram W hen s u ch w ood s are sp l it rad iall y

.
ru ns f ar ahead of the ,

the d istort ed fib ers are m ore or l ess incl ined wedg e .

to the p l ane Of cl eav ag e s ot hat their p ro , '

nounced st rength in t ension p arallel to the g rain is b rought int o

—

p l ay A w ood of l ittl e stiff ness and st ron

. g cohesion across the
grain is d ifficu lt t o sp l it w h ereas one of great stif fness su ch as
, ,

l ong l eaf p ine is eas1 l y sp l it

,
.

ELA S TI C P R OPE RTIES OF W O OD

Ex cep t f or mod u l us ticity p arall el to grain d at a rel at ing

of e as l ,

to the el ast ic c onst ant s of w ood hav e b een d et ermined f or onl y

a f ew sp ecies A lthou gh not ord inarily u sed in s ol id w ood
.

d esign v al ues f or el astic constant s app l icabl e to the t hree ax es of

sym
,

m etry of w ood ( F ig 2 ) are im p ort ant in the d esign of p ly

.

Wood sandw ich typ e p anel s and simil ar constru ctions

,
-

, .

T he el ast ic const ant s of el ev en sp ecies are show n or may be

comp u t ed f rom ra tios show n inTa bl e 5
l

M oduli of el asticity ( Y ou ng s m odu li) p erp endicul ar to th e

’

g rain are d esig nat ed as E T in the d irect ion of the t ang ential ax is
and ER in the d irect ion of the rad ial ax is ( F ig 2) These v al u es .

are indicat ed in T abl e 5 as rat ios of mod u l u s of el ast icity p arall el

t o the grain ( E L ) A lthou gh consid erabl e v ariation am ong

.

Species is show n Y oung s m odu l u s in the rad ial d irection is

’
,

consist entl y great er than the corresp ond ing v al u e in the t an

g ential d irection .
74 B A SI C M ECHA N I CA L P R OP ERT I E S OF CLE A R W OOD

8 4 7 5 8 0
7 5 0 3 8 3
4 6 4 2 6 6

N
Q
E
M
5 w
h
m
q 5
e
9 n
m m a
o
n
a
w 8
A r
£
g
d
£ ia
s
p
w £ o
s a 5
4
5
9
0
9 n i
a o 5 fi 5 as
2 mmQ 6 z 5 3 w e
 REFERE N CE S 75

M odul us of ( s om etimes call ed modu lu s of elas ticity in

rig idity
s hear) i M od u l i of rig id ity asso
’
s d es ig nat ed by the sy m b ol G .

ciated w it h S hear d ef ormat ions in d iff erent p l anes are d enot ed -

by su b s crip t s t hu s GM is the m od u l u s of rig id ity ass ociat ed w ith

,

shear d ef ormat ions in the L T ( t ang ent ial ) pl ane resu lt ing f rom

S hear s tress es in the LR ( r OSS — sect ional ) p l anes .

GL R is the m od u l us as d ef ormat ions in the

rad ial p l ane resu lt ing f r the other tw o p l anes ,

and GM is the m odu lus associat ed w ith S hear d ef orm at ions in the

cros s s ectional p l ane

-
Rat ios of m odu l u s of rig id ity to m od u l u s .

of el ast icity p arall el t o grain ( EL ) are p resent ed in T abl e 5 .

GL B is g enerall y S l ightl y great er t han GL T and b oth of these are

m any times great er than GM .

’
P ois s on s ratio is the ra t io of the ex p ansion al ong one of the
s t ru ctural ax es t o the cont ract ion occu rring in the d irect ion O f
stres s as a resu lt of a comp ressiv e stress act ing p arall el t o another

ax is on a cu b e of w ood I t is d esig nat ed as n I n T abl e 5 six . .

v alu es of M are giv en each corresp ond ing to the d irections of ,

stress and l at eral d ef orm at io n inv olv ed F or ex amp l e p m ref ers .

,

t o the exp ansion in t he t angential d irect ion corresp ond ing to a

comp ressiv e s t res s in the l ong itu d inal d irect ion and M L ref ers to ,

the ex p ansion in the l ong itu d inal d irect ion corresp ond ing t o a
comp ressiv e stress in the t ang ent ial d irect ion .

REF ERE N CES

A M ERI CAN SOC I ET Y F OR T ES TI N G M ATERIA L S : S tandard m ethods of t esting

s m all cl ear sp ecim ens Of timb er S erial D esig nation f D 1 43 48 , 1 948 .

-

S andards, A m S oc T est M at , Phil ad elp hia P t I I

B ook f t o . . . .
,
. .

BETT S H S : The s treng th of N orth A m erican w oods U S D ep t A g r

, . . . . . . .

M is c P ubl 46 W ashing t on 1 929

—
. . .
_ , , _

BOYD J E : S treng th of m aterials 4th ed rev M cGraw Hill B ook Co ,

, . . .
-

. . .

N ew Y ork 1 93 5
'

.
,

D EW ELL HEN RY D : Tim ber f raming

, D ew ey P ubl Co S an Francis co
. . . .
, ,

1 91 7 .

F ORES T P RODU CT S LABORATORY : Wood hand book, rev . U . S . D ep t . Ag r.

Unnu mb ered P ubl W ashing ton, 1 940

—
. .
,

D esig n Of w ood aircraf t s tru ctures A N C B ul . . 1 8 , A rm y N av y

Civil Comm on A ircraft D esig n Crit eria, A ero B oard
. .
, W ashing t on, 1 944
E lastic p rop erties of w ood F or P rod L ab Rep ts 1 5 28 and

—
. . . .

I 5 ZSA H, M adison, 1 9 45 46
-
.

F ORS A IT H , C C : The technolog y of N ew Y ork S tate tim bers

. . . N . Y . S t ate
Coll F or T ech P ubl 1 8 , S y racuse, 1 926
. . . . .
76 BA S I C M ECHA N I CA L P R OP E RTIES OF CLEA R WOOD

J A COBY HEN RY S and ROLA N D P D AvI s : Tim ber desig n and cons tru ction
,
.
,
. .

2d ed J ohn W iley S ons N ew Y ork 1 93 0

(
. . .
, ,

JOH N S ON J B : T he m aterials of cons tru ction 8 th ed rew ritten by M O

,
. . . .
, . .

Withey and J ames A ston J ohn W iley & S ons New Y ork 1 939
‘ '

. .
, ,

KOE HLER A RT H UR : The p rop erties and u ses of w ood M cGraw Hill B ook
,
.
-

Co N ew Y ork 1 924
.
,
.
, .

KOLL M AN N FRAN Z : Technolog ie des Holz es Juliu s S p ring er Berlin 1 936

,
.
, , .

LAU RS ON P G and W J COX : M echanics of m a terials

, . . 2d ed J ohn
,
. . . .

Wiley S ons , N ew Y ork , 1 9 47 .

M ARK WARDT, L J Comp ara tive s treng th p rop erties of w oods g rown in the
.

United S tates U S D ep t A g r T ech Bu l 1 5 8 , W ashing ton 1 930

. . . . . . .
, .

and T R C WI LS ON : S treng th and rela ted prop erties of w oods

“

. . .

g rown in the United S tates . U . S . D ep t . Ag r. T ech Bu l 479,

. . W ashing ton,
1 935 .

M CELH A N N EY ,
T . A .
,
and A S S O IATES C : Canadian woods : their p rop erties
and u ses Canad a D ep t Int , Ottaw a, 1 935
. . . .

M OORE ,
HERBERT F : Textbook of the materials
of eng ineering 7th ed . . .

M cGraw Hill Book Co N ew Y ork 1 947

-
.
, ,
.

N EW LI N J A and J M GA H A GA N : T es ts of larg e tim ber colu mns and

, . .
, . .

p resenta tion of the F ores t P rodu cts L aboratory colu mn f ormu la U S . . .

D ep t . Ag r . T ech Bul 1 6 7 , . . W ashing t on, 1 93 0 .

and T R C . . . WI L S ON : M echanica l, p rop erties of woods g rown in the

United S tates Bu l 556 , W ashing ton 1 9 1 7
. U . S . D ep t . Ag r . .
, .

P A RKER, HARRY : S imp lified desig n of s tru ctural tim ber J ohn . Wiley
S ons, N ew York ,
1 9 48 .

RECORD S A M U EL J
,
M echanica l p rop erties of w ood ? J ohn W iley S ons,
N ew Y ork 1 9 1 4 , .
 F A CT ORS A FFE CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P ROPERT IE S

giv en to the f act ors infl uencing the qu al ity of w ood ,

esp ecially
thos e that can be d et ermined by v1 su al insp ect ion
-

Or S im p l e
test I n this w ay the u se of d ef ectiv e or inherentl y
.
, w eak m a
terial m ay be av oid ed t o a l arg e ext ent .

DEF E CT S

F or the p urp os es of
t his discu s sion a def ect, in w ood is d efi ned -

as an y irreg u l arity occu rring in or on w ood th at m ay l ow er its

s treng th 2 B ased on their rela t iv e w eak ening ef f ect su ch irreg u
.
,

l arities are div id ed int o tw o group s nam el y m aj or and m inor , , _

-

d ef ect s M aj or d ef ects consist of k not s check s s hak es sp l it s

.
, , , ,

cross g rain comp ress ion f ail ures cross b reak s d ecay and com
, , , ,

p ression w ood all of w hich m ay seriou sl y imp air the strength of

,

w ood and shou l d be rig idl y cont roll ed as t o ext ent and l ocat ion in
the g rad ing and u se of st ructural t im b ers and otherm at erial in
w hich strength is of v it al im p ort ance M inor d ef ect s includ e
p it ch p ock ets bark p ock et s p it ch and p it ch streak s f ros t sp l it s
, , ,

or crack s f rost ring s l ight ning ring s insect hol es g um sp ot s

, , , , ,

bl ack streak s p ith fl eck s b url s ring rdis t ortions b ird p eck w arp
, , , , ,

ing in its v ariou s f orm s casehard ening honey com b ing coll ap se
, , , ,

p ith and w ane

,
These l att er irregul arities are normally not con
.

sidered s eriou s f rom the s t and p oint of thelf rel ation to the
streng th o f w ood and are u su all y l im it ed f or other reas ons t han

their w eak ening eff ect N ot infrequ entl y how ev er su ch minor

.
, ,

fl aw s m ay ind icat e the p resence of more seriou s d efects T hus .

,

w arp ing m ay be ind icat iv e of cross g rain num erou s p it ch p ock et s ,

m ay ind icat e the p resence of g enera l shak es and b ark pock ets ,

m ay be ind icat iv e of conceal ed k not s .

K n ot s
K nots , the most p rev al ent d ef ect s in stru ctu ral t im b er, are p or
t ions of the m ain b ranches or sm all er l imb s incl u d ed in the w ood -

of theb ol e of a tree A s l ong as they rem ain al iv e the b ranches

.
, ,
I

w hich g enerall y originat e at th e p ith or grow th cent er Of the ,

s em
t increase in siz e b ey ond the p eriphery of the tru nk by the
3
,

2 The d efi nitions of the v arious d efects

g iv en in the f ollow ing p ag es a re in
ag reem ent w ith th oseby the A m erican S ociety f or T esting M ate
ad op t ed . .

rials . S ee D efi nitions Of t erm s relating t o timb er, S erial D esig natiOn :D 9 3 0 , -

1 93 0 B ook of S tandards, A m S oc T est M at , Philadelp hia P t II . . . .

,
. .

y hav e th eir orig in at s om e distance f rom the

3 A dv entitiou s b ranches m a

p ith , b ut they are u su ally of rare occu rrence in f orest -

g row n m aterial .
 K N OT S 79

dd ition of annu al l ayers of w ood On the und ersid e of a

“

a .

b ranch these annu al l ay ers are d istinctly continu ous w ith those
of the b ol e thus af f ord ing an u nb rok en p ath f or the fl ow of s oil
,

m oisture from the root s to the l eav es of the b ranch ; on the u pp er

sid e the grain of and t end s t o p ass arou nd

the b ranch m ak i , t ion w ith it A S a resu lt .

,

F ores t P rodu cts L aboratory Ph oto

F IG . 19 . S p ik e k not sh ow ing
distortion of g rain T he annual layers of .

g row th in the adj oining w ood are dis tinctly continu ous w ith those of the knot
s o l ong as the b anch rem ains aliv e and that p ortion of th e knot is interg rown
r .

A fter the death Of the branch , there no l ong er rem ains any continuity with the
su rrounding w ood, and the knot is encas ed.

the d irect ion of the fib er in and around the k not is at right angl es
or obl iq u e t o the grain of the st em thu s p rod u cing l ocal cross ,

grain ( see F ig .

B ecau se of the natu re of the orig m and su b sequ ent grow th of

the b ranches the k not s are irregu l arl y conical in shap e w ith their
, ,

tip s at the p ith of t he st em Consequentl y in consid ering the

.
,

ef f ect of k not s it shou ld be b orne in m ind that the p ort ion ex p osed
,

in s aw ing m erel y rep resent s a section of this conical m ass T he .

shap e of the ex p osed p ort ion w ill of cou rse v ary w ith the direc
, ,

tion throug h w hich the k not is out W hen a sect ion p asses at .

rig ht angl es or m ore or l ess obl iq u el y to the ax is o f a k not a round ,

(Or oval ) knot results ( F ig 20 A ) w hereas a section p as sing

.
,

l engthw ise throu gh it giv es ris e to a sp ike knot ( F ig As .

80 FA CT ORS A FFE CTI N G M E CHA N I CA L P ROPERTIES

l ong l im b remains al iv e its l ay ers of grow th are d irectl y con

as a ,

nected w ith those of the st em and the resu lt ant k not w hich is , ,

S aid to be interg rown ( F ig is fi rml y fix ed in the su rrou nd ing

.

w ood B ut d uring the d ev el opm ent of a tree p art icu l arl y w hen
”

.
, ,

it is grow ing u nd er crow d ed cond it ions in the f orest the l ow er ,

l imb s usually die and alth ou gh t hey g enerally p ersist f or a num

,

Fo res t P rodu cts L aboratory Photo

F I G 20
. . A . I nterg row n round k not in y ellow p ine . B . Encased knot in
hemlock .

ber of y ears, their cam b ium ( g row th z one) ceases t o function I n .

consequ ence, the fib ers of the st em are no l ong er intim at el y j oined

w ith those d ead l imb I nst ead they are l aid arou nd the
of the .
,_

b ase Of the b ranch encasing it and Show ing a d ecrease in grain

d ist ortion A d ead b ranoh resu lt s in w hat is know n as an
“

encased knot ( F ig 203 ) w h ich is in eff ect nothing more than a

.
, ,

p eg in a h ol e and is l ik el y t o b eco m e loose and e v en d rop Cu t a f t er

the tree has b een s aw ed int o l u m b er p articu l arl y w hen the ,

b ranches hav e b een inf ect ed w ith d ecay K nots are cl assifi ed .

accord ing to siz e f orm q u al ity , a d occu e ce

n rr n 4 .
, ,

4 D efi nitions of t erm s relatin

g t o timb er f ootnote 2 , .
 KNOT S 81

E v ent uall y the d ead b ranches m ay b reak at or near the

p erip hery of the tree trunk ow ing t o w eak ening by d ecay or ,

”
other cau ses resu lt ing in w hat is t ermed natu ral p runing
“
, .

Lik ew ise b oth l iv e and d e ad b ranches may be rem ov ed b

, y ar t i
fi cial means A s the t ree cont inu es its d iamet er
L .

grow th the n , ring s cl ose in ab ou t the end of

the b rok en or p rune is fi nally h eal ed ov er by su bse

qu ent grow th Wh en this co ion is reached grain d ist ort ion
.
,

ceases as n ew l ay ers of w ood are l aid d ow n and the su cceed ing ,

grow th p rodu ces cl ear l um b er at th is p oint .

K not s m ateriall y af f ect check ing and w arp ing ease in w ork ing , ,

and cl eav ab il ity of t im b er Th ey are d ef ect s that al so d ep reciat e .

the v al u e of w ood f or structural p urp oses and other u ses w here

strength is an imp ort ant consid erat ion Th eir w eak ening ef fect .
,

how ev er is b rou ght ab ou t not by any inherent inf eriority of the

,

mat erial comp osing th em bu t rath er by the comb ined eff ect of ,

the l ocal cross grain w hich they p rod u ce and the ch eck ing w h ich
may d ev el op in and around them in d ry ing I n resist ance to -

t ension it h as b een f ound that int ergrow n knots are f u ll y as in

,

j uriou s as k not h ol es or encased knot s of the same siz e T he .

greater d ist ortion of the grain around an int ergrow n knot and the
more p ronounced check ing m ay more than of f set the strengt h
red u ct ion resu lt ing f rom the absence of m at erial in a k not h ol e or
'

the l ack of att ach m ent in an encas ed k not ; I n resist ance to sid e
w is e comp ression h ow ev er s ound k not s are l ess inj u riou s S ince
“

, , ,

the w ood of su ch d ef ect s is norm all y d ecid edl y hard er than the
surrou nd ing m at erial .

T he stiff ness of b eams is l arg el y d ep end ent on the qu al ity of

the w ood fi b er and as a ru l e is not m at eriall y af f ect ed by k not s, ,

of the s iz es norm all y encou nt ered in stru ctu ra m

l lu b er 5 How .

ev er in small m emb ers m w h ich the st eep cross g rain ass ociat ed
,

w ith a k nOt con st it ut es a m aj or p ort ion of the cross s ect ion con ,

s idera B reak ing

6
bl e redu ct ion in st if fness has b e e n n ot d
e .

A ls o Lu m S im p lifi ed P ractice Recommendation R IG 39 U S D ep t

ber, -
. . .

Comm W ashing t on 1 940 p p 28—

,

.
,
9 , ,
. .

A nd Edward P I v ory D avid G White and A rthu r T Up son S tandard

.
,
.
,
.
,

g rading sp ecif ications f or y ard lu m ber, U S D ep t A g r D ep t Circ 2 96 . . . .

,

W ashing t on 1 923 p p 63—

. .

4 Cont ains 2 2 p lates S how ing stan

, ,
.
dard defects .
.

5 L J M arkw ardt and T R C W ils on S treng th and related p rop erties .

. . . .
,

of w oods g rown in the United S ta tes, U S D ep t A g r T ech Bu l 479

—
. . .
. . . ,

W ashing ton, 1 935 , p p 68 9 . .

6 N V P ol etika, Ef f ect of local cross g

. . rain on the stifi ness of s mall beams,
 F A CT OR S A FF E CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P R OPE RT I E S

t
s reng th on the other hand is greatl y infl u enced by k not s the
, , ,

ef f ect of w hich is t o red u ce the d if f erence b etw een the fib er st ress

at p rop ort ional l mit a d the m od u l u s o ru p tu e of b eam s

f
i n r 7
.

I n s tructural t imb ers su bj ect ed to b end ing th e p recise infl u ence ,

of knot s on strengt h is l arg el y a m att er of their l ocat ion in th e

p iece and the resu lt ant k ind of stress t o w hich they are ex p os ed ,

althou gh the d eg ree to w hich t hey alt er the d irect ion of the grain

of the w ood their numb er and the ext ent to w h ich th ey are
, ,

check ed al s o p l ay an im p ort ant p art K not s on the conv ex sid e .

of a l oad ed b eam are su bj ect ed t o t ension t hos e on the concav e ,

sid e to comp ression and th ose m idw ay betw een the tw o s id es t o

,

horiz ont al sh ear Resist ance t o t ension is m at erially redu ced by

.

any mark ed d ist ortion of the g rain at the surf ace of the p iece ,

S ince t ensil e st rength at righ t angl es t o the g rain is onl y a sm all

fract ion of that p arall el to the grain Check ing w ill fu rther re .

d u ce su ch resist ance I n consequence k nots l ocat ed at or near the

.
,

i i
/

p o i nt o f g reat es t t ens il e s t ress i i t t im b er h av e a s eriou s ef f ect

on it s s t rength I n comp ression how ev er th e w eak ening ef f ect

.
, ,

of the l ocal cros s grain is d ecid edl y l es s th an in t nsion and check

e ,

) 8
ing in and arou nd t he k not is al s o l ess inj urious I n h oriz ont al .

shear k not s ex ert l ittl e or no infl u ence ; in f act th ey m ay ev en

s l ightl y increase the resist ance t o this stres s by b rea k ing up the
cont inu ity of check s th at m at eriall y red u ce shear ing st rength .

S ince t ension and com p ress ion stresses in a timber s u bj ected t o

b end ing are great est at the cent er of the conv ex and concav e sur

Jou r F or ,
. . W ashing ton, July
1 9 47 , p p 5 1 1 1 2 .
— . A continu ation O f this s tu dy

inv olv ed the fabrication of beam s containing cross -

g rain inserts t o p erm it

m athem atical analy s is of the e ffect of cross g rain on s t iffness S ee N V
. . .

P oletika A new m ethod f or stu dy ing t he elas tic behav ior of w ood , W ood
—
, ,

Chicag 1 948 , p p 2 6—
o, J une 8 , 58 .
,
and Ju ly 1 9 48 , p p 26 2 8 , 30 5 1 2 .
,
.

7 M cGarv ey Cline and A L Heim T es ts o f s tru ctu ra l tim bers, U S

A g r F or S erv Bu l 1 0 8 W ashing t on 1 9 1 2 p p 52—
. . . .
,

D ep t . . . . 4 .
, , ,
. .

8 “ T he infl u ence that a knot on t he t ension f ace at the

p oint of m axim u m
m om ent exerts on the streng th of a g reen beam is ap p roxim at ely m easu red
by the ratio of the diam et er of the knot t o the w idth of the f ace The
“

diam et er of the knot is m easu red betw een lines p arallel t o the edg es of th e
‘

face . T hat is , a knot one -

f ou rth the w idth of the face w ill redu ce the
streng th 2 5 p ercent T he sam e knot on the comp ression side w ou ld hav e
.

P
ab ou t one hal f this infl uence
-
L arg e k ots hav e a som ew hat g I eater in
n .

fl u ence on the streng th than is indicat ed by this ru le, ow ing t o th e relativ ely
larg e dis tortion of the g rain around them
”
J A N ew lin, nit stresses in .
— . . U
timber, P roc A m S oc Civil E ng
. . . .
, N ew Y ork , V ol 52 S ep t 1 92 6 , p 1 440
.
, . . .
 CHECK S A ND S HA K E S 83

f aces resp ectiv el y and d ecrease tow ard the neutral p l ane and
, ,

end s it is ev id ent that k not s are m os t w eak ening w hen l ocat ed

,

in t he middl e p ortion of the t ensil e sid e l ess s o in the central ,

p ortion of the nd l east w eak ening if S itu ated

m id w ay betw ee or near theend s of the t imb er .

T hese v arious f as w ell as t hos e of siz e hav e at ,

v ariou s tim es b een tak en int o consid eration in the ap p l ication of

g d g l s t st u tu al t mb ers
r a in ru e o r c r i 9 .

T he ef fect of knot s on col umns is d ep end ent on the l ength of

the timb er as w ell as on the S iz e and l ocation of the d ef ects In .

l ong col umns w here stif f ness is the g ov erning f actor their ef f ect
, ,

on stre ngth is rel at iv el y sm all I n int ermed iat e and short .

col u mns the redu ction in st rength b ecause of the p resence of

k nots is app rox im ately p rop ortional to the k not siz e althou gh , ,

as in the case o f b eams l arg e knots hav e a s omew hat great er ,

ef f ect in red u cing strengt h in rel at ion to their s iz e t han sm all er

ones I n other w ord s the ef f ect of the k not s is p ract ical ly the
.
,

s ame as rem ov ing a s imil ar am ou nt of cl ear m at erial f rom the

cros s sect ion F u rther w hen the p iece cont ains a nu mb er of

.
,

knots occurring either singly or in w horl s the ef fect of all k not s

, ,

w ithin any 6 inches of l ength is p ra ct icall y the s am e as if they

occu rred at the s am e heig ht and in the s am e p l ane 0
1
.

Ch eck s and S h a k es
A d efi ned as a sep aration of the w ood al ong the g rain
ch eck is
" “

the g reater p art of w hich ext end s across the annu al g row th ring s -

in the d irection of the ray s ( F ig 2 1 A ) sh ak e is a sep aration al ong .

the g rain the great er p art of w hich occurs b etw een and p arall el
,

to the ring s of grow th ( F ig 2 1B) Check s commonl y resu lt . .

f rom the u nequ al S hrinkag e that t ak es p l ace in the w ood d uring

'
-

'

1 1
seasoning and are cl ass ifi ed as su rf a ce checks and end checks .

9 S ee p ag es 220 1 and F ig 5 4 — . .

1 0 J A N ew lin and J M Gahag an, Tes ts f larg

o e tim ber colu m ns and
“

. . . .

p resentation of the F ores t P rodu cts L abora tory colu m n f ormu la U S D ep t

—
. . .
,

Ag r . T ech Bu l 1 6 7. . W ashing t on, 1 93 0 , p p 2 , 2 0 1 . .

A third typ e of
11 als o recog niz ed in
ch eck , know n as heart check, i s

timb ers that inclu de th e p ith I n this th e S p lit starts at or near the p ith.

and ext ends t ow ard bu t not t o th e su rf ace of th e p iece Where sev eral of .

th ese occu r t og eth er, a s tar check is f orm ed A lthou g h these sep arations of .

the w ood are cl assifi ed as checks b ecaus e they occu r across th e g row th ring s ,

they are a ctu al ly com p arabl e to shakes , b eing f orm ed in the w ood b ef ore
the tree is felled and not as a resu lt of seasoning .
84 FA CT ORS A FFE CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L PROP ERTIES

Y ale Photo
F IG . 21 . A Checks
. resul ting from end drying . B S hake.
.

S hak es rep resen ll in cert ain w eak p ortions

t the rup ture of the ce s

of the w ood du e to u ncert ain cau ses and are O ften t ermed ring “

, ,

or cup sha k es S hak es s eld om d ev el op unl ess th ey w ere p resent

.

to a cert ain d eg ree in the tree b ef ore it w as f ell ed

-
S pl its are .

l engthw ise sep arations extend ing f rom one surf ace throu gh the
,

p iece t o anoth er Surf ace p rod u ced in w ood as a resu lt Of rou gh

,

handl ing or int ernal stresses They af f ect the strength of the
.

w ood in the s ame w ay as check s and shak es .

F ORM A T I ON OF CH E CK S
T he w all s ofll in w ood are mad e up Of a mu ltitude of
the ce s

v ery minut e sp irally incl ined and m ore or l ess l ongitu d inall y
,

d irect ed , th read l ik e ag g reg rates known as fi brils T he fib ril s

-
.
,

in turn are mad e up of microfibrils consisting of a netw ork of

,

S till another f orm of checking is the interior checking , or honey com bing ,
that infreq u ent ly dev el op s in casehardened lumber T his is discu ssed under .

M iscellaneous S easoning D efects .

 FA CT ORS A F FE CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P ROP E RT I E S

s hrin at ri
g ht angl es to the g rain is qu it e p ronounced rang
k ag e '

ing f rom ap p rox im at el y 2 to 8 p ercent of the orig inal u nseas oned

s iz e in t he rad ia l d irect ion and f rom ab ou t 4 t o 1 4 p ercent in the

t ang ential as ind icat ed in T abl e 6 S ince the figures show n in

,
.

this t abl e ap p ly to ov en d ried m aterial the shrink ag e in air -

d ried and k il n d ried w ood w ill be p rop ort ionat ely l ess d ep end ing
-

on the am ou nt of m ois tu re l os t b el ow the fi ber s atu rat ion p oint

’

-
.

T he rat io Of t ang ent ial to rad ial S hrin k ag e in ind iv id u al w ood s

rang es as S how n f rom sl ig ht l y m ore t han 1 14 to 1 in su ch
, ,

w ood s as p ap er and y ell ow b irch and cert ain of the p ines t o a

m ax imu m of 3 t o 1 in bl ack w ill ow .

I n ord er t o u nd erst and the reasons f or this v ariation in shrink

ag e it is necess ary to cons id er the arrang em ent of the el em ent s in
, .

the w ood A ll norm al w ood cell s b ecom e s m all er in cross sect ion
.

on d ry ing but u nd erg o l it t l e chang e in l ength as h as al read y b een ,

ex p l ained Bu t they do not all extend in the s ame d irection in the

’ ‘ ’
-

tree or p iece of w oo d and consequ entl y their S hrink ag e d oes not , , ,

coincid e in all d irect ions M icroscop ic ex am inat ion of A m erican .

w ood s reveal s the f act th at their g rou nd m ass is com p osed l arg el y
of w ood fib ers ( in the hard w ood s ) or t racheids ( in conif ers ) -

w hich ext end l ong itu d inall y or w ith the grain of the w ood .

Hence these cell s in d ry ing t end to d ecrease the cros s s ect ion of a
,

s tick b oth rad iall y and t ang ent iall y but do not af f ect its l eng th

to any ext ent “ A p ort ion of ev ery w ood is m ad e u p of ray s

.
1 5
,

the ind iv idu al cell s Of w hich u su all y hav e their l ong est ax is l y ing
in the rad ial d irect ion t hat is ext end ing across the g row th ring s , ,
.

at right angl es to the g rain A ccord ing t o one t heory shrink ag e .

,

of these ray cell s thu s t end s t o s hort en a p iece of w ood l ong i

m at erial th e Ob liq u e a lig nm ent of the cells in the w ood res ults in m ore p ro
nou nced endw ise s hrink ag e .

F or fu rther dis cu ssion see A rthu r K oehler L ong itu dinal shrinkag e of
,

w ood, P ap er p res ent ed at t he Fifth N at C onf erence A m S oc M ech Eng

.
,
. . . .
,

W ood I nd . D ivision ,
N ew Y ork ,
1 930 .

A lso R . A
Cock rell, E xp lanation of l ong itu dinal shrinkag e of w ood
.
L

bas ed on interconnect ed chain m ol ecu le concep t Of cell w all stru ctu re, -

Trans A m S oc M ech E ng , N ew Y ork N ov 1 947 , p p 93 1 —

. . . 5 . .
,
. . .

1 4 V essels and
w ood p arenchy m a cel ls als o extend in th e s am e direction
as the fi b ers and t ra ch eids and a ct in a sim ilar m anner .

15
I n p ine, ov er of th ese ray s occu r on a sq u are inch of tang ential

section, w h ereas in oak the v ery larg e ray s , w hich m ay be sev eral inches
hig h and are readily v is ib l e t o the u naid ed ey e as flak es on q uart er saw ed -

( edg e -

g rain ) su r aces , f rep resent s carcely one p ercent of the num ber the
m icros cop e reveals .
 W E I GHT A ND S HR I N K A GE 87

T A BLE 6 . WE I GHT A ND S H R I N K A GE OF C A N W OOD S

A M E RI *

Shrink ag e from Green to

Ov en D ry Condition,
-

B ased on Green
D im ensions ,

Volu Ra T an
S p ecies s oned m oistu re content m etric dial g ential

Hardwoods
A lder, red

A p p le
A sh , B il t m ore
A sh, bl ack
A sh , blu e

A sp en, l arg etooth

B assw ood
B eech
(Horn
B eech , blu e
beam A merican) fl H
1

, 53 0

B irch , A l ask a w hit e O

3 i
48 0 O C

Bu ck ey e, y ell ow 12 0. 3 5 .

—
Bu stic
B u tternu t

—
Buttonw ood
Cascara

: t
k o
7
0
Cat al p a, h ardy 0 s U l
t
-
c

Cherry , black
t

t 1 6
1
mN l
x n

Cherry , p in H2 o o
O A
.
0
0 e
r O p
- c

Chestnu t H1 5
0
o
e
k
l
p mx l

Chinqu ap in, g H3 c
o -

ol den
9
5 h
t fl P
r

Cottonwood , eas tern 49 3 9

F rom L M ark w ardt and T R C W ilson, S treng th and rela ted p rop erties of
. J . . . .

w oods g rown in the United S tates , U S D ep t Ag r T ech Bu l 4 7 9 , 1 9 3 5 , T able 1

. . . . . . .
 FA CT OR S A FFE CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P R OPERT IE S

T A BLE 6 . WE I GHT AN D S H R I N KA GE OF A M E RI C A N WooD s *—Continu ed

Shrink ag e from
Green to
Ov en D ry Condition,
-

B ased on Green
W eig ht p er cu bic foot ,
lb . D im ensions,
Unsea A t 1 2 p ercent Volu Ra T an
Sp ecies s oned m oisture cont ent metric dial g ential

Hardw oods
Cottonw ood ,
northern black
D og w ood
D og w ood, P a ci fic
Elder, blu eberry

Elm , A m erican ( Elm ,

w hite)
E lm , rock

E lm , slip p ery

F ig , g ol den

Gu m , black ( T up elo,
black )

Gu m , blu e
Gum , red ( Gu m ,
s w eet )
Gu m , tup elo
( T up elo ,
w ater)
Gu mbo limbo
Hackberry

Haw , p ear
Hickory big leaf ,

s hag bark
Hick ory, bitt ernu t
Hick ory , m ockernu t
Hick ory nu tm eg ,

Hick ory , p ig nu t
Hickory , shag bark 7 0
Hick ory w ater ,

Holly
Honeyl ocu st

Hop hornbeam 18 6. 8 2 .

I nk w ood 18 8. 6 6 .

Ironw ood, bl ack

( L eadw ood ) 86 81 11 6

From L J . . M arkw ardt and T R . . Wilson , S treng th and rela ted p rop erties of
m m in t he Tf n o f p frl S ta tes II S no A crr T h 12 1 1 1 4 7 9 1 9 2 5 T a b l e 1
f

w . .
f t . ec
 T A BLE 6 . W E I G HT AND S H RI N K A GE OF A M E RI CA N W ooD s —Continu ed
*

S hrink ag e from Green t o

Ov en D ry Cond ition,
-

B ased on Green
W eig h t p er cubic foot ,
lb . D im ens ions ,

Unsea A t 1 2 p ercent
“

Volu Ra T an
S p ecies s oned m oistu re content m et ric dial g ential

Hardw oods
Oak , s w am p w hite

Oak , w ater
Oak , w hit e
Oak , w ill ow
Osag e orang e
-

P al m ett o, cabb ag e

P op lar, b al sam 40
P op lar, y ellow 38
Rhododendron, g reat 62
S assafras 10 3 4 0 . 6 52
S erv iceberry 18 7 6 7 10 8

S ilv erbell
S ou rw ood
S t op p er, red

Sug arberry

S u m ach , s t ag horn

S y cam ore
W alnu t ,
bl ack

W alnu t ,
lit tle
W ill ow ,
black
W illow ,
w es tern
black

Wit ch -
haz el

36 9 2
.

45 5 2
.

F rom L J. . M ark w ardt and T R C Wils on, S treng th and related p rop erties of
. . .

w oods g row n in the United S tates , U . S . D ep t . Ag r. T ech Bu l 47 9 , 1 9 3 5 , T able 1

. .
 T A BLE 6
“

. WE I GHT AND S HRI N K A GE OF A M E RI CA N W O OD S — Continu ed

*

S hrink ag e from Green to

Ov en D ry Condition,
-

Based on Green
c foot ,
lb . D im ensions ,

Unsea A t 1 2 p ercent Volu Ra T an

S p ecies s oned moistu re content m etric dial g ential

S of tw oods
Cedar, P ort Orford
Cedar, eastern red

Cedar, s ou thern red

Cedar, w estern red

Cedar, northern
w hite
Cedar, sou th ern w hite
( Cedar A tl antic
,

w hite)
Cy p ress, s ou th ern

( Cyp ress bal d ) ,

D ou g las fi r ( coast
ty p e)

D oug ( inter
las fir
mediate typ e)
D oug las fir ( R ocky
Mou ntain typ e)
F ir, alp ine

F ir, bal s am
F ir, cork bark

F ir, l ow land White

F ir, noble
F ir, Calif ornia red

F ir, S ilv er

F ir, w hite

Hem lock east ern,

Hemlock m ou ntain
,

Hemlock w estern ,

Ju nip er allig ator

,

Larch w estern
,

P ine, j ack 30
P ine, Jeff rey 28

From L J M ark w ardt and T R C W ilson S treng th and related p rop erties of
. . . . .
,

w oods g rown in the United S tates , U S D ep t A g r T ech Bul 47 9 1 9 35 T abl e 1

. . .
.
. . .
, ,
.
 FA CT ORS A FF E CT I N G M E C HA N I CAL P ROP ERT IE S

T A B LE 6 . W E I GHT A ND S H R I N KA GE OF A M E R I CA N W OOD S
* —Conclu ded -

S hrink ag e from Green to

Ov enD ry Condition,
-

B ased on Green
Weig ht p er cubic foot ,
lb . D im ensions ,

Unsea A t 1 2 p ercent Vol u T an

1

S p ecies s oned m oistu re content m etric dial g ential

S of tw oods
P ine, limber
P ine, l obl olly
P ine, lodg ep ol e

Pine, l ong l eaf

P ine, m ou ntain
P ine, northern w hit e
( P ine ,
eas tern

w hite)
P ine, N orw ay ( Pine,
red ) 11 5 4 6
P ine, p itch

P ine, su g ar

Pine, w estern w hite

Piny on
Redw ood (v irg in)
Redw ood ( second
g rowth , Op enl y

g row n )

Redw ood ( second

g rowth , cl osely

g row n )
S p ru ce, bl ack
S p ru ce, Eng elm ann

S p ru ce, red
S pru ce, S itk a

Sp ru ce, w hite
T am arack
Y ew , P acifi c 54 44

From L J . . M ark w ard t and T . W ils on S treng ,

th a nd related p rop erties of
w oods g row n inthe United S tates U S . . . D eb t . Ag r. T ech . Bu l 479 1 9 35 T able 1
. . , .
94 FA CT ORS A FFE CTI N G M E CHA N I CA L P R OP E RT I E S

ciently great to t ear the fib ers ap art p rod u cing surf a ce checks ,

( see F igs 2 3 and . On the ot her hand if the int ensity of ,

these stresses d oes not ex ceed the resist ance of the w ood the ,

surf ace t end s t o b ecom e

“
s et w ithou t f u ll shrink ag e t ak ing
‘

p l ace g iv ing rise w hen the int erior d ries t o the cas ehard ened con
, , ,

d ition d is cussed u nd er M is cell aneo u s S easoning D ef ect s Sur .

f a ce check s occur chiefl y al ong the ray s f or the reasons al read y ,

m ent ioned and conseq u entl y are Ob serv ed on the t ang ent ial su r
, ,

f aces Su ch check s u su all y do not p enetrat e f ar int o the w ood

.
,

alt hou gh t hey m ay be m ore p ronounced in tim b ers and other

l arge s iz ed mat erial than in thinner l um b er ow ing to the great er

-

d if ference b etw een the m oisture content of the interior and ex

terior p ortions of the m ore siz abl e m at erial A s the int erior of the .

w ood d ries out t hey m ay cl ose but their w eak ening ef f ect
, ,

re m ains .

I n the t g l og s and in d ry ing l um b er t imb ers cros s t ies

s ora e of , , ,

and the l ik e the end s l ose m ois tu re m ore r

,
ap idl y t han the sid es ,
-

not onl y b ecau se m oistu re t rav el s al ong the g rain m ore read il y
than across it but al s o b ecau se the end s Of thefi aterial p il ed f or
,

s eas oning are m ore ex p osed to d rying cond it ions t han th e p ort ions

i t
n h e int erio r of the p il e
1 7
T he m ore rapid d ry ing of the end s
.

cau ses l ocal S hrink ag e and w ere the m at erial suffi cientl y p l ast i
,
c ,

the end s w ou ld b ecom e bl untl y t ap ered T he rig id ity of the .

w ood su b s t ance p rev ents this how ever and the cell s are sp l it , ,

ap art resu lt ing in end chécking

, ( see F ig 2 1 A ) L at er as the . .
,

rem aind er of the st ick d riesm any of the check s w ill cl os e thou g h ,

s ome of the l arg est w ill rem ain and m ay ev en increase in s iz e as

the d ry ing p roceed s End check s norm all y f oll ow the rays since
.
,

these are the natu ral p l anes Of w eak ness in the w ood bu t ,
.

occas ionall y they al s o ext end t ang ent iall y ( al ong the g row th

ring s ) as a resu lt Of the s ep arat ion of the thin— w all ed sp ringw ood
cell s T hese t ang ential check s how ev er are l ess p ronounced
.
, ,

and not s o serious as the norm al rad ial f ail ures .

V ariat ions in the d ensity of d if f erent p ort ions of a p iece of w ood

m ay al s o af f ect the u nev en shrink ag e and resu lt ant check ing that

17 D esp ite this factthe loss of m oistu re is f ar g reater rom the sid es of a
,
f
s tick , b ecau se t he am ou nt of su r a ce area t hu s exp os ed is s o m u ch g reat er
f
than on the ends . Only in u np eeled p rodu cts , in w hich the b ark retards su r

face d ry ing , is an ap p reciab le p ortion Of the total m ois tu re re m ov ed from

th e ends .
 F ORM A TION OF CHE CK S 95

occu rs in d rying althou gh this f actor is of f ar l ess conseq uence

,

than thos e al read y discu cc d ens ity is l arg el y d ep end ent

on the am ou nt of actu a bs tance it is ev id ent t hat the ,

heav ier p arts of a g iv e end t o s hrink m ore t han the

n t
n m ark ed v ariat ions in d ensity
'

1 8
i
l ght ones
er Conseq u e
.

occu r in d if f erent p art s of the s am e p iece ow ing t o d ecid ed ,

chang es in rat e of g row t h o r other cau s es the S hrink ag e m ay be ,

m ore unev en than w ou ld otherwise be the case .

I t has b een su gg est ed that in ring p orou s h ard w ood s and in -

thos e conif ers that ex hib it d istinct d if f erences in d ensity b etw een
earl y and l at e w ood t he great er contraction of d ens er w ood is
,

in s om e m easure resp onsibl e f or the f act that t ang ential shrink ag e

is great er than rad ial I n these w ood s the d enser b and s of l at e
“

w ood are continu ous in the t ang ent ial d irect ion w hereas rad iall y ,

they are s ep arat ed by alt ernate z ones of l ess d ense early w ood .

How ev er the ratio of t ang ential t o rad ial Shrink ag e is d ecid edl y
,

great er in northern w hite p ine and bl ack w ill ow w hich exhib it ,

l ittl e d if f erence in d ens ity b etw een earl y and l at e w ood than in ,

l ongl eaf p ine and w hit e oak in w hich the d if f erence b etw een the
tw o p ort ions of the g row th ring is qu it e mark ed That other .

s im il ar com p aris ons might be m ad e is ev id enced in T abl e 6 .

T he u se Of anticheck irons top rev ent end ch eck ing of cross t ies
and p ol es d u ring air seas oning is now a comm on p ract ice in the
’

United S t at es p art icu l arl y in st ock p il ed f or seasoning p rior t o

,

p res erv at iv e treatment T hese d ev ices are d riv en into the b utts
.

of the t im b ers s o as t o cros s incip ient check s and p rev ent th eir

18 The f ollowing eq uations , rep resenting the av erag e rel ations betw een
density and the shrink ag ethat tak es p lace in d ry ing w ood from the un

seas oned t o the ov en dry condition, h av e b een w ork ed ou t

-
at the F orest
P rodu cts L ab oratory :
Radial shr
inkag e 9 5G
.

T ang ential S hrink ag e 1 7 0G

.

V olu m etric shrinkag e 28 0 G

.

w here G is t he S p eci c fi g rav ity , b as ed on ov en -

dry weig ht and u ns eas oned

v olu m e, and shrinkag e is exp ressed as p ercentag e of dim ensions when un

s eas oned From J A N ew lin and T R C W ilson The relation of the

'

. . . . . .
,

shrinkag e and s treng th p rop erties of w ood to its sp ecific g ravity U S D ep t , . .

Ag r Bu l 6 76
.
, W ashing t on, 1 9 1 9 .

T hese in g eneral not only w ithin the sam e sp ecies bu t

eq u ations ap p ly , ,

als o b etw een dif ferent kinds of w ood, alth ou g h in the latter case notable
excep tions are f ound in T ab le 6 .
96 FA CT ORS A FFE CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P R OP ERT I ES

w id ening Other meth od s of red u cing the end check ing of w ood
.

d uring air seasoning consist Of shad ing the end s of the p il es,-

nail ing s m all w ood or m et al cl eat s t o the end s of the b oard s , or

p ainting the end s w ith s om e m oisture retard ant coat ing T his -
.

l ast m ethod is al so ad ap t ed to k iln d rying , in w hich end check ing

m ay l
a so be red u ced by the m aint enance of
f airly high hu m id ity a .

I n air seasoning it is d iffi cu lt to p rev ent surf ace check ing al

thou g h it m ay be redu ced by cl os e p il ing or otherw is e cutting
d ow n the circu l at ion w ithin the p il e Care mu st be t ak en h ow .
,

ev er t o see that the d ry ing cond it ions are not red u ced t o su ch
”

an ext ent t hat the air w it hin the p il e b eco mes m ore or l ess
st ag nant since t his cond it ion w ill ent irel y p rev ent the d ry ing of
,

th e w ood and may inv it e d ecay I n k il n d rying surf ace check ing
.
,

m ay be ent irel y el iminat ed by p ro er ; humid ity control p

.

F ORM A T I ON OF S H A K ES
S hak es comm on
l y Ob s erv ed in unseasoned as w ell as
are

s eas oned t im b er b eing f orm ed in the t ree b ef ore f all ing and not
,
m
as a resu lt of s easoning a lt hou gh the stresses s et up in d ry ing
,

m ay cau se the sh ak es t o enl arg e m at eriall y Ring s hak e resu lts .

from the p art ial or comp l et e s ep aration of tw o grow th ring s ( se e

F ig 2 1 B )
. It is comm on in heml ock s y cam ore W estern l arch
.
-

, , ,

and a f ew other w oods and m ay occur in any s p ecies,

I t is m ost .

frequ ent l y f ound at the j u nction of tw o grow th ring s of v ery

u neq u al w idth Conseq u en .tl y it is l ik ely to occur in trees th at
hav e g row n S l ow l y f or a t ime then show n an ab rup t increase in
,

rat e of d iam et er g row t h as a resu lt of thinning or other treat

,

m ent s w hich im p rov e the grow ing cond itions Ol d t im b er is .

m ore su bj ect to shak e than are y ou ng t rees and this d ef ect is ,

u su all y confi ned t o the b u tt l og .

T he cau s es of cu p or ring shak e are u ncert ain T he sw ay ing .

action of the w ind is f requ entl y h eld resp ons ibl e f or the sp l itt ing

or sh ea ring ap art of the g row t h ring s es p eciall y in t rees g row ing ,

in exp osed p l aces and f or this reason the f ail ure is s om et im es

,

know n as wind shake The d ef ect how eVer often occurs in trees
.
,
-

p rot ect ed f rom the w ind and is not necessaril y confi ned to the
ort ion of the t ree w here the great est S hear s t resses are d ev el op ed
p
.

F rost m ay in some inst ances be resp onsibl e f or S hak e or at least ,

be a contrib u ting f act or although t rees g row ing in reg ions free
,

from f rost m ay al s o d ev el op the d ef ect K oehl er has adv anced

“

.
 98 FA CT ORS A FF E CTI N G M E CHA N I CA L P ROP ERT I ES

T ension . T he
t ion of the w ood fib ers by check s has
sep ara

l ittl e if any ef f ect up on the strength in t ension w h en the l oad is

, ,

ap p l ied in l in e w it h the fib ers On t he other hand w hen the l oad

.
,

is ap p l ied p erp end icu l ar to the fib ers their s ep arat ion by check s
w ill cau se a d irect red u ct ion of the area act ing in resist ance t o
t ension and cons equ entl y w ill redu ce the strength T he re
, , .

d u ction in t ensil e strength f rom check ing v aries b etween these

two e xtremes b ecoming more and more seriou s as the angl e of
,

g rain increases .

“
A s in the case of check s shak es hav e no ef f ect on t ensil e ,

p rop ert ies w hen the l oad is app l ied in l ine w ith the g rain bu t any ,

sep arat ion of the annu al ring s w ou ld of cours e d est roy the t en
'

, ,
”
s il e st rength across the grain
.
Comp res sion
“
The ef f ect Of ch eck s and sh ak es is confi ned
.

l arg ely to causing an u nequ al disti ibution of stresses w hich

resu lt s in a red u ct ion of s t rength throu gh the ov erstress ing of

s ome of the fib ers b ef ore ot hers and f ail ures t heref ore occu r

at s om ew hat l ow er av erag e l oad s t han if the check s w ere not

”
p resent .

S hear R edu ction in sh earing streng th is due al m ost entirel y

.

W eak ening in sh ear f rom

"

to the p resence of sh ak es and check s .

check s and sh ak es consis t in a d irect red u ct ion of the area act ing

in resist ance t o sh ear M oreov er shak es are usu ally accom

.
,

p a n ied by a g en e ra l w e ak n e s s in b on d b et w een t h e annu al g row th

ring s w hich s erio
,
u s l y af f ects the shear s t rengt h This w eak ness .

u su all y ext end s f ar b ey ond the p oint of actu al s ep arat ion of the
“

ring s .

I t is ev id ent th at the w eak ening effect of ch eck s and sh ak es on

b eams and other mem b ers su bj ect ed to b end ing is l arg el y d e
p e n d e nt om th e ir p r ox im it y t o th e neu tral p l ane since it is th ere ,

that the h oriz ont al shearing stresses are at the m ax im um On

-
.

the t ens ion ( conv ex ) and comp ression ( concav e) f a ces they ex ert
l ittl e if any eff ect ex cep t w here check ing occurs in conj unction
, , ,

w ith k not s or other f orm s o l

2 1
f oca l c ross g rain .

Cro s s Gr a in

Cross g -
rained w ood is d efi ned as that in w hich the w ood cell s
or fib ers ru n at an angl e w ith the ax is or s id es of the p iece
, , .

'

F or sp ecifi c lim itations p laced on checks , shak es, and sp lits I n rading
'

21
g
s tru ctu ral timb ers s ee pag es 2 3 0 2 ,
— .
 CR OS S GR A I N 99

v
S e eral f orm s of cross grain are gniz ed— sp iral d iag onal
reco , ,

w av y ( F ig 2 2A )
.
,
dip , and int erl ock ed grain ( F ig 22 8 ) bu t .
-

Fo
res t P rodu cts L abora tory Photo
F IG . 22 A W av y g rainin redw ood ( tang ent ial su r acef ) .

Fo res t P
rodu cts L a boratory Ph oto

F IG . 2 23 . I nterlock ed g rain in tup elo .

on ly thefi rst tw o are norm all y consid ered as imp ort ant d ef ect s
in stru ctu ral t im b ers Conseq u entl y the l im its on cross g rain
.
,
1 00 FA CT ORS A FFE CTI N G M E CHA NI CA L P ROP ERTIE S

w here t gth is inv olv ed

s ren are int end ed to ap p ly p ri m aril y to
S Piral and d iag onal g rain

S PI RA L GRAI N

S piral g v ery common d ef ect in m any tim b ers and when

rain is a

ex cess iv e greatly redu ces their structural strength I t is p ro .

du ced naturall y in the l iv ing tree by a s om ew hat ab norm al al ig n

m ent of the w ood cells which inst ead of b eing ap p rox imat ely
'

, ,

p arall el t o the ax is of the st em or b ranch ar e l aid d ow n in a ,

sp iral arrang em ent ab ou t T he t w ist m ay be either right

hand ed or l eft hand ed alt hou gh the f ormer is m ore comm on
-

, ,

and in a g iv en t re e m ay v ary in d egree and d irect ion at d if f erent

_

heig ht s in the b ol e as w ell as f rom the p it h outw ard t o the b ark 2 4

,

( see F ig .

A s to the cau se of sp iral g rainthere is much conj ecture and ,

v arious theories hav e b een of f ered to ex p l ain the p henomenon .

'

T he infl u ence of w ind in p art icu l ar and of l ight and g rav ity , ,

s ingl y and in com b inat ion as w ell as s oil and ot her l ocal cond i
,

t ions hav e b een held up as contrib uting causes ? A theory s ome

,
“

times adv anced consid ers the obl iquity of the fib ers as a m ethod
of a ccom m od at ing the increas e in l eng th of the cell s aft er th eir

f orm ation in the cam b ium A n attemp t has b een mad e to l ink .

u p the t w ist ing of the t ree trunk w ith the root sy st em the cl aim ,

?
b eing adv anced 5 that trees w ith tap root s ex hib it no tw ist ,

t hose w ith l at eral roots hav e it to a s l ight d egree whereas those ,

w ith running roots p os sess m ark ed sp iral g rain A lth ou gh the

'

cau s e of sp iral grain has nev er b een s at is f act oril y ex p l ained t here ,

is s om e ev id ence t o show that the d ef ect is cap abl e of b eing t rans

mitted f rom g enerat ion to g eneration 2 6 .

22 F or defi nitions, dis cussion, and illustrat ions of other f orms of cross
g rain s ee A rthu r K oehler, The p rop erties and u ses of w ood, M cGraw Hill
—
-

B ook Co , N ew Y ork , 1 92 4, p p 2 2 8
—
. . .

y , W hite, and Up s on, f ootnot e 4, p 6 0 and P lat es VI VI I

2 3 I v or . .
4,

24 S ee E dward F M cCarthy and Raym ond J Hoy le, K not z ones and
. .

sp iral in A dirondack red sp ru ce, Jou r F or , W ashing t on, V ol 1 6 , N ov 1 9 1 8 ,

.

—
. . .

pp 7
. 7 7 91 .

—
25 P au l Oy e S u r l a t orsion d es troncs d arbres, Bu l S oc B ot F rance,
v an ,
. . .

V ol 73 , 1 926 , p p 2 70 88
. . .

2 6 S ee H G Cham ion Contribu tions t ow ards a know led e of tw isted

p. .
, g
fiber in trees, I ndian F or R ecords, Silvicultural S er , Cal cutta, Vol
. . . 1 1,
P t 2 , 1 92 5
. .
1 02 FA CT OR S AF F E CT I N G M E CHA N ICA L P ROP E RT IES

S p l itting , m u til ates the p iece and is conseq u ent l y an

of cou rse,

im p ractical m ethod of d et erm ination in m any cases I n the care .

f u l insp ection of v essel l ines and

those w ood s in w hich the ray s , ,

res in d u ct s are p rominent

2 7
the a l ig nm ent of t hes e el ement s as , ,

ob s erv ed on th e fl at g rain ( t ang ential ) su rf ace af f ord s a ready

‘

ind ex to the p resence or ab sence of sp iral g rain T hese el em ents .

Fo res t P rodu cts L abora tory Photo “

F IG . 24 . S p iral g f
rain rev eal ed k by s u r a ce check s and resin ducts ( top ) and

by a p itch s treak ( bott om ) .

al l ext end p arall el to t he fib ers and w ill be v ertical or incl ined

accord ing to the s traight or s p iral —g rained charact er of the w ood .

On a sm ooth t ang ential s ect ion refl ect ed l ight w ill of ten rev eal
, ,

the d irect ion of the fib ers them s elv es w hereas on the edg e g rain ,
-

( rad ial ) f aces of fi nished m aterial the incl ination of fib ers p u ll ed

ou t by the p l aner oft en s erv es the s am e p u rp ose .

Check s w hich d ev el op in seasoning and f oll ow al ong the ra y s

,

f or the m ost p art are f act ors of consid erabl e imp ort ance in the
,

27 Ev en in those w oods in which these el em ents are not distinct on t ang en

t ial section close s cru tiny p articu larly w ith a h and l ens , w il l of ten rev ea1
, , _

their alig nm ent A s cribe consisting of a p honog rap h needle or other sharp
.

p oint ed ob j ect ,
su it ab ly m ount ed , m ay a ls o be used f or this p u rp ose S ee .

A rthur K oehler
Guide ,
to de term ining s lop e of g rain in lu m ber and veneer,
F or . P rod Lab R ep t 1 585 M ad ison 1 9 43
. . .
, ,
.
 D IA GONA L GRA I N 1 03

d et erminat ionof sp iral grain on t ang ential surf aces ( see F ig .

This is p articu l arl y tru e w ith p ol es and p osts and other m at erial
u sed in the round sp ir s p ecimens of w hich comm onl y
,

show p irally around them .

T he p resence ecog niz ed as a s eriou s d ef ect in

s aw ed m at erial on p rod u ct s in w hich st raight ,

grain is essential to m eet ex act ing strength requirem ents are oft en
m ad e from b ill ets and s q u ares that are sp l it out of the l og rather
than b eing saw ed I n t im b er u sed in the rou nd on the other
.
,

hand t his t yp e of d ef ect is u su all y not consid ered seriou s

, How .

ev er in su ch m at erial sp iral gr
,
ain m ay b e obj ectionabl e b ecau se
,

of it s tend ency to cause tw ist ing of a p iece ; it is accord ingly

.

l imit ed in st and ard sp ecifi cations f or w ood p ol es

D I A GON A L GRAI N

D iag onalg ram is p rod u ced in l u m b er entirel y by the m ethod of

s aw in g and has no ref erence to thenatu ral alig nm en t of the w ood
l m ent s tting p l ain saw ed l um b er, if the p l ane of
Thus in
“

e e .
,
cu -

the s aw is not approx im at el y p arall el to the b ark surf ace the ,

grain of the w ood is not p arall el to the edg es and is t ermed

d iag onal T his m ay occur as the result of carel ess s aw ing as
'

.
,

Well as in cu tt ing c rook ed l og s and thos e w it h sw ell ed b u tt s It .

als o resu lt s f rom t he com m on p ra ctice of s aw ing l og s hav ing p ro ,

nounced t aper, p arall el to the ax is of g row t h instead of p arall el

t o the b ark .

A lthou gh s p iral grain is u su all y ind iscernibl e on the edg e grain -

( rad ial ) surf ace ex cep t w hen the p iece is sp l it rad iall y d iagonal
, ,

g rain is m ost ev ide nt on t hat f ace I t somet im es happ ens how

.
,

ev er that a piece is s aw ed so that the fib ers are not p arall el t o the

,

ax is of the p iece on a f l at g rain ( t ang ent ial ) su rf ace -

I n su ch a .

cas e a p henomenon s om ew hat s im il ar t o nat ural sp iral g rain is

,

p ro d u ced an d th e
, p ie ce is s aid t o b e a rtifi_
cia l ly sp ira l g rained .
.

This f orm of cros s grain can be d istingu ished from true sp iral
by ob s erv ing the charact er of the su rf ace w hen the p iece is sp l it
rad iall y but s ince its ef f ect on the st rength of w ood is S im il ar
, ,

to that of tru e sp iral grain it is comm onl y cl assifi ed as su ch

.
,
.

I n those w ood s h av ing consp icu ou s ring s of grow th b oth the ,

es en c e an d s l o e of d ia g on a l g ra in ar e ind ica t ed on the edg e

p r p
grain surf aces by the d irect ion of the g row th ring s ( see F ig .
1 04 F A CT OR S A F F E CTI N G M E CHAN I CA L P R OPE RTIE S

w hereas on the p res ence but not the s l op e

the fi at -
g rain f aces
of d iag onal g rain m ay be show n by th e nu m erou s p arab ol as

od c d b th e int ers ect ion of t h e grow th ring s w it h th e su rf ace

p r u e y .

I n w ood s hav ing ind ist inct grow th ri g s b oth the d irect ion and n
l may be d et ermined by sp l itt ing the p ieces t ang ent ially ,
'

s op e { or

F ores t P rodu cts L aboratory Ph oto

F I G 25 . . T yp ical bending failure du e to diag onal g rai

n ( D ou g las fir)

by ving on the rad ial surf ace the incl ination of v essel l ines
b
o ser

or res in d u ct s t he d irect ion in w hich ink sp read s or th e direc

, ,

tion of fib ers as ind icat ed by s crib e m ark s 8 D iag onal grain is

2
.

more read il y d et ect ed than sp iral and theref ore not so ap t t o , ,

be ov erl ook ed on insp ect ion .

M E A S U RE M E N T or CRoss GRAI N
In or ert im at e the ef f ect of cross grain on the v ariou s
d to es

s t rengt h p rop ert ies of w ood it is neces sary t o h av e som e m easu re

,

of it s d egree This is aff ord ed by the sl op e of the cross g rain by

.
,

w hich is m eant th e d ev iat ion of the grain f rom the edg e of the
st ick or f rom a l ine p arall el t o its m ain ax is This sl op e m ay be
-

exp ress ed in s ev eral w ay s bu t it is u su all y d es ignat ed by the rat io

,

b etw een a 1 inch d ev iation of the g rain f rom the edg e of a p iece
-

and the d ist ance al ong the edg e ov er w hich t his d ev iat ion occu rs .

Thu s a sl op e of 1 in 2 0 m eans that in a d istance of 2 0 inches al ong

the edg e of a stick the g rain d ev iat es 1 inch f rom the edg e .

When a p iece h as b oth sp iral and d iag onal grain it is not suffi ,

cient t o consid er the great er s l op e of the tw o as the m easureof the

ef f ect of the cross g rain T he t ru e ef f ect is comp ut ed by t ak ing

.

K oehler f ootnote
'

28
,
27 .
1 06 FA CT OR S A F F E CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P R OP ERTIE S

G $ 2 40
3
$ 9 0
E 3 0 3

m
3 5 2
G 0
U 3 3 m 5
e
2
.

G G
R w
9 m
G
o fi 5 w
o
3
w w
3
G 1 d
@ G 5 5 m
EE 2 o

o
G L G
Q G 3 G

o
@
o 3 M 9
fi w G 6 o
:
w
G d $
G
2 H 2

m
a s
u £ 3 8 2
d
1“ = w
o
3 G
3

w
m w 5 8 d
o o m fi
G
G
9
5
E fw
W
e 5
o G
G
G
o 3 2 B o o o E M
m
o
G
_
3 v o G G
o 9
oE 3 3 G 5
o fi o
w m fi
o
G G m m N 0 m w a
G E 5 9 E e
.
m 1
S G E o 5
m 3 9 v N w w w w
G G 0 E
w w H
.

g
3 o
S
3
v w o v
o
G 9 3
0 0
?
o
o
G
e
d : 3 fl o m c a N m
B
G
m
o
Q
o
h
w m
G
R
E
£
0 G
n
e
fi
o
G
4 g s d
. . m
2 E ?
Sm
G
2 8 G
B
o3 5
o
S
w
O 3 9
c
G G R 3
3
oo w
E 0
G
M
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o o 0
G 9 8 E G
.

G p
o 9
3 2
“
E
Z
o v o 3 5 N N n w H m m
o
o p v 3 N .
p
o
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o
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v F
3 0 ; N
Q a
8 G m G 3
G
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A

( 2 o
G

E G fi 3
3 G
2
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8 E
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0 G
m
m 2 o : a o

c oc o - i ce

fi‘ fi ‘ tfi lfl lo

—
OO N O N

H H s l

CO CD N K D G) O N fl ‘ tO lV

NNNNN

« Ro
co c> c> O
cc o —
C>
I OO CD O

O O— v 4
O
v- 4
H

v- 4

—
—
OQ H N vl LQ F i r 4 01 01 00

O O O O O

H ‘
Q‘ N O F ‘ M LO Q
O N OO GA O 4 61 01 ’
CO CO Q‘ l

5 5 15 5 00 oo oo oo oo oo W Q CD O Q 03 0 3 03 0)

————
lO CD N OO G

H v l v i v l v i

I S S S G’
I S
I I eA e
q uM
-

9 [e u ofl e rq [B i rd s ;0 od oIs
‘
u I RI 1 0
 W OOD —I N HA B I T I N G F UN GI 1 07

of any chec k s that d ev el op in the critical Sect ion of the b eam 3 0 .

A series of t ests w ere cond u ct ed at the F ores t P rod u ct s L ab ora

tory to d eterm ine the s grain ( sp iral and d iag onal ) on

the streng ru ce D ou gl as fi r and com mer , ,

cial w hit e as h w ere s t at ic and im p act b end ing and

w hit e ash al one to comp ressmn p arall el t o the g rain T abl e 8 .

show s the av erag e p ercent ag e by w hich t his m at erial w ith v ary ,

(

ing s l op es of g rain f ell b el ow straig ht grained m at erial in v arious

,
-

st rength p rop erties A com p aris on of these three sp ecies w ith

.

resp ect t o the infl u ence of s l op e of g rain on m odu l u s of rup ture ,

m od u l u s of el asticity and w ork t o m ax imu m l oad all in st at ic , ,

b end ing and m ax imum d rop in im p act b end ing ind icat es th at
,

there is rel ativ el y l ittl e d if f erence b etw een the three sp ecies
t est ed as f ar as the rel at ion of s l op e of g rain to thes e strength
,

p rop ert ies 1 s concerned .

F rom t hese t es ts it is ev id ent that comp ressiv e strength is bu t

l ittl e af f ected u ntil qu it e st eep sl op es of grain ( 1 in 1 0 or st eep er)
are reached M od u l us of el asticity is m ore af f ect ed and b eg ins to
.

show an ap p reciabl e d ecrease at a sl op e of 1 in 1 5 M od u lus of .

rup tu re d ecreases ev en m ore rap idl y and is app reciabl y d efi cient

at a 1 in 2 0 s10 p e
- -
T he m ost p ronounced ef fect is on w erk to
.

m ax imu m l oad and m ax imu m d rop b oth m easures of shock ,

res ist ance w hi ch are consid erabl y d efi ci

,
e nt in com p arison w ith ,

p er f ectl y s tra ig ht g rain ed m at e ria-

l e v en at a sl op e of 1 in 2 5 ,

i i 32
and d ec rease very rap idl y a s s l op e o gf ra n ncre a s es .

W oo d I n h a b it in g
-
F u ng i

W ood is su bj ect to att ack by m any l ow f orms of p l ant s k now n

as fu ng i These w ood inha biting f u ng i d if f er from ord inary
.
-

g reen p l ant s in f orm l ack of green col oring m att er and m ethod s , ,

of nu trit ion U nl ik e green p l ants they are u nabl e t o m anu f ac

.
,

ture their ow n f ood but mu st hav e org anic m aterial al read y p re

,

are d f o t h eir u se T hi s th e fi n d in th e p rod u cts st ored in th e

p r y .

cell s of the w ood in w hich they are grow ing or in the actu al w ood

su b st ance comp osing the cell w all s

3 0 N ew lin and John s on f ootnot e 2 0 .

,

3 1 T R C W ilson The eff ect of s iral

g rain on the streng th of w ood
—
. . .
p ,
,

Jou r F or ,
. . W as hing t on, V ol 1 9 , N ow 1 9 2 1 , p p .
-
. 740 7 .

32 F or ap p roxim at e redu ctions in the streng th of b eam s and colu m ns With

dif ferent s lop es of g rain, see T abl e 1 9 .
1 08 FA CT OR S A FFE CTI N G M E CHAN I CA L P R OPE R TIE S

T A BLE 8 . E FF E CT OF CR O S S GRA I N ON S TR E N GT H OF W OOD

*

A VE RA GE P E R C E N TA GE D E F I CIE N CY I N
S TRE N GT H P R OP E R TI ES OF S PIR A L
M A TE RIA L S LO P E S WIT H
"
AN D D IA GON A L GRA I N E D
-
OF A R I OU S

RE S P E CT To S TRA I GHT GRA I N E D

-

M odul u s M odul u s W ork to

of of

El asticity L oad S t reng t h

From T R C
. . . W il s on , g rain on t h e streng t h of w ood,
Jour F or ,
. . W ashing t on, Vol . 1 9 , N ov . 1 92 1 , p . 7 47 .

Tw o group s Of w ood in hab iting f ungi are recogniz ed a ccord

-

ing t o their activ ities in the w ood Chief of these is th e grou p Of .

w ood d estroying f ung i w hose activities resu l t in the ch emical

'

,
1 10 FA CT ORS A FFE CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P R OPE RT IES

Of the t the w ood bu t the inf ect ed m at erial comm onl y

t
s ru c ure of ,

ex hib its s l ight col or ch ang es I n the adv anced or typ ical st ag e .

the d isint egration Of t he w ood is read il y recogniz ed by v irtu e of

p ronounced d is col orations and chang es in its cont inu ity and t ex
ture the w ood b ecoming p unky s oft and sp ongy stringy ring
, , , ,

S hak ed p itt ed or crum bl y d ep end ing on t he nat u re of the at

, , ,

n n f i
t ack ing fungus a d the ext e t o ts o k w r 3 4
( see F ig .

U S . . F ores t v
S er ice Ph oto

F IG 26. . A dv anced d ecay in ,

f an—sh ap ed m y celia
Oak l m ats
sh owing and t he
characteris t ic cracking Of w ood typ ical of certain brow n rots .

Th e rep rod u ct ion l y carried on by m eans

of a f ungu s is comm on

of m icrOS COp ic sp ores w hich are comp arabl e in f u nct ion t o th e

,

s eed s of higher p l ant s Thes e S p ores are b orne in v ast nu mb ers

.

in or on d efi nit e f ru it ing b od ies ( conk s b rack et s t oad st ool s , , ,

l eath ery incru st at ions an d S O on) t h at d ev el op on the surf ace

, ,

Of inf ect ed w ood in the adv anced st ag es of d ecay T h e sp ores .

are bl ow n ab ou t by th e w ind and w hen cond itions f or g e rminat ion ,

and su b seq u ent d ev el op m ent are f av orabl e are cap abl e of in ,

f ect ing sound w ood on w hich they m ay f all T he sp read of the .

f ung ou s inf ect ion m ay al so be carried on w ithout the f ormat ion ,

34 F or m ore det ail ed dis cus sion of t he p roces es Of decay s ee E rnest E .

Hub ert The diag nos is Of d ecay in w ood Jou r Ag r R es , W ashing t on,
—
. .
, ,

V ol 2 9 , D ec 1
. .
, 1 92 4, p p . 5 23 6 7 .
 RE QUI RE M E NT S F OR D E CA Y 111

of sp ores , d irect grow th of hyp hae from inf ected w ood to

by the
s ound m at erial in cont act w ith it I n a m oist at m osp here the .

f ung I m ay ev en sp read r m at erial s f or s om e d ist ance t o

reach s ou nd w ood D read in t his w ay in th e con

.

ceal ed p ortions of b u il l um b er y ard s , and in other s itu a

tions w hen cond it ions are f av orabl e .

RE QU I RE M E N T S F OR D E CA Y

T he d itions necess ary f or the grow th and d ev el opm ent of

con

d ecay p rod u cing fung i are f our f old : ( 1 ) an ad equ ate supp l y of
- -

s u it abl e f ood ( 2 ) a su ffi cient amou nt Of moisture ( 3 ) at l east a

, ,

s mall am ou nt Of air and ( 4 ) a f av orabl e t emp eratu

,
re .

T he f ood requ ired f or the nourishm ent of a w ood d estroy ing -

f ungu s is sup p l ied chiefl y b y the w ood su b st ance ( cell w all s ) Of

the host althou g h the st arches Sug ars and other m at erial s st ored
, , ,

in the cell cav ities m ay al s o be d raw n on T he w ood su b st ance .

itself—a hig hl y comp l ex com b inat ion Of cell u l ose a nd l ig nin—is

not su it abl e f or th e u s e of the f ungu s in its natural com b ined st at e ,
”
but by the secret ion of cert ain f erm ent s or enz ym es the hyp hae
“
, ,

are abl e t o sp l it it u p int o its comp onent cell u l ose and l ignin com

p l ex es either or b oth of w hich can then be assim

,
il at ed S ome .

f ungi ( w hite rots ) ab sorb the l igneous m atter in their f urther dis .

int eg rat ion oi the w oo d and l eav e al m ost p ure cell u l ose w hich is ,

w hite ; others ( brow n rots ) rem ov e the cell ul ose and l eav e a b ritt l e ,

b row nish m as s of l ignin comp ou nd s ; still others ab sorb b oth com

p ound s in v ary ing am ou n t s The p articu l ar react ions p rodu ced
.

in w ood by the v ariou s f ung i s erv e as a b asis f or the cl ass ifi cation

of d ecay s 3 5
-

There is a great d issimil arity in the durability of d if f erent

w ood s or the natu ral resist ance they Of f er t o d ecay and ev enthe
, ,

s ame sp ecies w ill show m ark ed v ariat ion u nd er d if f erent cond itions

of ex p osure T he f act ors resp onsibl e f or the d if f erences in d ura

.

bility are nu m erou s and v aried s om e Of them hav ing to do w ith ,

cond it ions w ithin the w ood it s el f the others w ith circu mst ances ,

fi
classi cation of w ood I v ory , Hubert f ootnote 34 ; a ls o

—
35 F or rots
“

see ,

Whit e, and Up son f ootnote 4 p p 6 0 1 D escrip tions Of d ecay s in w oods

, ,
. .

u sed in aircraf t are g iv en in J S B oy ce , D ecay s and dis colora tions in air

. .

p lane w oods, U S D ep t A g r Bu l 1 1 28 , Washing t on, 1 923 , and in The

. . . . .

sig nificance of the dis col ora tions in aircraf t veneers, F or P rod Lab Rep ts
—M —
. . . .

1 3 75 9 , adison, 1 942 4 3 .
1 12 FA CT ORS A FF ECT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P ROPE RTIE S

a ttend ing its u se T he s ap w ood of all w ood s is read il y su s cep tibl e

.

to d ecay w hereas in m any sp ecies the heart w ood is rel ativ el y

,

resist ant to such d et eriorat ion

'

T his is p articu l arl y true in .

w ood s t hat p oss ess d eep l y col ored heartw ood su ch as bl ack 10 ,

cu s t bl ack w al nu t red w ood and east ern red ced ar althou gh

, , , ,

s om e of the l ight col ored ced ars are al s o extrem el y d u rabl e

-
On , .

the other h and t he heartw ood of su ch w ood s as sp ru ce h em l ock

, , ,

asp en hick ory m ap l e w ill ow and tu p el o show s l itt l e increas e in

, , , ,

d urab il ity ov er the sap w ood .

T he g reat er d u rab il ity of the heart w ood ov er the s apw ood in ,

those w ood s in w h ich su ch a d istinction is p resent is attrib u t ed ,

to cert ain chem ical and p hy s ical ch ang es t hat t ak e p l aCe w h en and
a ft er the s ap w ood chang es t o heartw ood and u su all y resu lt I n the

d ark ening of the w ood T he ex act nature of these alt erations is .

not thorou g hl y u nd ers t ood bu t they app arentl y inv olv e the ,

d ep osition in the cell s of the heartw ood of certain m aterial s

( gums resins t annins or es sential oil s ) resu lt ing f rom the p rocess
, , ,

Of d eath and increas ed p oss ibl y by ox id at iona nd other chemical

chang es These extraneou s su b st ances b eing m ore or l es s t ox ic

.
,

to the w ood d estroy ing fu ng i t end to ret ard or inhib it t heir

-

grow th in t he w ood 3 6 A sim il ar ef f ect is p rodu ced w hen w ood

. .

is treat ed w ith creos ot e z inc chl orid e p ent achl orop h enol or , , ,

other t ox ic w ood p reserv at iv es t hat s erv e t o p ois on the f ood

s up p l y of the f ung i .

T he d ev el op m ent of d ecay is d ep end ent on the presence Of a

rather app re ciabl e am ou nt Of m ois tu re in the wood A lt hou g h the .

m inimu m req u irem ent s v ary w ith the d if f erent f u ngi it is gener ,

all y consid ered t hat w ood m u st cont ain ov er 2 0 p ercent m oistu re

b ef ore it w ill rot Consequ entl y thorou ghl y air dried or k il n

.

'
,
-

d ried m at erial is immune f rom d ecay unl ess su bj ect ed t o w etting

-

or d am p nes s f or a p eriod su ffi cient t o raise its m oistu re cont ent t o

ap p rox i m at el y the fi ber s aturat ion p oint M oreov er if w ood in -

.
,

which d ecay is al read y est abl ished is d ried toa m oisture content
b el ow the minimum requ ired by the pa rticu l ar fu ngu s the f u r ,

ther d ev el op m ent of the rot w ill be check ed How ev er the f ungu s

-

.
,

m ay m erel y rem ain d orm ant u nt il su it abl e m oistu re cond it ions

36 F or fu rther discu ssion of th e natu ral du rab ility Of w ood Georg M

—
s ee e .

Hunt and Garrat t , Wood p reservation, M cGraw Hill B ook Co ,

Georg e A .

N ew Y ork , 1 93 8 , p p 39—
.

45 S ee als o W ood handbook, rev , U S D ep t A g r

Unnumbered P ubl , W ashing ton, 1 940 , p p 41 —
. . . . . . .

. 3 . .
 1 14 F ACT ORS A FF E CTI N G M E CHA N I CA L P ROP ERT IES

w ood t end s to come int o equ il ib rium with the m oisture in the
su r rou nd ing air f airl y dry t im b ers ex pos ed t o su ch at m os heric
, p
cond it ions ab s orb consid erabl e q u ant it ies of w ater and are con

seq u entl y su bj ect t o d ecay This con d ition is esp ecially seriou s
.

in the roof t im b ers Of su ch b u il d ing s p art icu l arl y d u ring cold ,

w eat her w hen the w ood is cool ed f rom the out sid e causing the
moisture in the air w ithin the build ing to cond ense in cont act w ith
, ,

the t imb ers F or the s ame reason l ocal d ecay in b u ild ing s is
.
,
”
s om et im es st arted near cold w at er p ipes w hich
“
-

sw eat ow ing t o

the Cond ens at ion of the m ois ture n

,

the air in cont act With them

I .

I n other inst ances f ail ure of w oo d throu g h d ecay has b een noted
“

w hen p oorl y seas oned m at erial or t imb er th at has b een exp osed ,

f or p rotract ed p eriod s to d amp w eather and f u ng ou s inf ection is ,

used w it hou t p rov ision f or adeq u at e v ent il at ion a b ou t it

-

B eams .
,

p ost s g ird ers and the l ik e u sed in an u nseas oned C

, , , ond ition and

encl os ed by m et a l m as onry or ot her cov ering that p rev ent s the

“

, ,

d ry in g out of the t im b ers m ay af ford an id eal cond ition f or d ecay

, .

I n su ch cases d ecay comm onl y p rog resses u nd et ect ed and seriou s

, ,

and u nex p ect ed l oss m ay occu r .

A supp l y of air is necess ary f or f ung ous d ev el op ment but the ,

d emand s in this resp ect are mod erate and u nd er ord inary con
-

ditions the am ou nt w ithin and su rrou nd ing w ood in s erv ice or in

st orag e is am p l e E v en the interior of trees and l arg e u nseasoned
.

t imb ers u su all y cont ains enou gh air in the cell s to p ermit the
grow th Of f ung i w he n ot her cond it ions are f av o
,
rabl e There .

m ay be a defi n it e rel at ion ship b etw een the air sup p l y and w at er

sup p l y of w ood and its su s cep t ib il ity to d ecay since w ood th at is ,

thorou ghl y saturat ed w ith w ater is d ev oid of air and consequ entl y
w ill l ast ind efi nit el y S u ch is the case w ith w at er l ogg ed p ieces
.
-
.

On the ot her hand as has b een p rev iou s l y ob serv ed the am ou nt

, ,

Of air in the w ood m ay be s o great that the sup pl y of m oisture is

red u ced b el ow the req u I red m inimum .

A lthou gh w ood d estroy ing fu ng i are cap abl e Of d ev el op m ent

-

ov er f airl y w id e rang es of t em p eratu re t heir b est grow th t ak es ,

p l ac e w ithin com p a ra t iv el y n a rr ow l im it s T h es e op t im um t em .

e r atu res v ar w it h th e in d iv id u al sp eci es bu t m ost of the f u ng i

p y ,

thriv e around 80 F B el ow the op tim um f or its d ev el op ment the

°
.

grow th of a f ungu s is ret ard ed and at low temp eratu res the p l ant,

b ecom es d ormant althou gh no d egree Of cold sII ch as occu rs

,

naturall y w il l k ill either the m y cel iu m ( hyp h ae) o r sp ores On

“

.
 W OOD —
S T A I N I N G F UN GI 1 15

the other hand , an increase in t emp erature of but a f ew d egrees

a b ov e the op timu m has a f a ing ef f ect ; a rise of 4 -

to 8 d eg rees ab ov e this in comp l et e ces sat ion

of g row th ; or ev en

( oneof the dry rot fu ng i) w hich is v ery sensit iv e t o increases in

-

t em p eratu re 3 9 Hu b ert d emonstrated that the t emp erature of “

comm ercial k il n ru n
°
s excep ting t em p eratu res b el ow 1 2 0 F
, are .
,

ef f ect iv e in st eril iz ing inf ect ed w ood u p to and incl u d ing 4 by 4

inches s q u are P ieces 6 by 6 inches and 8 by 8 inches s q u are

.

°
w ere steril iz ed by t reatm ent at 1 3 0 F f or 9 hou rs at s at urat ed .

at m osp here and by st eam p res su re treatment ” O -

W OOD—
STA I N I N G F U N GI

T here are a nu mb er of w ood inhab it ing f ung i that p enetrate the -

w ood and d is col or it and since p ractically al l of them confi ne , ,

their activ it es t o the s ap w ood

i 4 1
their ef f ect is com m onl y sp ok en ,

Of as s ap stain Of th ese the blu e s tain fu ng i ( Cera tos tomella

.
-

E ndoconidiop hora D ip l odia and Grap hiu m ) comm on in the

, , ,
.

p ines sp ru ces red g um and other sp ecies of w ood are the most
, , , ,

trou bl esome B l ued st ock nev er entirel y l oses its u sef u l ness um
.

l ess d ecay has d ev el op ed but it rep resents a d ep reciat ion l oss as ,

the stain d etracts f rom the ap p earance of the l um b er and conse

-

q u entl y l ow ers the g rad e and p rice of the p rod u ct W hen the
st ain is m
.
,

ore or l es s s up erfi cial in rou gh l u m b er it m ay be re ,

-

m ov ed in the f p l aning op erat ion but it is commonl y t oo d eep ,

seat ed t o be s o easil y el im inat ed

A ll these w ood —
.

st aining f u ng i are simil ar in their g eneral

d ev el op ment and activ ities T hey ex ist p rincip all y on the .

s t arches su g ars and the l ik e st ored in the cell cav it ies

, ,
and , ,

p rog ress f rom one cell t o another in their Search f or f ood In .

p assing from cell to cell the hyp h ae u su all y seek out the natu ral ,

op ening s or p it s alt hou g h it is not u ncomm on to fi nd that they

, ,

hav e d iss olv ed aw ay p ortions of the cell w all s to creat e a p ass a g e

39 C . J Hum p hrey
.
,
Tim ber s torag e conditions in the eas tern and s ou thern

s tates with f
re erence to decay p roblem s, U . S . D ep t . Ag r. Bu l 5 1 0 W ashing
.
,

t on, 1 9 1 7 , p . 3 .

40 Hub ert 37, p 1 8,

f ootnote . .

4 1 E xce t ion is not ed in the g ray ish Oliv e stain of hardw oods p rodu ced by
p
-

L asiosp haeria p ez iz u la, and o th er m inor st ains w hich freq u ently occu r in
heartwood .
 F A CT ORS A FFE CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P R OPERT IE S
“

w ay I t is t he
l ess lig nifi ed ray cell s how ev er t hat any dis
‘

. on , ,

int egrating att ack Of t hese f ung i is concentrat ed the w all s be ,

tw een the ray cell s oft en b eing comp l et el y b rok en d ow n T he .

v ariou s col ors or st ains are ap p aren tly imp art ed to the w ood
by the m
, ,

as sing of th e hyp hae in the m at erial rather t han b

y any ,

st aining of the cell w all s or by the f orm at ion of col ored b

y
p rod u ct s .

I n comm on w ith the other w ood inh ab it ing p l ant s st aining -

f ung i fi nd the Op timu m conditions f or their grow th in w arm ,

humid situ at ions B l u e staini s p art icu l arl y p rev al ent d uring the
‘

su mm er m ont hs in the S ou th and in other s ect ions Of the U nit ed , ,

S t at es in mill y ard s w here unseasoned l um b er is p il ed f or season

,

ing or f or st orag e w ithou t ad eq u ate provision f or v ent il at ion

b etw een the b oard s I t al so occurs in freshly cut l og s and in
.

u nseas oned l um b er in t ransit U nd er f av orabl e circu mst ances the

.

d ev el op ment of sap s t ain is extremel y rap id and the d is col ora ,

t ion m ay occur w ithin 48 hou rs aft er the log s or b oard s are cut .

E arl y rem ov al of l og s from the f orest and the rap id air seasoning f

Of l u m b er by op en p il ing are l og ical m ethod s of p rev e nt ion .

W here log p ond s and dry k il ns are av ail abl e entirel y su b merging ,

the l og s in w at er s oon aft er cutting and k il n dry ing the l u m b er -

d irectl y from th e saw are to be recomm end ed The ord inary

k il n d ry ing p rocess has b een f ound to be ent irel y eff ect iv e ag ainst
-

bl u e st ain T he d ip p ing of unseaso

. ned l um b er in ant is ep t ic s ol u
t ions p rior to air seasoning has b een p racticed f or s om e t ime and
is reas onabl y effi cient S od iu m carb onat e and s od ium b icar
s e and, m
.

b onat e hav e b een comm onl y u sed f or this p urp o ore ,

recentl y the ch l orinat ed p henol s and org anic m ercurial s hav e

,

com e int o p rominence as s t ain p ev ent iv es

r 4 2
.

t L ns

True m old s simil ar to those that f orm on d amp b read or

,

cheese thriv e on the su rf a ce of w ood in the p res ence Of ab u nd ant

,

w armth and m oistu re S u ch cond it ions are p resent w hen u n

.

42 F or m ore det ailed discu ssion of w ood s taining fung i see T heodore C -
.

S chef fer and Ralp h M L indg ren, S tains of sap wood and sap w ood p rodu cts
.

and their control, U S D ep t A g r T ech Bu l 7 1 4, W ashing ton, 1 94 0

. . . . . . .

A lso E rnest E Hubert , S ap s tains of w ood and their p revention, U S

“

. . .

D ep t . Comm N at Com . . . on W ood Utiliz W ashing .

,
t on, 1 929 .
 1 18 FA CT ORS A FF E CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P ROPE RT I ES

sta e charac eri e

g t z d by the f orm at ion Of w hite p ock et s 4 4 I n the .

w ord s of the authors of t his rep ort : A lthou gh t here is a ro res “

p g
s iv e increaseof b rittl e a p eara nce of the f ail ures in ing f rom
p p as s

the s ound m at erial t o that w hich is m ost d ecay ed by P olyp oru s

s chw einitz ii and of l ow es t t ou ghness there is l ittl e correl at ion ,

b etw een the app earance of the wood and the d egree of d ecay or
l oss Of tou ghness How ev er in the case of the F om es p ini sp eci
.
,

mens t he ext ent of p ock et f orm at ion d efi nit el y p arall el s the re

,

d uction I n t ou ghness W ood show ing the incip ient st ag e of

.

F om es p ini d ecay k now n comm erciall y as fi rm red heart w ill

, ,

s how l osses in m ax imu m cru shing st rength in com res sion a a l

p p r

l el to g rain and m od u l u s of rup ture in st atic b end ing not mu ch

great er than 1 0 or 1 5 p ercent and at l east w hen dry no more , ,

than a 1 0 to 25 p ercent l oss I n I mp act b end ing up t o the t ime the

p ock et s are f orm ed .

A v erag e red uctions by P olyp oru s s chw einitz ii I n the mos t

sev erel y att a ck ed w ood w ere ab ou t 1 0 p ercent in sp ecifi c .
\

gravity 30 p ercent in m ax imum crushing stren

,

, gth in comp res sion

p arall el to grain and 9 5 p ercent in t ou g hness as com p ared w ith
, ,

red u ctions by F om es p ini in th e l at e p ock et st a g e of ab ou t 3 0

p ercent 7 0 p ercent and 9 5 p ercent resp ectiv el y

‘

.
, , ,

( b oth org anism s ) cau se l arg e red uct ions in

“
A lthou gh
s trength in adv anced st ag es of t heir d ev el op m ent s ou nd w ood ,

cl ose t o an inf ect ed area is norma

”
l in strength p rop erties .

A s ind icat ed in the f oreg oing the earl y or incipient st ag e of , ,

d ecay frequentl y imp art s a p ronou nced b rashness Or b rittl eness ,

-

to the w ood w ith the resu lt t hat the inf ect ed m at erial t end s t o
“

b reak su dd enl y und er stress w ith but l ittl e d ef ormat ion and w ith ,

a m ore or l ess sm oot h and unsp l int ered f ract u re Brashness .

,

h ow ev er m ay al so be due to other caus es and is not necess aril y

,

4 5 I n the adv anced st ag e

an ind icat ion of the p res ence of d ecay
.
.

44 T heodo re C S chef f er, T R C W ils on, R F L ux f ord , and Carl Hart ley ,
. . . . . .

The efiect of certain heart rot f u ng i on the sp ecific g ra vity and s treng t h of
S it ka sp ru ce and D ou g las fir, U S D ep t A g r T ech Bu l 779 , W ashing t on,
-
. . . . . .

1 941 .

45 S ee t ext d iscussion Of Comp ression F ailu res and Cross Breaks , p ag e 1 2 0

D ensity , p ag e 1 52 ; M oist ure Content, p ag e 1 79 ; and T emp erature,\p ag e 1 88 .

A lso C C F orsaith , The m orp hol og y Of w ood in relation t o brashness ,

—
. .

Jou r F or , W ashing t on V ol 1 9 , M ar 1 92 1 , p p 23 7 49
. .
,
A nd A rthur K oehler,
. . . .

Caus es f bras hness in

o wood, U . S . D ep t . Ag r . T ech Bul 3 42 ,
. . Washing ton,
1 933 .
 . EF FE CT OF D E CA Y A ND S AP S T A I N ON S T REN GT H 1 19

the gth of w ood may be v irtuall y redu ced to z ero I n v iew

t
s ren .

of t hes e f act s inf ect ed m at erial shou ld be rig idl y ex cl u d ed from

,

u se w hen s trengt h is a cons id erat ion of any imp ort ance T he .

s el ect ion of t im b er f or sou nd ness is comp l icat ed how ev er b

y the , ,

f act that the p resence of the fu ngi is oft en hidd en from casu al
insp ect ion p art icu l arl y I n the earl y st ag es and in m at erial that
,

has b een w eathered .

w ork has b een d one f rom t ime t o t ime to d et er

Of s ap —st aining fu ng i on the strength of w ood and ,

resu lt s has b een obt ained The resu lt s of su ch .

rel iabl e t est s as hav e b een m ad e how ev er ind icat e t hat these , ,

f ungi hav e a sl ight w eak ening eff ect on the w oo d but do not ,

u su all y d ecrease it s strength suffi cientl y t o u nfit it f or ord inary

comm ercial u se
4 6 .

I n a series of controll ed St aining exp eriment s thorou ghl y ,

st ained sp ecim ens of s ou t hern p ine s ap w ood w ere t est ed in sp ecifi c

gravity comp res sion p arall el to g rain st atic b end ing and t ou gh
, , ,

nes s 4 7 T oughness and w ork to max imum l oad in st atic b end ing
.

( b oth reg ard ed as ind ices of shock resist ance) w ere the onl y
p ro p ert ies aff ect ed t o a m ark ed d egree T he great est red uction .

in t ou gh ness w as 7 5 p ercent ; the l east ab ou t 9 p ercent T he .

great est loss ob serv ed in sp ecifi c grav ity in these t ests w as

'

p ercent I t mu st beb orne in m ind how ev er that the cond it ions

.
, ,

res u lt ing in the d ev el op m ent of s ap st ain are al s o f av orabl e t o

d ecay and the tw o typ es of fung i m ay occur t og ether Conse

,
.

q u ently st ained w ood shou ld be ex amined thorou g hly b ef ore b eing

,

u sed f or p u rp os es h av ing ex act ing s trengt h req u irem ent s .

D ecay and s ap st ain hav e al so b een d et ermined to hav e p ro

“

nounced ef f ect s onother p rop erties of w ood D ecay ap p arentl y .

b ring s ab out ex cessiv e shrink ag e In w ood and may cons equ entl y
be instru m ent al inp rod u cin g check s ; it is al so cred it ed w ith
i i i 48
cau s ing the coll ap s e o f w ood d u r ng kl d y g
n r n .

46 S chefi er and Lindg ren f ootnote ,

42 , p p .
—
28 3 0 .

47 A . D ale
Chap m an and T heodore C S cheff er, Eff ect of blue stain on .

S p ecifi c g rav ity a nd s treng th of s outh ern p ine, Jour A g r R es , W ashing ton,
—
. .

V ol 6 1 J u ly 1 5 1 9 40 p p l 2 5 3 3
'

. . .
, , ,

4 8 A dditional inf orm ation concernin

g the infl u ence Of d ecay and stain
on th e p rop ert ies of w ood is g iv en in Georg e M
‘

Hunt and Georg e A . .

Garratt W ood p res ervation, M cGraw Hill Book Co N ew Y ork 1 938 -

.
, ,

—
, . ,

3 7 9 A l s o J S B oy ce F ores t p atholog y, M cGraw Hill B ook Co N ew

pp
-
.
. . . .
, ,

York, 1 938 , pp . 3 76 7 -
.
1 20 FA CT ORS A FFE CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P R OPE RT I ES

Co m p res s io n F a il u res and Cros s B re a k s

Compres sion f ailures are l ocal iz ed w rinkl es or creas es in w ood ,

p rod u ced by the end w is e comp ression of the
fib ers w ell b ey ond the
p rop ortional l imit T hey ext end a
. cross the fib ers m ore or l ess at

rig ht angl es t o the direction of the g rain and in ext rem e cas es
.

, ,

may be v isibl e on the exp osed siirf ace of the w ood as f airl y p ro
'
'

Ya le Photo
Comp ression in A frican m ahog
F I G 27
.

f
ail ure any ( K haya) .

nounced ridg es , h ow ing the crump l ing or buckl ing of the cell s to
“

adv ant ag e ( see F ig M ore oft en how ev er they ap p ear as

.
,
, ,

fi ne w h itish l ines or streak s and are f requ entl y ind is cernibl e t o

the u naided ey e
~
E v en thou gh d iffi cu lt t o d ist ingu ish sup erfi
.

cially comp ress ion f ail ures are as s ociat ed w ith an ov erstressed
,

cond it ion of w ood and z ones of sl ip p l anes ind icat iv e of init ial
, ,

f ail ure are ev id ent und er the micros cop e ( F ig

,
.

Comp ression f ail ures m ay resu lt from ab norm al st resses s et u p

in the st and ing tree by the b end ing of the b ol e d uring sev ere
w ind st orms Und er su ch a cond ition the w indw ard sid e of the
.
,

b ol e is in t ension and the l eew ard sid e in com p ression S ince .

u ns eas oned w ood su bj ect ed t o b end ing normall y f ail s fi rst in

comp ression it is app arent that comp ression f ail u res m ay resu lt
,

in the w ood on the l eew ard sid e of ex p osed trees w ithou t further ,

d amag e to the trunks It is p rob abl e how ev er that a more

.
, ,
1 22 FACT ORS A FFE CT I N G M ECHA N I CA L P R OP ERT I E S
-

Cros s break s, w hich res em bl e co mp ressionf ail ures in g eneral

ap pearance, are t ens ion f ail ures and rep res en t s ep arations of the
l
w ood cell s acros s th e g rain T hey are u su ally cau sed by restraint
.
z .

of l ocal a b norm al shrin z comp ression

k ag e ,
su ch as ch aract eri es
w ood ( see F ig but m ay al s o resu l t f rom ext ernal f orces
.
.

Comp ression f ail u res and cros s b reak s seriou s l y imp air s om e
.

of the st rength p rop ert ies of wo od T his 1 s not abl y the cas e w ith .

s hock res ist ing ab il ity and t i

mb ers cont aining ev en micros cop ic
,

Fo res t P rodu cts L aboratory Photo

F IG . Cros s break in comp ression w ood
29 . T he restraint of . abnorm al

long itu dinal shrink ag e in the com p ression w ood ( dark er z one) set up tensil e
s tresses su ffi ciently g reat to rup tu re th e w ood .

f ail ures m ay b reak su dd enl y al ong the p l ane of inj ury when su b
j ected t o rel ativ el y l ow im p act stress es p rod u cing w hat is know n ,

a s a b rash or b rittl e f ail u re T he st atic b ending strength of

“

w ood is l ess seriou s l y af f ected S u ch d ef ect s are m ost s eriou s of .

,

cou rse w hen l ocat ed on the t ens ion s id e of a b eam

, I n comp res .

s ion p arall el t o the g I am th ese f ail u res do not ap p reciabl y af f ect

the strength O f w ood 5 0 .

Co m p re s s io nW oo d

Compress ion w ood ( al s o k now n as redw ood) is f ormed on t he

u nd er s id e of b ranches and on the l ow er s id e of l eaning trunkS of

Conif erou s trees T his typ e of w ood is consid erabl y heav ier than
.

the norm al w ood and has mu ch w id er grow th ring s I t is f urther .

d istingu ished in s u ch w ood s as s outhern p ine and D ou gl as fi r by

, ,

a l ack of cont rast b et w een sp ring w ood and su mm erw ood and a

50 L J M arkw ardt Com p ression failu res defects , Hardwood Record,

—
.
,
as

Chicag o, V ol 39 , Oct 25 , 1 9 1 4, p p 24 5
. . . .
 COM P RESS I ON W OOD 1 23

l tiv el y d ark col or ( s ee F ig

re a Comp ression w ood is u nd e
.

sirabl e b ecau s e it is charact eriz ed by a p ronou nced t en d ency to

w arp m ark ed l ong it u d inal shrink a g e ( s ee F ig
,
and rel at iv el y .

l ow st if fnes s b end ing stre ngth and t ou ghness f or its w eight

, ,
In .

b end ing the ratio of t ensil e to comp ressiv e strength is l ow a con

, ,

d ition w hich l ead s to charact erist ic b rash f ail ures T ests mad e at .

Fo res t P rodu cts L a boratory Ph oto

F IG . 30 A . Cross s ection of sou th ern p ine log show m g com p ression w ood

the F orest P rod u cts L a b orat ory in b end ing comp ression
t
s atic ,

p arall el to g rain t ension p arall el t o g rain and t ou g hness on

, , ,

b oth norm al w ood and comp ression w ood of s ev eral conif erou s
sp ecies show ed that w hen t est ed g reen com p ress ion w ood w as
, , ,

d efi cient to normal w ood only in mod u l us of el asticity and t ension

‘

p arall el to g rain I ts sp ecifi c grav ity how ev er rang ed from 1 3

.
, ,

to 3 9 p ercent great er t han that of norm al w ood and w hen ad , ,

j ust ed f or d if f erences in sp ecifi c grav ity comp ression w ood w as ,

l ow er than normal w ood in all p rop erties ex cep t w ork to max imum
1 24 FA CT ORS A FFE CTI N G M ECHAN I CA L P R OPE RT I ES

l oad and t ot al w ork in st atic b end ing A f t er adj ustment f or .

‘

d if f erences insp ecifi c grav ity mod u l u s of el asticity rang ed from ,

43 t o 6 1 p ercent of norm al m od u l u s of rup tu re f rom 6 7 t o 90

'

p ercen t and t ou gh ness f rom 3 7 to 83 p ercent Rel ativ e v al u es

, .

Fo res t P rodu cts L a bora tory Phot o

F IG . 30 3 . Radial f
sur a ce of l obl olly p ine show ing norm al w ood ( upp er) and

com p ression w ood ( low er) . N ote lack of contrast betw een sp ring w ood and

summ erw ood in com p ression w ood .

f or comp ress ion ll y s omew hat l ow er w hen com

w ood are u s u a

p arison is m ad e in the a r d y cond t ion

i r i 5 1 -
.

M icros cop icall y comp ress ion w ood is charact eriz ed on the
,

cros s sect ion by round ed rath er t han norm all y ang ul ar su mm er

wood tracheid s ( F ig 3 1 A and B ) w ith consp icu ou s int ercell u l ar

.
,

sp aces On a l ong itu d inal section comp ression w ood is charac

.

teriz ed by a l arg e ang u l ar d ev iat ion of the fib ril s of the cell w all
f rom the l ongitu d inal ax is Of the tracheid s ( F ig Orient a .

tion of the fib ril s is ind icat ed in the p hot omicrograp h by the direc
tion Of check s in the cell w all s .

T he ex cl u sion of this a b norm al w o od in d ense D ou gl as fi r a nd

sou thern p ine is p rov id ed in the sel ect ion Of s t ru ct u ral m at erial of

A m erican Lu mb er S t and ard s by th e stip u l ation t hat the contrast

in col or b etw een su mm erw ood and sp r gw oodin m u st be i
d ts inct

and the s u m m erw ood m u s t be d ark T he caus e of the p rod u ction .

51 M . Y . P illow and F Lu xf ord

R . . S tru ctu re, occu rrence, and p rop erties
,

of com p ression w ood, U S D ep t A g r

. . T ech Bu l 5 46 W ashing t on 1 93 7
. . . .
, ,
.

”
G E Heck C om p ression w ood and f ailu re of f actory roof
—
S ee als o . .
,

beam , E ng . N ews R ecord, N ew

-
Y ork , V ol 83 S ep t 1 1 , 1 9 1 9 , p p 3 8
.
,
. . .
1 26 F A CT OR S A FFE CT I N G M E CHA NI CA L P R OPE RT I ES

a dd ition t hese normal res in canal s traum atic d u ct s Oft en de

to ,

v eIOp as a res u lt O f inj u ry not onl y in thes e w ood s but in , ,

hem l ock and tru e fi r ( A bies ) as w ell I n the l ongl eaf and sl ash .

p ines the resin p rod u ced in t hese traum atic resin d u ct s f orm ed
, ,

as a resu lt of the chip p ing of the ou t er l ay ers of s ap w ood or , ,

m ore recentl y by chem ical s timu l at ion of ex p os ed sap w ood is

, ,

the sou rce of mu ch of ou r tiirp entine and rosin

-

N ot infrequ entl y , in resp onse to v ariou s st imu l i, p it ch or res in

accu mu l at es in the w ood ou t sid e Of the res in d u ct s I n su ch cas es .

it either perm eat es the w ood ce s ll in p at ches k s of v ary ing

or s rea t
z
si e or is m ass ed in d efi nit e Op enin s or g sp l it s in the w ood .

P I T CH P OCK E T S

P itch p ock ets are w ell defi neg op ening s b etw een the annu al -

ring s of g row t h , u su all y cont aining , or hav ing cont ained , m ore or

l es s ( or resin) in either s ol id or l iqu id f orm ( s ee F ig

p it ch ,
.

B ark m ay al so be incl u d ed in t hes e op ening s in w hich case they ,

m ay resem bl e typ ical bark p ock ets “ P it ch p ock et s are som e .

w hat l ens shap ed b eing cu rv ed on the s id e t ow ard the p erip hery

-

of the t ree, and rang e f rom l ess than inch to ab out 2 inches in
w idth and f rom 2 to 8 inches or more in l ength T hey af f ect , ,
.

onl y one or tw o g r ow th ring s as a ru l e and are hidd en unt il ex

"

, ,

p osed by the s aw rend ering it im p ossibl e to cu t the l umb er w ith

,

ref erence to t heir p os it ion Oft en sev eral b oard s are d amag ed by .

a singl e p ock et These d ef ects are f requ entl y encountered in

.

l arch sp ru ce D ou gl as fi r and p ine esp eciall y l ongl ea f and other

, , , ,

hard p ines F ors aith 5 5 al so ment ions their occu rrence in sp ecies
.

l ik e true fi r ( A bies ) in w hich traum atic resin du cts are f ormed

as a resu lt of w ou nd in g .

T he ex act caus es of p it ch p ockets hav e not b een f u ll y est ab -

lished S ince t hey are app arentl y confi ned to w ood s p ossessing
.

B ark p ock ets are small p it ch free pat ches of bark w hich hav e been
54
,
-

w h olly or p artial ly inclu ded in t he w ood ap p arent ly as the resu lt of t he ,

healing ov er of areas Of dead camb iu m . They are of m ore g eneral occu r

rence t h an p it ch p ock ets , not b eing con ned fi t o thos e w oods that p oss ess
norm al res in du cts . They are sim ilar in e ff ect t o p it ch p ock ets , s ince b oth

d ef ects rep resent actu al breaks in the continu ity of t he w ood x and are

charact eriz ed by a l ocal iz ed dist ort ion of t he g rain on the sid e nearest the
cam biu m .

55
C C F ors aith T he technolog y of N ew Y ork S ta te tim bers, N
. .
, . Y . S tate
Col F or T ech P ubl 1 8 S y racuse, 1 92 6 , p 2 63
. . . .
, . .
 P IT CH P OCK ET S 1 27

norm al or trau m atic resin d u cts it is f requ ently assu med that
,

p it ch p ock ets b ear a cau s al rel at ion to res in d u cts One theory .
,

h
t ta M ayr
5 6
h old s th at these d ef ects are f ormed as a resu l t
,

Fo res t P rodu cts L aboratory Photo

F IG . 32 . Pitch p ockets exp os e
d on tang ential ( left) and radial ( rig ht) f
s ur aces .

of x d ation of resin f rom the horiz ontal resin d u ct s int o the

the e u

grow ing cam b ial l ay er This resin k ill s the surround ing cell s
.
,

cau s ing them t o coll ap se and f orm p ock et s in w hich the resin is ,

isol at ed by a su b s equ ent grow th of p arenchym a cell s .T he exu da

tion Of the resin is du e accord ing t o this theory t o the p ressure
, ,

ex ert ed on it by th e turg id sap w ood M ay r f urther contend s .

that b ecau se of d if f erences I n the t u rg id ity of t he w ood in the

,

Heinrich M ay r D as Hare der N ad elhOlzer J uliu s S p ring

’
56 er, B erlin 1 89 4,
—
.
, , ,

p p 38 40
. S ee J R W atkins, Pitch p ock ets and th eir relation t o the insp ec
. . .

tion of airp l ane p arts , Jou r F ranklin I ns t , P hiladelp hia, V ol 1 88 , 1 9 1 9 ,

. . .

p p 245 53
.
-
.
1 28 FA CT ORS A FF E CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P R OPE RT IE S

v icinity of b ranches f rom the m ain trunk p it ch p ock ets are most
'

f requ entl y f ound at these p oints He al so s t at es that t hese de

.

f eets are m ere frequ ent in trees grow ing al one and su bj ect ed to
extrem es Of t em p erat u re and hu m id ity t han in t hose w ithin th e

f orest F ors aith 5 7 l ik ens a p it ch p ock et to an enormou s resin

.

canal since its cav ity is su ou nd e d b ep ithel ial t issu e I t

r y s
r .

l ocal iz at ion to a d efi nit e p ortion of the grow th ring ind icates that
a p itC h p ock et is f orm ed as a resu lt of act iv ity of the camb iu m in
w hich contigu ou s cam b ial d eriv at iv es ab ru p tl y ceas e diff erentiat
ing as tracheid s t o d ev el op resin ep ithel ial t issu e A fter the f or .

mation of sev eral rows of su ch cell s the m erist em su dd enly ,

resu m es the normal d ev el op ment of t racheid s The cav ity of .

the p it ch p ock et l ik e that of a res in ca

,
nal is p rod uced as a ,

resu lt Of the s ep aration of the res in f orm ing ep ithel iu m and con -

seq u entl y is p ost cambial in its de irel opm ent A nother theory is .

th at the res in ex u d es f rom the tree f oll ow ing ext ernal inj u ry and
is su b seq u entl y cl osed ov er by l at er g row th S yd r
n e 5 8 cit es the .

ef f ect Of cert ain ins ects p articu l arl y b ark b eetl es in cau sing
, ,

p it ch p ock et s I n this w ay .

T he ef f ect of p it ch p ock et s on the streng th of w ood d ep end s

p rim aril y on t heir ab u nd ance siz e and p osit ion in the p iece
, ,
.

S ince they rep res ent actu al b reak s in the cont inu ity of the w ood ,

these d ef ect s are comp arabl e in ef f ect t o small sh ak es althou g h ,

the l ocal iz ed d ist ort ion or dip Of the g rain on the conv ex sid e
of the p ock et m ay t end to increas e the s l op e of the grain and

thu s accentu at e the w eak ening ef f ect Of the p ock et s 5 9 T hu s .

,

p it ch p ock et s near or at the neutral p l ane of w ood en m em b ers

-

su bj ected t o b end ing t end to red u ce th e area act ing in resist ance

to horiz ont al shear althou g h they are s el d om l arg e enou gh t o

,

cau se shear f ail u re d irectl y w hereas thos e d ef ect s ex p os ed near

,

the m iddl e of the u p p er or l ow er su rf ace m ay p rod u ce l ocal cros s

grain and thus w eak en the w ood I n resist ance to comp ression or
tension D uring the earl y p art of W orld W ar I the p resence of
.
,

p it ch p ock et s cau s ed a heavy rej ection Of w ing b eam s and other

airp l ane p art s L ater t est s m ad e at the F ores t P rod u cts L ab ora
.
,

57 F orsaith, f ootnote 55 , p p .
—
263 4 .

58 Thom as E S ny d er, D ef ects in tim ber caused by insects, U S

. . . D ep t .

Ag r. D ep t Bu l 1 490 , W ashing ton, 1 92 7, p p 3 7—8

. . . .

59 P itch p ock ets al e not t o be confu sed w ith p it ch s eam s , w hich are actu al

shakes or ch ecks that h av e becom e fi lled w ith p itch or resin .

1 30 FA CT ORS A F FE CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L PROPERT I ES

res inou s coni ers f v aries

bl y in the diff erent p arts of the cons i era d
tree T he
. com p arat iv el y n s ap w ood is
onresinou s w hereas the ,

heartw ood m ay cont ain high concentrations p art icu l arl y in ,

the stu mp and b u tt l og s There may al so be an ab und ant .

d ev el op ment of res in in the fl n pp er p arts of the t ree esp eciall y ,

w here the l imb s j oin t he tru nk f

F or p ract ical p u rp oses resin ( or p it ch ) is not consid ered to
hav e any m at erial ef f ect on the strength Of w ood althou gh ,

tim b ers in w hich the w hol e end is s aturated w ith resin hav e
p rov ed s om ew h at errat ic und er t est and shou ld be reg ard ed w ith
i
su sp ic on
6 2 n ri f
O e se es o t est . s m ad e o n i
l o gl eaf p ne
n 6 3
ind i
cat ed t hat v ery resinou s sp ecim ens b ecam e increasingl y s t rong er

than simil ar norm al p ieces of the sam e w ood as the m at erial w as ,

d ried b el ow the thorou ghl y air dry cond ition Other exp eri -
.

m ents on the s ou t hern y ell ow pines ind icat ed that the end w ise
“

com p ress iv e st rengt h b end ing st rength and shock res ist ance of , ,

these w ood s are s omew h at increased by the p resence of resin .

T he comp ressiv e strength is m ost af f ect ed How ev er the p ro .

,

p ortionate increas e f or a l arg e am ou nt of resin w as f ou nd t o be

mu ch l ess than f or a m od erat e am ount I t has b een fu rther .

show n t hat the strengt h of these w ood s is not increas ed as mu ch

by the p resence of resin as it w ou ld be by an eq u al add itional

w eig ht of w ood s u b st ance I n this connect ion it sh ou ld be .
,

b orne in m ind that a high resin cont ent is frequ entl y as sociated
w ith inj uries w hich the s elv es m ay g reatl y red uce the strength
,
m
Of w ood
”
T he bl eed ing of s ou thern p ine trees in the turp ent ining
op erat ion is s om et im es cons idered t o l ow er the st rengt h of the
-

w ood but this is not b orne out by inv est ig at ion Comp arativ e
,
.

6 4 l
test s on w ood f rom bl ed and u nbl ed trees ed t o the concl u s ions :

1 ) that bl ed t imb er is as st rong as u nbl ed if of the s ame w eight

'

h t h ig ht d h i k g e of w ood is not af f ect ed by

( )
2 t a t e w e an s r n a

62 J . A . N e lin w R P A J ohnson B asic g rading ru les

and . . .
, and nking
wi
s tress es f or s tru ctu ral tim bers , U S D ep t A g r D ep t Circ 2 9 5
. . . . . .
, W ashing ton,
1 9 23 , p . 8 .

63 H . D .
‘

T iem ann, E fiect o f m ois tu re u p on the s treng th and s ti ff ness f

o

w ood, U . S . D ep t . Ag r
. F or S erv Bul 70
. . .
, W ashing ton, 1 90 6 p ,
. 92 and dia
g ra m p 70
—m ech
. .
,

64 J . B . J ohnson and F R oth S ou thern .

, p ine anica l and p hysical
p rop erties, U S D ep t A g r F or S erv Circ
. . . . . . . 1 2, Washing ton, 1 896 , p . 16 .
 M I S CE LLA N E OU S S EA S ONI N G D EF E CT S 131

bl eed ing and ( 3 ) that bl ed trees

, contain p ra ct icall y neither m ore
nor l ess resin than u nbl ed trees .

M is cell a on l n g D e f e ct s

A l thou is the m ost

d et erioration comm on f orm of

resu l ting d u ring the s eas oning of w ood and the m ost im ort ant
p
f rom the p oint of v iew Of ef f ect on the strength of stru ctural
tim b er it is by no means the onl y d ef ect t hat d ev el op s W arp
, .

ing cas ehard ening honey comb ing and coll ap se m ay al so occur
, , ,

u nd er cert ain cond it ions .

W arping , by w hich is meant any d ev iation Of a p iece f rom a

true or p l ane surf ace is of f requ ent occurrence in l u m b er S ev
, .

eral f orm s are recog niz ed nam el y bow crook tw ist and cu p , , , , ,
.

B ow is a d ev iat ion of the w ide f ace f rom a straight l ine d raw n /

f rom end to end of a p iece I t is u su all y p rod u ced by carel ess .

s aw ing or by d if f erences in t he l ong itu d inal shrink ag e of t he tw o

f aces Of a b oard but m ay al so be caused by internal stresses

p resent in the l og at t he t im eof s aw ing Crook is a d ev iation of .

the edg e f rom a straight l ine d raw n f rom end to end Of a p iece ,

su ch as resu l ts f rom carel ess edg ing of a b oard Tw is t is a d ev ia .

t ion Of a p iece su ch t hat the f our corners are no l ong er in the

s am e p l ane I t is comm on in w ood s w ith irregu l ar cross g rain
.

bu t m ay al s o occur in straight grained w ood s as the resu lt of

“

u nev en d ry ing or int ernal st res ses p resent in the w ood b ef ore the

tree w as f ell ed Cup is a cu rv e in a p iece across the grain or

.

w id th I n this l ast f orm of w arp ing the edg es rem ain p arall el
.
,

f requ entl y g iv ing the b oard a trou gh l ik e app earance -

.

Cupp ing m ay occu r in p l ain saw ed l u m b er w hich is d ried w ith -

ou t b eing w eig ht ed d ow n s ince the su rf ace orig inall y cl os er to the

,

cent er of the l og is m ore nearl y rad ial t h an the other and cons e

q uently t ends to shrink l ess across the w id th of the b oard than

d oes the other f ace I t al so resu lt s in b oth p l ain and qu art er
.
,

s aw ed m at erial w hen one s id e of a b oard d ries and s hrink s m ore

,
-

rap idl y th an the ot her Chang e of s hap e f rom this l att er cau se
.

al one how ev er is us u all y t em p orary

, ,
and t he p iece t end s t o ,

65
‘
M ore det ailed dis cu ssion of seas oning defects m ay be f ound in A rthu r
K oehler and Rol f T hel en, T he kiln drying of lu m ber, M cGraw Hill B ook -

C o , N ew
. Y ork ,
1 926 .
1 32 FA CT ORS A FFE CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P R OP ERTIE S

s rai
t ghten out as the d rying p roceed s Cup p ing m ay al so occur
in b oard s res aw ed f rom casehard ened l umb er as is exp l ained in ,

the f oll ow ing p arag rap hs .

T he v ariou s f orm s of w a p ing m ay be l arg el y p rev ented by

r
p rop er p il ing of the l u m b er during s easoning They are u su all y .

obj ect ionabl e f or ot her reas ons than t heir ef f ect on the s trength of

w oo d al thou gh p ronounced w arp ing m ay m ark edl y red u ce the

,
-

b earing area Of j oists and other f orms of l umb er and p rev ent its
-

s atis f actory nail ing in constru ction .

Caseh ard ening resu lt s f rom the too ra p id surf ace d ry ing Of
w ood . I t is u su all y m ore p ronou nced in k il n d ried st ock but -

m ay occu r d uring air seasoning as w ell W henthe drying cond i .

tions are su ch t hat moisture is ev ap orat ed from t he surf ace Of a

p iece mu ch m ore rap idl y than it can be su pp l ied f rom the int erior
by trans f u sion the ou ter l ay erS will reach the fi ber s atu rat ion
fi
-

p oint and b eg in to shrink w hil e the insid e is rel at iv el y w et and

st ill at it s g reat es t v ol um e T he contract ion of the ext erior is
.

thu s op posed by the unchang ing interior w ith the resu lt that the ,

ou t sid e t end s to b ecome stret ched ; t ens il e stres s es are a ccord ingl y

set u p in the ou t er l ay ers and the int erior is Su bj ect ed t o com

,

p res sion . A S rap id d ry ing p roceed s t hes e s tresses b ecome m ore ,

p ronou nced and the ext erior either check s or reaches it s fi nal
,
”
m oist ure cont ent and b ecomes s et w ithou t norm al shrink ag e
“

hav ing t ak en p l ace This is know n as the firs t s tag e of cas e

.
“

hardening I f a b oard in th is cond ition is res aw ed t he tw o p ieces

.
_
,

w ill curv e or cup ,

aw ay f rom each ,
other ; l at er h ow ev er
-

, ,

as the f reshl y ex p osed surf aces dry and s hrink the p ieces ,

w ill grad u all y straight en out and then cup t ow ard ea ch other .

A s d ry ing is cont inu ed b ey ond the fi rst st ag e the int erior g rad u ,

all y l oses its m oistu re and t end s t o shrink aw ay f ro mthe set ” “

ext erior . A s a resu lt w hen the wood is u n ,

if orm l y dry the ,

st ress es are rev er s ed th e inner p a rt b ein u nd er t ens ion and the

, g
ou t sid e in comp ression T his is t he final s ta g e in ca sehardening
.
,

and b oard s resaw ed f rom l u mb er in this cond it ion w ill p erm a

'

nently cup t ow ard each other .

T he stres ses set Up in casehard ened w ood hav e s om e w eak ening -

t end ency althou gh the l oss in strength is u su all y not serious

,

unl es s it is a ccom p anied by check ing or honey com b ing w hich is ,

d escrib ed in the f oll ow ing p aragrap h .

Honeycombing is the t erm app l ied t o the int ernal check ing of
 1 34 F A CTORS A FF E CT I N G M ECHA N I CA L P R OPE RT I ES

trance rea d il y ,
as is u su a lly the
d or is already case
‘
in s ap w oo ,

p resent in the cell cav it ies it exp ands and thus rel iev es the t ensil e
,

stres s ex ert ed by the retre t ing w at er A s m ent ioned u nd er the

a .

d is cussionof d ecay coll ap se may s ometimes be attrib ut ed to the

L
, a

w eak ening of the cell w all s of w ood by the act iv it ies of w ood
d estroying fung i .

I n s e ct I n j u ries

F or the p u rp os e of this d iscu ssion insect inj uries hav e b een ,

d iv id ed int o tw o groups : ( 1 ) insect hol es , resu lting from the

act iv ities of w ood b oring ins ect s and ( 2 ) m inor inj u ries com , ,

p rising a m is cell aneou s g roup of irreg u l arit ies p rod u ced in w ood
by Inj ury to the cam b ium or other interf erence w it h the norm al
p rod u ct ion of w ood y t is su e .

I N S ECT HOLE S
D amag e by w ood b oring insect s occurs in st and ing trees s aw
-

. l ogs unseasoned l umb er and other p rod uct s and in s easoned m a

, ,

terial N aturall y much Of this l oss is nonp rev ent abl e p articu
.
,

l arly as it app l ies to st and ing t imb er alt hou gh ev en there it can ,

d ou btless be redu ced by su it abl e f orest m anag ement How ev er .

,

it is t hrou gh the prop er handl ing of s aw l og s and conv ert ed

m at erial and the ap p l ication of p res erv at iv es w here p os sibl e that
the g reat est econom y can be ef f ect ed
“
.

F or them ost p art the d am ag e by insect s is d one in the l arv al

st a g e the l arv ae or g ru b s b u rrow ing t hrou gh the w ood t o obt ain
,

b oth f ood and shelt er and p rod u cing g all eries or hol es that are f re
qu ently charact eristic I n s om e inst ances how ev er the ad ult
.
, ,

f orms t ak e an activ e p art in the d estru ct ion T his is not abl y tru e .

of the m atu re am b ros ia b eetl e s w hich of ten p enetrat e the w ood

,

f or consid erabl e d ist ances f or the p urp os e of l ay ing egg s and

rearing t heir y ou ng ; of th e su bt erranean t erm it es w hose ad u lt ,

w ork ers are the d estru ct iv e ind iv id u al s ; and of the ad u lt car

“

p e nt er b ees o r ca rp en t er ants I t is app are nt t h at ins

. ect hol es

by b reak ing u p the cont inu ity of the fib ers m ay cons id erabl y ,

red u ce the stru ctu ral s t rengt h of w ood F or this reason st ock .
,

that show s ev id ence of att ack by w ood b oring insects sh ou ld be -

.

u s ed w ith d iscret ion where the s trength req u irem ent s are ex act ing ,

alt hou gh su ch mat erial w ill p rob abl y not be rej ect ed f or ord inary
 I N S E CT HOLE S 1 35

use has
b een v ery s ev ere I nsect hol es are .

simil hol es althou g h there is no g rain d ist ortion ,

ab ou are us u all y m ore l im it ed in s ize

; conse
qu ently the1 r actu al ef f ect d ep end s to a l arg e ext ent on their l oca
,

tion in a stick and the resu lt ant stresses to w hich they are
su bj ect ed .

Three g eneral typ es of insect hol es are recogniz ed namel y p in , ,

hol es g ru b hol es and p ow d er p ost 6 6 Pinh ol es and g rub h ol es

, ,
.

are d ist ingu ish ed mainl y on the b asis of s iz e :T he f orm er are d e

fi ned 6 6 as sm all rou nd u su all y op en hol es rang ing from

, , to ,

1
4 inch in d iam et er ; the l att er are ov al circu l ar or irreg u l ar
6 7
,

hol es to 1 inch in d iamet er and in s ome cases fill e d w ith b oring

‘

, ,

du st w hich d oes not f all out w hen the w ood is j arred P inhol es .

are mad e by either am b rosia b eetl es or the s ev eral t im b er w orm s

( chestnu t oak t eneb rionid and s ap w ood t im b er w orms ) w ork ing

/

, , ,

in the heartw ood and sap w ood of v arious hard w ood s and conif ers ,

the inj ury occurring in l iv ing t rees and in s aw l og s t imb ers b ol ts , , ,

and p il ed l u m b er w h il e t hey a re st ill in the u nseas oned cond it ion

, .

Gru b hol es are m ad e in the st and ing tree in the s aw log or in

-

, ,

p il ed u nseasoned l um b er or other f orms of w ood by a v ariety of

’ ’

insect s incl u d ing the fl at and round head ed b orers P arandra

,
-

b orers l ocu st b orers pine s aw y ers carp ent er w orms t ermit es

, ,
-

, , ,

carp ent er b ees and carp ent er ant s ,

T hey occur in b oth heart .

w ood and s ap w ood of all k ind s Of tim b er .

Of the af o rem entioned in sect s the termites or w hit e ant s

'
-

, , ,

are of p art icu l ar int erest b ecau se of the d amag e t hey m ay do not ,

onl y to unseas oned m at erial bu t al s o to the w ood w ork and con ,

t ents of b u ild ings and to p ol es p ost s and other f orm s of w ood in

, , ,

s erv ice esp eciall y w hen it is in cont act w ith the g round
,
T heir .

att ack is p art icu l arl y insid iou s as the t ermit es w ork ent irel y in ,

the d ark ; inf est ed w ood m ay b e comp l et el y riddl ed in the interior

and y et app ear s ou nd t o casu al insp ect ion since the p rot ect iv e ,

ou t er sh ell is l eft int act These insects ab out 5 6 sp ecies of w hich

.
,

are nat iv e to the Unit ed S t at es occur in all p art s of the count ry ,

6 6 F or detailed dis cu ssion of thes e d ef ects and th eir p rev ent ion s ee
“

Th om as E S ny d er D ef ects in tim ber caused by insects U S D ep t A g r

.
, ,
. . . .

D ep t Bu l 1 490 W ashing t on 1 92 7 Cont ains 45 fi g ures show ing v arious

. .
, ,
.

insect defects .

6 7 I n A m erican L u mb er S tandards a
p inhole is lim it ed to a m axim u m
diam et er of inch L u m ber S im p lifi ed P ractice Recom m endation
.
,

RI 6 39 U S D ep t Comm W ashing ton 1 940 p 28

-

,
. . . .
, , ,
. .
 1 36 FA CT ORS A FFE CTI N G M E CHA N I CA L P ROP ERT IES

bu t are p articu l arl y

d estru ctiv e in the S outh A tl antic and Gu lf
S t at es , in the S outhw est , and al ong the P acific coast I n m any .

ci ies
t in the seriou sl y inf est ed areas rev isions of the b u ild ing cod es
hav e b een m ad e or are bemg contemp l at ed in ord er to control ,

thes e p ests 6 8 .

P ow der p ost d ef ects are ind icat ed by Sm all hol es

-

to 14
in ch in d iam et er) in the su rf ace of the inf est ed w ood f rom w hich a

charact erist ic granu l at ed or fl our l ik e p ow d er w ill f all w hen the -

p iece is j arred or m ov ed T he v isibl e op ening s rep res ent the em .

trance and ex it hol es m ad e by the adu lt b eetl es as they enter -

-

the w ood t o d ep osit t heir egg s and em erg e f rom it t o sp read the
d am age ; the p ow d er is the b oring d u st or d ropp ings m ad e by the
l arv ae or gru b s as they b ore throu gh the int erior of the w ood f or
f ood and shelt er These l arv ae honey comb the int erior of the .

w ood w ith their irreg u l ar b urrow s and m ay red u ce its strengt h

p ract icall y to z ero al thou gh the thin ou t er shell rem ains more or ,

l ess int act .

T here are a numb er of so call ed p ow d er p ost b eetl es but the - -

m ost seriou s from the st andp oint of p rev al ence and ext ent of
d am ag e are the L y ctu s b eetl es w hich confi ne th eir activit ies to ,

the se ason ed s ap w ood of cert ain h ard w ood s Oak ash and hick .
, ,

ory are es p eciall y su s cep t ibl e to att ack alth ou gh m ap l e w al nu t

“

, , ,

er s imm on ch erry el m p op l ar and sy cam ore and other sp ecies

p , , , ,

are al so af f ect ed P ow d er p ost d am ag e to l u mber w ood w ork of

.
-

b u ild ing s furniture imp ler ,

nent handl es v eh icl e st ock coop erag e , , , ,

68 S ee Wood handbook, rev U S D ep t Ag r. Unnum bered P ubl Wash

—
. . . . .
, ,

I ng t on, 1 9 40 , p p 255 8 .
_
.

F or det ailed in orm ation f concerning t ermite dam ag e and its p rev ention
see :

D udley F Holtman Wood cons tru ction—p rincip les

.
, , p ractice, details,
M cGraw Hill Book Co N ew Y ork 1 9 29 Chap 7
-
.
, , ,
. .

T E S ny der, P reventing dam ag e by termites or w hite

. . ants, U . S . D ep t .

A g r F arm ers Bul 1 472 , W ashing ton, 1 9 26

’
. . .

T E S ny der Tests of m ethods of p rotecting w oods ag

. .
,
ains t termites or
w hite ants, U S D ep t A g r D ep t Bu l 1 23 1 , W ashing t on
. . . . . .
,

T E Sny der, I nj u ry to building

. . s by termites . U . S . D ep t . Ag r. L eafl et
1 0 1 W ashing t on, 1 933
,
.

C A K of oid et al Termites and term ite control : a rep ort to the termite
. .
,

inves tig ations committee, B erk el ey , Calif , 1 93 4 . .

T ermite dam ag e p rotection, Lu m ber and its u tiliz ation, Constru ctio
n In
form ation S er V ol 4, Chap 9 , N at Lbr M frs A ssn , W ashing ton, 1 928
. . . . . . . .
1 38 FA CT ORS A FFE CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P ROPERT IE S

new l y f ormed lay ers are charact eriz ed by a dip in the grain at the
point of inj ury The orig inal op ening s remain but in the conif ers
.

becom e fill ed w ith p it ch th e b ear s om e res embl ance t o p it ch

p ock et s althou gh the grain Of the w ood is not s o charact erist icall y
, ,

d ist orted in the l att er d ef ect s B l ack streak is esp eciall y p rev .

al ent in w est ern hem l ock bu t al s o occu rs inot her w es t ern conif ers

( fi r sp ru ce and p ond eros a p ine) and in oaks I n the conif ers the
'

, , .

check s are to 1 inch l ong

and of a l ik e w idth ( on t an

g ential su rf ace) w hereas in ,

oak t hey m ay be mu ch l arg er -

T he ef f ect of t his typ e of d ef ect

is to l ow er the g rad e of fi nish
ing l u m b er or t o m ak e the m a
terial u nfit f or fi nishing tu rn ,

ing s t av es and w ood enw are , , .

Ex cep t f or the m agg ot cham b er

itself w hich m ay be consid ered ,

eq u iv al ent t o a p it ch p ock et of

the s ame s iz e the ef f ect of ,

bl ack streak on strength may

be d isreg ard ed .

P ith fl eck s are narrow , u su

ll y b row nish streak s up to a ,

sev eral inches inl engt h on the

su rf ace of a p iece resu l ting ,

f rom the b urrow ing of the mag

g ots of fl ies or ad u lt w eev il s in
F o t P od t L bo to y Photo
res r the g row ing LIS S U O ( cam b iu m )
uc s a ra r

Of a tree T hes e def eats nor

F IG 34 B la ck streak in w estern
‘

. .

hem lock m all y ap p ear o n the cross sec

.

t ion of a p iece as small hal f ,

m oon shap ed p at ches

-
T he m ost comm on typ e of p ith fl ec
.
.
k is
that f ormed in map l e ( esp eciall y the s oft m ap l es ) , b irch ( chiefl y
in gray p ap er and riv er b irch ) p op l ar cott onw ood bass od
, , , , , ,

oak cherry and other hard w ood s by the l arv ae of cert ain fl ies
, ,
.

. -

T he ad u lt fl ies l ay th eir eggs in t he y oung b ranches ” and the

l arv ae w hich hat ch from them b urrow d ow n the tru nk throu gh -

the cam b ium to the roots w here they emerg e and p up ate Thes e
tunnel s b ecome fill ed w ith outg row ths fromadj acent p arenchy ma
.
,
 B I R D PE CK 1 39

ll
ce s , and o er v th em .
71 S ny d er6 6 a
l so
d es crib es that is caused by the f eed ing
of ad u lt w eev il s on the cam b ium of cert ain conif ers I n this .

typ e the d amage is more l ocal iz ed the Ins ects f orming sm all ,

cav it ies ( 14 t o 1 inch in w idth ) in the cam b iu m w hich l at er .

b ecom e fill ed up w ith p arenchym— atou s tiss u e and g u m P ith ‘

.

fl eck s do not noticeab ly af f ect the s trength O f w ood unl ess they
are exceed ingl y nu m erou s .

72
Bir d P e ck

T he w ood ofhick ory , m ap le y ell ow p op l ar, w h it e ash, and

m
,
.

ma ny other s p ecies , incl u d ing the conif ers , is s om et i es

d amag ed
by a g rou p of w ood p eck ers know n as s ap su ck ers These b ird s ,
.

d rill into the l iv ing tree throu gh the inner b ark and camb ium ,

w hich they u til iz e f or f oo d and Of ten ext end their w ork ings int o
’ '

the ou t er l ay er of s ap w ood from w hich they ext ract s ap T he , .

h ol es thus f ormed w hich m ay be d isp osed in p artial or comp l et e

,

ring s around the tru nk or in v ert icall y incl ined row s are heal ed ,

ov er but the su b seq u ent g row th of w ood is m ore or l es s d ist ort ed

,

and occas ionall y g iv es ris e t o cu rl y grain and cert ain f orm s of .

’ ”
“
b ird s ey e Th is ty p e of inj ury is k now n as bird peck ( F ig 3 5 )
-
. .

and is u su all y f u rth er cha ract eriz ed b y a b rown or bl ack dis

“

col orat ion Of the w ood ext end ing f rom a f ew inches t o as mu ch ,

as Sev eral f eet ab ov e a nd b el ow the w ou nd Su ch s t ains are .

t erm ed mineral streak s ( F ig 36 ) and are m ost common in the

’ '

hard w ood s They are cau sed b y ox id at ion and other chemical
.

changes in the su b st ances in the w ood .

B ird p eck s a re cl as sifi ed as d ef ect s p rimaril y b ecau se of their

ef f ect on the ap p earan ce of w ood and in m at erial to be u sed f or ,

handl es b ecau se of the t end ency of the g rain to rou ghen and
,

sp l int er a t the p oint of inj u ry w hen m achined T hey are not .

u su all y consid ered t o imp air the s t rengt h of w ood ex cep t p ossibl y ,

in sm all p ieces or w hen t hey are nu merou s and m ore or l ess con
'

centrated w ithin a gi v en growth ring as is s ometimes the case ,

.

T he concentration of thes e d ef ect s w ithin the annu al l ay ers of

71 H P Brown Pith
. .
,
-
ray fl ecks in w ood, U . S . D ep t . Ag r . F or S erv Circ
. . .

2 1 5 , W ashing t on, 1 9 1 3
7 2 F or fu rther discu ssion of def ects
p rodu ced in w ood by b irds see W L
'

. .

McA tee, W oodp eckers in relation t o trees and w ood p rodu cts, U S
'

. . D ep t .

Ag r. Biol S u rv Bul 3 9 ,
. . . W ashing t on, 1 9 1 1 .
1 40 F A CT ORS A FF E CTI NG M E CHA N I CA L P R OPERT I E S

Fores t P rodu cts L a boratory Photo

F IG . 35 . Bird p eck in yellow p op l ar veneer.

grow th may l ead t o the d ev el op ment of cup sha e in k the t

s an d ing
‘

tree .

M a rin e Bore r I nj u ry
S erious d am ag e is d one t o the su b m erg ed p ort ions of w ood

p il ing and other t imb ers u sed in m arine constru ction by cert ain
l ow f orm s of ani mal l if e k now n as marine borers T hese b orers
,
.

are w id el y d istrib u t ed t hrou ghou t the s alt w at ers of the w orld ,

althou gh m ore p rev al ent in w arm reg ions t han in cold and are ,

rep ort ed in the U nit ed S t at es in p ra ct icall y all h arb ors al ong the
1 42 FA CT ORS A FF E CTI N G M E CHA N I CA L P ROPE RTIE S

l at ed to the oy st ers and cl ams ; they b el ong to tw o g enera B ankia

'

( f ormerl y d iv id ed int o X y lotria and N ausitoria ) and Teredo .

T he second g rou p comp rises the crust acean b orers or w ood lice
'

, ,

w hich are k in to the l ob st ers a nd crab s ; they are confi ned t o the

g enera Limnoria, S p ha erom a, and Chelu ra .

T he ship w orm s ent er w ood onl y as l arv ae T he y oung m icro .

s cOp ic ind iv id u al s m ak e minu t e entrance hol es in the e xp osed su r

f ace Of the w ood but once w ithin the t im b er the anim al s increase
,

rap idl y in s iz e and d ev el op l ong w orm l ik e b od ies ,

-

T he ext ent and rap id ity of d am ag e by s hip w orms d ep end s p ri '

m aril y on the g enus of b orer inv olv ed ; cond it ions su ch as

t emp erature and sal inity ; and the int ensity of the inf est ation .

Und er cond it ions extremel y f av orabl e f or their dev el op m ent ,

som e of the m oll us can b orers and th eir g all eries m ay att ain a
/

t ot al l ength of 4 to 6 f eet and a d iam et er of an inch but during ,

heav y inf est at ions w hen there is k een com p etition fif or f ood and
,

shelt er they are seld om m ore than a f ew inches l ong and

, t o 14
inch in w idth T hese b orers u su all y ent er the t im b er at right
.

angl es to the grain and t hen tu rn in the l ong itu d inal d irect ion

and f oll ow a v ery irregu l ar t angl ed cou rse W hen the inf est ation
,
.

iS heav y som e of the g all eries of necessity ext end rather d eep l y
‘

, , ,
-

t ow ard the cent er of the p il e b ef ore turning w ith the grain and ,

the w ood is red u ced to a honey comb ed m ass w it hin a t hin p ro

tectiv e sh ell and l oses al l stru ctu ral strength at the p oint of at
t ack I n extreme cases u nt reated p il ing m ay be ren
. d ered u sel ess
in a f ew m onths a lthou gh und er l ess s ev ere att ack it may l a st
,

f or sev eral y ears .

D u ring al l the t im e that the ship w orm s are g row ing t o m aturity
w ithin the w ood th e entrance hol es are onl y sl ightl y enl arg ed .

Conseq uentl y p il ing m ay be v irt u all y riddl ed and s till app ear
,

rel at iv el y sou nd t o casu al insp ect ion T he d estru ct ion is further

.

h idd en f rom normal Ob serv at ion since the att ack of the ship
w orm s is of ten concentrat ed at or near the mu d l ine .

Of the cru st acean b orers Limnoria is by f ar t he m ost d estru o

,

tiv e b eing activ e al ong the entire A tl antic Gul f and P acifi c
, , ,

coast s of the Unit ed S t at es I t b u rrow s int o the w ood to obt ain

.

b oth f ood and shelt er a d att a s l gt

n in a en h o f t o 1
4 inch w hen
mature Chelura commonly w ork s in conj unction w ith Lim
,

noria and is of ap p rox im at el y the s ame siz e S p haeroma on the .

,

oth er h and is a m ore s ol it ary w ork er and m ak es s om ew h at l arg er

,
a
w RI NE B ORE R I NJU RY

l thoug h f ew er hol es ; al thou gh cap abl e of d oing serious d amage

1 43

it is s eld om v ery d estru ct iv e to w ood en m arine s tru ctures .

T he d est ruct ion of w ood b y the w ood l ice d if f ers consid erabl y
'

from that by the ship w orms T he g all eries of these w ood b oring
.
-

cru st aceans are of rel ativ el y sm all d iam et er ( ab ou t inch in

the cas e of Limnoria ) and of u nif orm w idth throu ghout their
d ep th and seld om extend m ore than half an inch b el ow the sur
f ace of the timb er al thou gh they m ay run obl iqu el y f or an inch
-

or t w o . A l thou gh t heir w ork ing s are more or l ess su p erfi cial ,

these anim al s comm onl y att ack w ood in su ch g reat numb ers
( Oft en 2 00 to 40 0 p er s qu are inch of su rf ace) th at the out er l ay ers
are red uced t o a honey comb ed m as s The thin p artitions of w ood
‘

s ep arating the b u rrow s are then b rok en aw ay by the m echanical

act ion of w av es or other f orces a nd af resh su rf ace is ex p osed t o

,

the b orers w hich are free t o mov e ab ou t

,
Thu s the d estru ction .

b ecomes p rogress iv e and the v ol ume of w ood at the p lace of at

, _

t ack is grad u all y red u ced to the p oint of f ailu re .

T he att ack s of ma rineb orers of this g rou p m ay ext end d ow n to

the mu d l ine but ap p ear t o be most concentrated b etw een half
tid e and l ow tid e w here the w ashing action of the w av es and the
“

b att ering of fl oating d eb ris m at eriall y accel erat e the b reak ing
d ow n of the honey comb ed s u rf ace B oth hard and softw ood s .

are att ack ed ,

bu t d estru ction is m ore rap id in the s of tw ood s ;
this is al s o the case in the soft er p ortions of those sp ecies t hat
ex hib it d ecid ed d if f erences in d ensity b et w een earl y and l at e w ood .

W hen Limnoria w ork s in the sam e t imb ers as the ship w orms as is ,

frequ ent l y the case it may eat aw ay the w ood p rot ecting the
,

l atter and thu s ex p osethem to the attack s of their enem ies .

T he d am ag e to p il ing and oth er su b merg ed w ood by cru st acean

b orers is l ess s eriou s than that caus ed by the ship w orm s as a ru l e , ,

s ince it is read il y ap p arent on insp ect ion es p eciall y w hen con ,

centrated at or near l ow tid e D etru ction is al so l ess rap id than

.

from att ack by the m oll u scan b orers Und er extremely f av or .

a bl e c ond it ions
,
Limnoria req u ires a y ear t o accomp l ish the
d estru ction that T eredo can p erf orm in a f ew m onths .

A lt hou gh no w ood s are k now n t o be immu ne to d estru ction by

the v ariou s m oll u s canand cru st acean b orers cert ain s p ecies hav e ,

b een f ound t o Of f er more or l ess resist ance t o their att ack s p re ,

su m ably ow ing t o the p resence of ext raneou s ess ent i -

a l oil s or

other t ox ic m at erial s t o their extreme d ensity or t o a high sil ica

, .

,
1 44 FA CT ORS A FF E CT IN G M E CHA N I CAL P R OPE RT I ES

con en t t . A m ong the m os t

t t k ind s w hich are all of f or res is an ,
o
eig n or1 g 1 n m ay be m entioned j arrah t otara tu rp ent ine w ood
fl

, , , ,

az obe m anb arkl ak ang el iq u e and g reenheart althou gh the l as t

, , , ,
.

nam ed w ood d oes not h av e an esp eciall y g ood record in t rop ica l
w aters Unf ortu nat el y h ow ev er t hese w ood s are not av ail abl e
.
, ,

f or g eneral u se in the Unit ed S t at es b ecau se of their ex cessiv e

cos t or l imit ed and u ncert ain sup p l y The p al ms hav e al s o ev i .

denced som e immunity as a resu lt of their p ecu l iar s tru ctu re , ,

bu t they are l ack ing in strength and are not g enerall y av ail abl e
in suit abl e siz es as w ell as b eing su bj ect to rap id d ecay ab ov e ,
-

the w at er l ine T he tw o w ood s ext ensiv el y u sed f or p il ing in

.
-

the U nit ed S t at es namel y s ou thern p ine and D ou gl as fi r are s oon , , ,

d estroy ed in inf est ed w at ers unl ess they are creosot ed or some
other f orm of art ifi cial p rotection i s p rov id ed 7 3
/
.

P ar a s it ic P l a n t I nj u rie s

T he m ost comm on Of
d am ag ing the higher p arasitic p l ant s
timb er t rees are the mistl et oes M any sp ecies of d ecidu ous trees .

are att ack ed by the comm on mis tl et oe ( P horadendron fl a

v es cens ) This p articu l ar p arasit e is v ery p rev al ent in the S ou th
and S ou thw est and w h en p resent in suflicient qu ant ity d oes con

s iderabl e d am ag e There are al s o num erou s sm all er mistl et oes .

b el ong ing to the genu s Raz oumof s kya w hich are w id el y dis
trib u t ed throu ghout the country and s ev eral of these cau se seriou s ,

l oss es in conif erou s tim b er w est of the R ock ies p articu l arl y in ,

w est ern l arch D ou gl as fi r and p ond eros a and l odg ep ol e p ine

, , .

A lthou gh m istl et oe is m ost inj u riou s f rom the st and p oint of its
ef f ect in imp airing the v it al ity and g row th of the t rees s erv ing a s

73 F or inf orm ation on m ethods of p rotecting wood ag ainst marine b orers -

see William G . A tw ood and A . A . J ohnson ,

M arine s tru ctu res —their dete
riora tion an Res Cou n W ashing ton 1 92 4
d p reserva tion, N at . . .
, , .

A lso C L Hill and C A K of oid , M arine borers and their rela tion to
. . . .

marine cons tru ction on the P acific Coas t, Univ Calif P ress, Berkeley . .

7 4 Harlan H Y ork The ana t om

, y and s om e of the biolog ical asp ects of t he
.

”
A merican mis tletoe, Univ T exas Bu l 1 2 0 S ci S er 1 3 , A ustin 1 909 . .
,
. .
,
.

Wm L B ray , T he m ist letoe p es t in the S ou thw es t

. . . U . S . D ep t . Ag r. Bu r .

P lant I nd Bu l 1 66 , W ashing ton, 1 9 1 0

. . .

\
Jam es W eir M is tletoe inj u ry to
R .
,
coni ers f in the N orthwes t, U . S .

D ep t A g r Bul 3 6 0 W ashing ton 1 9 1 6

. . .
, ,
.

Clarence F K orstian and W H L ong . . .

,
The w es tern yellow p ine mis tletoe,
U S D ep t A g r Bu l 1 1 1 2 Washing ton
. . . . .
, ,
1 922 .
1 46 F A CTORS A FFE CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L PR OP ERT IE S

d ef ect s are p rod u ced in the w ood of l iv ing trees as the result of
action of earl y or la t e f ros t s dIirirrg the grow ing season or of the
m
ca b u i m w h il t
e h e t ree is do m t
r an 7 6 I t is ev id ent that frost .

rings b ecau se of their ab norm al stru ctu re and the p red om inance
,

of s t orag e t issu e af f ord a p l ane of w eak ness in the w ood not

, ,

only m ak ing the af f ect ed t ree l iabl e t o the d ev el op m ent of ring

shak e bu t al s o d ecreasing the strength of the m anu f actu red

p rod uct w hich cont ains th em esp eciall y w hen the m at erial is u sed ,

in sm all siz es .

Lig h t n in g Rin g s

T he comm on f orm
l ightning inj ury is read ily d iscernibl e in
Of

st and ing trees b ecau se of the conspicu ou s stripp ing of the b ark on

the t runk s and m ain b ranches S p ik e t op s and st ag head s al so

resu lt from the oft e n ext ensiv ed am ag e t o t he camb iu m and I nner

b ark and the further l oss in v it al ity occurring w it h su b s equ ent

d ecay and insect att ack A nother f orm of inj ury w hich is not .
,

app arent u nt il the t ree is fe ll ed and w ork ed up int o l umb er is the ,

s o call ed l ig htning ring

-
Su ch a ring is p rod u ced as the resu lt of
.

the irrit ation of the cam b ium by an el ect ric d is charg e and is
ch aract eriz ed by the f orm at ion of a l ay er of ab normal cell s In .

cert ain of the conif ers su ch l ay ers cont ain nu merou s trau m at ic

res in d u ct s w hereas in ot hers enl arg ed resin cell s are l aid d ow n

,
.

S ince it is p rod uced by qam bial act iv ity each l ightning ring is ,

confi ned ent irel y w ithin a g 1 v en annu al l ay er of grow th alth ou gh

“

it m ay ext end p artl y or ent irel y arou nd the st em as w ell as v ary ,

ing d ist ances u p and d ow n the t ree t runk F or t his reason these .

d ef ects m ay hav e somew hat the app earance of f al se or s econd ary

grow th rings an ef f ect frequ entl y accentu at ed by the d is col oration
,

that al so accompanies them .

Light ning ring s b ecau se of the ch aract er of the t issu es comp ris
,

ing th em f orm natural p l anes of w eak n

,
ess in w ood and m ay .

th eref ore seriou sl y w eak en it in resist ance to sh ear Su ch f or

,
.

76 A rthur S Rhoads The f orm ation and p a tholog ical anatomy of f ros t
.
,

ring s in conif ers inj u red by la te f ros ts U S D ep t A g r D ep t Bu l 1 1 3 1 ,

. . . . . .
,

W ashing ton 1 923 , .

A lso M Y Orr T he eff ect of frost on the w ood of lamb Trans R oy al

—
. . .
, ,

S cottish A rbor S oc E dinburg h V ol 39 P t 1 1 925 p p 38 41

. .
, , . .
, , . .

7 7 J S B o ce D eca s and dis colora tions in air lane w oods U S D e t

y , y p p
A g r Bu l 1 1 28 W ashing t on 1 9 23 p p 1 7—
. . . . .
,

. .
,
19 , ,
. .
 O B U RL S 1 47

m at ions l
are a so su f orm of check ing w hich is quit e
bj ect to a

d istinctiv e since the sep arations extend t angent iall y w ith the
,

g row th rings rather than at right angl es to th em .

F ores t P odr u cts Laboratory Photo

F IG . 37 . A burl form ed by a cluster of dorm ant bu ds in y ellow p op lar v eneer .

B u rl s

T he t erm b url has several d istinct meaning s 7 8 A b url may .

be l arg e ex cres cence occurring on the b ol e of a tree and con

‘

78 Wood aircra ft insp ection and f abrica tion, f ootnote 49 , p p .

—
91 4 .
 1 48 F ACT ORS A FFE CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P ROPERTIES

t aining a l arg e num b er of bu ds that u su all y f ail t o d ev el op /

. .
.

Highl y fi g ured b url v eneers are cut f rom this typ e of grow th .

T he t erm al so app l ies t o a sw irl in the g rain of w ood in the

vicinity of a knot This d efi nit ion has b een used f or many y ears
.

in the grad ing of h ard w ood l umber F or aircraft insp ect ion p ur .

p oses , a b url in ro t ary cut v eneer has b een d efi ned as l ocal iz ed

-
.
.

s ev ere d ist ortion of the g raindue to on e or a cl u st er of small "

=

conical p rotu b erances each with a core or p it h but w it hou t an

, , ,

app reciabl e amount of end gra in s urrou nd i ng it ( F ig .

B ecause of the ch aract er of the cross g rain associat ed w ith

it, the w eak ening ef f ect of a b url is usu all y l ess than t hat of a
k not of the same siz e .

79
F l o ccos oid s

F l occos oids are harm l es s , w hit ish

d ep osit s occasionall y f ound
in the cell cav ities of w est ern hem l ock that b ecau se of their ,

ap p earance as w hit e sp ot s or st reak s ( F ig are s om et im es .

mist ak en f or p ock et rot ( F om es p ini) Und er the microscop e .

they exhib it a thread l ik e cryst all ine stru cture in the cell cav ities
-
.

F l occosoids are sol u bl e in p ot assium hy d rox id e sol ution and are

thu s read il y d isting u ished from d ecay W ood cont aining fi occo .

s oids ret ains its norm al p rop ert ies .

In d e n t e d Rin g s

I nd ented ring s ( F ig . 39) are irre u ari ies

g l t traceabl e to ab normal
camb ial tiv ity and are not u ncommon
ac in cert ain conif erou s
w ood s incl u d ing D ou gl as fi r and S itk a sp ru ce A s seen on the .

cross sect i on consecu t iv e g row th ring s are typ icall y ind ent ed
,

al ong the s am e rad ii oft en f or m any y ears

,
On a t ang ent ial sec .

tion each ind ent at ion 1 s show n to ext end sev eral inches l ong i
tu dinally in an irreg ul ar w avy course ( F ig 3 93 ) t hat has led .

to the app l icat ion of the nam e b ear scrat ches to thes e bl em ishes
-

“
.

79 E l ois e Gerry , Wes tern hem lock

“
fl occosoids ( w hite sp ots or s trea ks ) ,

F or P rod L ab Rep t 1 392 , M adis on, 1 9 43

. . . . .

A lso Bror L Grondal and A rthu r L M ottet , Chara cteristics

. .
x
nd
a sig

nifi cance of w hit e fl occose in t he w ood of w estern hem lock ,

ag g reg at es

Univ of W ashing ton F or Clu b Qu art , S eattle, Vol 1 6 , NO 1 , 1 942 , p p 1 3—

. . . 18 . . . .

A lso Wood aircraf t insp ection and f abrication, f ootnote 49 , p p 99 , 1 0 1 .

. .
1 50 FA CT ORS A FF E CTI N G M E CHA N I CA L P ROPERT IE S

Fo
res t P
rodu cts L
a boratory Ph oto

F I G 39 I ndented ring s in S itka S p ru ce Cross s ection

A B T ang ential
“

. . . . . .

f
sur ace ( note t hat checks indicative Of g n direction are
rai not a f ectedf by
indentations )
. (1 Radial surf ace
. fi
 WA N E 1 51

Fo st Produ cts
re L aboratory Photo
F I G 40 . . R ed radial s treak in S itk a sp ru ce .

geometric cen er of
t the
trunk of the tree but w hen grow th is , ,

eccent ric as in l eaning t rees or thos e w hos e b ranches are de

,

vel op ed m ore on one sid e t han the oth er it m ay be d ecid edl y

“
, Off

cent er ( see F ig 3 0 A ) B ecau s e of it s l ocat ion in the tree and

“

. .

l og the p ith is f req u entl y incl u d ed in l arg e stru ct ural timb ers
, ,

and su ch p ieces are d e s ig nat ed as boxed heart t im b ers Tim b ers

-
.

that do not cont ain the p ith are s ometimes t ermed side cu t p ieces -

The w ood imm

.

ed iat el y su rround ing the p ith is oft en charact eriz ed

by abnormal cell w all stru ct ure of low q u al ity and Cont ains small
'

check s s h ak es or num erou s p in k not s ; any su ch comb inat ion of

, ,

d ef ect s and bl em ishes is know n as heart center B ecau se of its .

s m all S iz e the p ith it self d oes not h av e any ap p arent ef f ect on the

st reng th of b ox ed h ear t t imb er but the associat ed ch eck s and

-

s hak es m ay seriou s l y red u ce the area res ist ing shear and s h ou ld ,

theref ore be l imit ed to the s ame ext ent as any other ch eck s or
,

sh ak es .

Wa n e
Lumb er and o ther f orms of w ood are sometim es charac eri e t z d
by the p resence of b ark or by a l ack of w ood on
, ,
the otherw is e
1 52 F A CTORS AF FE CT I N G M E CHA N ICA L P ROPERT I E S

squ are edg es or corners of a p iece This cond ition w h ich is .

,

term ed w ane, is comm onl y consid ered a d ef ect althou gh it is ,

u su all y l imit ed in g rad ing ru l es by s u ch f act ors as b earing area ,

nail ing edg e and ap p earance rather t han by its d irect ef f ect on
, , ,

strength

DEF E CT S
F A CT O R S O T HE R T HAN .

I n s el ect ing w ood f or ex act ing strength requ irem ent s it is not
necess aril y suffi cient that a stric t l im it ation be p l aced on the
v isibl e d ef ects A w id e v ariat ion is recogniz ed in the strength of
.

the cl ear w ood it self a f act or u su all y ass ociat ed w it h d if f erences

,

in the density o f the m at erial and w ith the v ariabl e cond it ions
'
'

T he m oisture cont ent of the w ood

/

und er w hich it w as grown .

m ay al so h av e a bearing on its strength esp eciall y in the sm all er ,

sizes w hereas the t reatm ent the m aterial receives in p rep aring
'
'

it f or u se m ay be of consid erabl e imp ort ance p art icu l arl y w hen ,

it inv olv es ex p osure to hig h t emp eratures F or s om e u ses heart

“

w ood is d is criminat ed a g ainst ; f or others s ap w ood is consid ered

obj ect ionabl e A nd fi nall y p rej u d ice is not inf requ entl y v oiced
.
,

ag ainst m at erial cut f rom d ead t rees as w ell as that from l iv ing ,

trees f ell ed at cert ain seas ons of the y ear I t is the p urp os e of .

the ensu ing p aragrap hs to d is cu ss the rel at ion of t hes e s ev eral f ac

t ors to the strength of w ood

Den s it y
I t has l ong b een reco gniz ed th at ,
as i ed from ac u a t
l strength
t ests the density, or s pecifi c g ravity, 8 0 of a sp ecim en of w ood is
,

8 0 D ensit of a u nit of v olu m e of a g

y is m erely the w eig ht iv en m aterial ,
as

3 5 p ounds p er cubic f oot or m p er cubic centim eter S p ecifi c

, g ra .

g ravity , or relativ e density is the ratio of the density of any m at erial to the
,

density of distilled w at er at 4 C
°
A cubic f oot of distilled w ater
at 4 C
°
w eig hs 6 2 4 p ounds
. S ince w ood norm ally contains a v ariable
. .

av ity of w ood is com m only bas e

q u antity of m oistu re the sp ecifi c g r , d on the
w eig ht of m oistu re free w ood and the v olu m e at the m oisture cont ent u nde
-

consid erat ion . Hence , p iece of g reen w ood w eig hing 50 p ounds p er cubic
a

f oot and containing 60 p ercent m ois tu re ( based on its ov en d ry w eig ht ) -

has an ov en -
dry w eig ht of p ounds p er cubic f oot of g reen v olu m e

( 50 and its sp eci c fi g rav ity wou ld be

( b ased on ov en -
dry w eig ht and g reen v olu m e) .I n the m etric system since ,

the w eig ht of a cubic centim et er of p u re w ater is one g ram , the ov en dry -

w eig ht in g m s p er cubic centim eter has the s am e num erical v alu e as the
ra

sp ecifi c g rav ity F or det ails as t o p rocedu re in determ ining sp ecifi c g ravity ,
.

see p ag e 36 5 .
1 54 FA CT ORS A F F E CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L PROPERT I ES

x mp l e b end ing strength ( fib er stress at prop ortional l im it and

e a ,

m od u l us of ru p tu re in st at ic b end ing ) changes sl ightl y m ore than

S pecific g ravi
ty
Fores t P
roducts Labbratory

F IG . 41 . Relationship betw een m odulus of rup ture and sp eci c fi g ravity f or

g reen and air dry w ood
-
.

the d ing s p ecifi c grav ity w hereas tou ghness or sh ock

corresp on ,

resist ing ab il ity ( w ork t o m ax imum l oad in s t at ic b end ing and

height of d rop cau sing comp l et e f ail ure in imp act b end ing ) v aries
al m ost as the s q u are of sp ecifi c g rav ity T hu s, one p iece of
.
 D EN S IT Y 1 55

w ood that has tw ice the d ensity of a second w ou ld be ex p ect ed

t o hav e d ou bl e the stif fness and end w ise cru shing strength ab out
.
,

times the b end ing strength and ap p rox imat el y 3 14 tim es ,

the t ou gh ness of the s econd .

A lthou gh the af ore ment ioned rel at ions ap p l y g enerall y to

‘
-

w ood o f d if f erent sp ecies v ariat ions du e to the charact erist ics of

,

ind iv id u al sp ecies are somet imes of consid erabl e m ag nitu d e F or .

ex amp l e D ou gl as fi r ( coast typ e) and red g um are ab ou t equ al

,

in d ens ity ; y et the fi r av erag es 3 9 p ercent hig her in end w ise com
p ressiv e strength than the g um and 1 8 p ercent l ow er in shock
resist ance F urtherm ore D ou gl as fi r ( coast typ e) is ab ou t eq u al
.
,

t o commercial w hit e oak in b end ing and end w is e com p ressiv e

strength and ex ceed s it in st if f ness alt hou gh its d ensity is onl y
, ,

ab ou t three f ourths t hat of the oak

-
W hit e oak av erag es mu ch .

n n i
higher than the fi r in hard ess a d s hock res st ance how ev er 8 2
, .

S uch d if f erences are t o be ex p ect ed b ecau s e of the w id e v ariat ions

in w ood stru ctu re am ong sp ecies and the rel at iv el y l arg e amount s
of resin and other ext ract iv es charact erist ic of cert ain sp ecies ,
-

that do not contrib u te app reciably t o the strength of the w ood .

T he rel ations ex p ress ed in T abl e 9 hav e b een obt ained from

av erag es f or a great many d if f erent sp ecies W ith in any singl e .

sp ecies the rat e of chang e in st rength w ith chang es in d ensity is

u su all y som ew hat g reat er thanthat ind icat ed F act ors f or u se .

in cal cu l at ing v ariat ion in strengt h p rop erties du e to d if f erences in

sp ecifi c g rav ity w ithin a sp ecies are g iv en in T abl e 1 0 S trength
’
'

at any p art icu l arsp ecifi c g rav ity m ay be com p u t ed if the p rop er
'

v al u e f or n is substituted in the equ ation : 8 3

in w h ich S t
s ren gth corresp on
d ing to sp ecifi c g rav ity g ; and ,
’ ’
S strength corresp ond ing to sp ecifi c g rav ity g , .

T o est imat e the m od u l us of rup ture of a sp ecimen of red ash at

1 2 p ercent m oisture cont ent w it h a S p ecifi c grav ity of av er

82 L J M arkw ardt
.
,Comp arative s treng th p rop erties of woods g rown
in the United S ta tes, U S D ep t A g
. . . r. T ech B ul. . 1 58 , Washing t on, 1 930 ,

83 Forest Produ cts Laboratory D es ig n o f wood aircra ft s tru ctu res, A NC

—
,

Bu l 1 8 , A rm y N avy —Civ il Comm Aircraf t D esig n Criteria A ero B oard,

’

. . on ,
.

Washing ton, 1 9 44, p . 15 .

1 56 F ACT ORS A FFE CTI N G MECHA N I CA L P ROPE RTIE S

T A BLE 9 . RE L A T I ON S OF S T R E N GT H P R O P E R TI E S TO S P EC I FI C GRA VI T Y
A PPLI C A BLE To WOO D OF V A RI O U S S PE CI E S *

E q u ation T
Air D ry
-

W ood ( 1 2 %
M oistu re
P rop erty Content )
S ta tic B ending
Fiber stress at p rop ortional
L 25
lim it 1 0 , 20 0 G
M odulu s Of ru p ture 1 7 , 60 0 G
’1 2 5 '

M odulus of elasticity 2 , 36 0 , 0 0 0 G 2 , 80 0 , 0 0 0 G
Work t o maximu m load
2
T otal w ork 72 7G
.

I mp act B ending
Fiber S tress at p rop ortional
L 25 1 25
limit 2 3 , 70 0 G 3 1 , 200 G '

M odulus of elasticity 2 , 9 40 , 0 0 0 G 3 , 380 , 0 00 G

'

Heig ht of drop causing com

1 75
p lete failure
1 75
1 1 4 0G
.
'

9 4 6G
.
'

Comp ression P ara llel to Grain

Fiber s tress at p rop ortional
lim it P si 5 Z5OG 8 75 0 G
Ma xim um cru shing streng th Ps i 6 7 30 C 1 2 , 2 OOG
’

M odulus Of elasticity P si 2 , 9 1 0 , 00 0 G
’
3 , 3 80 , 0 0 0 G
Comp ress ion P erp endicu lar to Grain
Fiber stress at p rop ortional
’
2 25
limit 3 000 G
'

Hardness
E nd f
su r ace

Radial su r acef
T ang ential su r ace f

From L J . . M arkw ardt and T R C Wilson, S treng thand related p rop erties of
. . .

woods g rown in the United S tates, U . S . D ep t . Ag r. T ech Bul 4 7 9 ,

. . Washing ton,
1 93 5 .

TT he v alu es listed in this table are to be read as eq u ations , f or examp le

’
M odulus of ru p tu re f or unseasoned m at erial 17 w here G rep res ents
the S p ecific g ravity , b ased on ov en dry w eig ht and v ol u me at m oisture iidi
’ ‘

-
cO

tion indicat ed .

ag e v alu es f or strength and sp ecifi c grav ity ( T abl e 2) are su b

’ ’
stitu t ed in the eq u at ion f or S and g res p ect iv el y , .

p ou nd s p er s qu are inch
1 58 FA CT ORS A FF E CTI N G M E CHA N I CA L P R OP ERT I E S

the S p ecimen at time of tes t

t the tru e sp ecifi c d oes not rep resen

gravity of a p iece of ov en dry w ood N ev erthel ess b ecau se of -

.
,

ease of ap p l icat ion of this m et hod t o the sp ecim ens s ubj ect ed to

m echanical t est s it has b een g enerall y ad op t ed as Stand ard

,
.

p ractice .

I t is evid ent that since the v ol u me of w ood v aries w ith the

,
.

m oisture cont ent 8 5 the sp ecifi c g rav ity v al u es d eriv ed f rom a

,

giv en sp ecimen w ill d if f er accord ing t o the b ases on w hich these

.

tw o f act ors are comp u t ed Consequ entl y it is essent ial that the .
,

circu m s t ances u nd er w hich t hey w ere d et ermined be cl earl y s t at ed

in connect ion w ith d at a on sp ecifi c g rav ity

‘

ES TI M A T I ON OF D E N S I TY
I t is v id ent that consid erabl e imp ort ance shou ld be att ached
e

to p ractical method s of est imat ing the d ensity of w ood t hat is

int end ed to m eet ex act ing s trength requirement s T hree su ch .

m ethod s are ap p l icabl e w ith cert ain reserv at ions to the v is u al , ,

insp ection of l um b er st ru ctu ral t im b ers and other f orm s of w ood

, ,

b ased on the s el ection of m at erial f or ( 1 ) rel ativ e w eight ,

( 2 ) p ercent of su mmerw ood and ( 3 ) rat e of grow th ,

.

R ela tive Weig ht S ince the am ount of actu al w ood su b st ance

.

in a g iv en p iece of w ood has a d irect b earing on its d ensity or ,

w eig ht p er cu b ic f oot it w ou ld app ear that t he s el ect ion of m a

,

terial on the b as is Of rel at iv el y great w eight w ou ld of f er a read y

means of securing w ood hig h in strength p rop erties D ifficult ies .

aris e how ev er since d if f erences in w eight m ay not be ent irel y

, ,

du e to d if f erences in am ount of w ood su b st ance Cert ain w ood s .

are ch aract eriz ed by the p resence of v ary ing am ou nt s of extra

neous m at erial s su ch as resins and gums that may alt er the

, ,

w eight of the w ood ap p reciabl y w ithout correspond ing ly af f ect ing

it s s t rengt h 8 6 T he resin cont ent of p ine u su all y constitut es
.

'

2 t o 9 p ercent of the dry w eight of the w ood and that of D ou gl as

85 F or fu rther discu ss ion of relat ion of fi
s p e ci c g rav ity t o ch ang es in
m oisture cont ent see S am u el J . Record and Harry D . Tiem ann, S bm e
fundam ental consid erations of s p e cifi c g rav ity , Trop ical Woods N ew
—
,

Hav en N o 6 ,
.
,
June 1 , 1 926 , p p . 5 11 .

A ls o J D
. . M acL ean M oistu re content sp ecifi c g
, , rav ity , and air sp ace in
w ood , Trans A m S oc M ech E ng N ew Y ork Oct 1 9 33 , W DI 5 5 7,
—
- -
. . . .
. .
, ,

pp . 55 6 1 .

in p it ch , p ag
86 S ee discu ssion of res or e 1 25 .
 ES T I M A T I ON OF D ENS IT Y 59

fir b
a ou t 1 percent bu t occas ional p ieces of these w ood s are
,

f ound in w hich resin comp rises as m u ch as one third of the w eight .

A n ab u nd ance of sound k not s m ay al s o aff ect the w eight t o s om e

d egree since the w ood \comp rising su ch d ef ect s is d enser than the
,

norm al w ood How ev er mat erial cont aining sufficient k nots t o

.
,

increase its w eight app reciabl y w ou ld norm all y be rej ect ed be

cau s e of the red u ct ion in strength b rou ght ab ou t by t hese d ef ect s .

T he most v ariabl e f act or af f ect ing the w eight of w ood is the

m oisture cont ent w hich m ay rang e f rom as l ow as 4 or 5 p ercent
,

in k il n d ried m at erial t o m ore t han 1 2 5 p ercent in the u nseas oned

-

s ap w ood of s om e sp ecies T he w eight p er cu b ic f oot of v ariou s

.

A m erican w ood s in the unseas oned cond it ion and at 1 2 p ercent

“

moistu re cont ent is ind icat ed in T abl e 6 E v en in air d ried

.
-

st ock t here m ay be a m ark ed d if f erence in the m oistu re cont ent of

tw o bOards ow ing t o v ariations in d ry ing p eriod ex p osu re and

"

, , ,

ot her f act ors ; t his is p art icu l arl y t ru e of s iz eabl e t imb ers w hich ,

may Show a mark ed d if f erence in moisture content b etw een the

int erior and ext erior p ort ions B el ow the fi ber s atu rat ion p oint
.
-

of w ood a d ecrease in m oistu re cont ent ( and con seq u entl y in

w eight ) is accomp anied by an increas e in cl ear— w ood S trength

in m ost p rop erties thu s further comp l icat ing the u se of rel at iv e
,

w eig ht as a crit erion of strength How ev er in m at erial of stru e

.
,

t ural siz es the s easoning of w ood normally resu lts in the d ev el op

m ent of check s and other d ef ect s th at t end t o Of f set the increase
-
,

in strength due t o th e dry ing accord ingl y in p ract ice the streng th , ,

of su ch m at eria l is not u su all y cons id ered t o be increased by

d rying .

S ince the w eight of w ood is infl u enced to an app reciabl e ext ent
by these sev eral f act ors it is ap p arent t hat it is a v ery ind efi nit e
,

qu al ity esp eciall y if the a p p rox imat e moisture cont ent of the
,

w ood is not k now n F or th is reason it is not g enerall y u sed as a

.

m eans of sel ect ing m at erial f or great strengt h How ev er the .

,

minimu m strength v al u es that m ay be exp ect ed from a g iv en l ot

-

of l um b er can be raised cons id erabl y by the rej ect ion of not ice

abl y l ightw eight m at erial R ecognit ion is g iv en t o t his f act in the

.

b asic p rov isions f or the sel ection of structural m at erial ad op ted ,

no p ieces of
“
as A m erican L u m b er S t and ard s w hich sp ecify t hat ,
”
ex cep t ionall y l ig ht w eight sh all be p ermitt ed in any grad e .

P ercent of S u mmerw ood To un d erst and the rel ation of

.
1 60 FA CT OR S A FF E CT I N G M E CHA NI CA L P R OPE RT IES

summ erw oo t o th e
d ensity of w ood it is fi rst necess ary t o
d
cons id er b riefl y the g eneral s tru ctu re of the m at erial 8 7 A tree .

increases in d iam eter by the f orm ation u nd er the b ark of l ay ers

of w ood w hich comp l et el y env el op e the ent ire s tem l iv ing ,

b ranches and roots Und er normal cond itions one su ch l ay er is

“

.
,

l aid d own each y ear I n cros s sect ion as on the end Of a l og .

, ,

these l ay ers ap p ear as m ore or l ess concentric rings and f or this ,

reas on t hey are comm onl y k now n as annu al ring s or g row th ring s .

( see F ig 3 0 A ) S u ch rings are comp osed of cell s of v ariou s

. .

k ind s but f or the m ost p art fi brou s ah d extend ing w ith the g rain
‘

of the w ood .

I f one ex am ines the s m oothl y cut end ( cross s ection) of a p iece

of w ood he w ill fi nd as a ru l e that each grow th ring is m ad e u p
, , _ ,

of tw o m ore or l ess w ell defi ned p art s T hat orig inall y nearest -

the p ith w hich w as f orm ed in the sp ring of the y ear and is conse
,

q u entl y k now n as sp ring w ood or early w ood is g enerall y m ore ,

op en t extured and of l ight er col or t han the ou t er p ort ion of the

ring w hich w as l aid d ow n in the su mm er and earl y f all and ac

,

cording ly t erm ed su m merw ood or la te wood .

I n the conif ers ( p ines sp ru ces hem l ock s ced ars and the l ik e) , , , ,

the cell s comp osing the grow th ring s are m os tl y of one k ind
“

( k now n as t racheid s ) and the m at erial is consequ entl y rather u ni

f orm in s tru ctu re ( see F ig A ccord ingl y the d ist inct ion .
,

b etw een the tw o p ortions of the grow th ring s in this cl ass of

t im b er is b rou ght ab out b yt a contrast b etw een the l arg er thin ,

ner w all ed tracheid s in the sp ringw ood and t he s m all er and

-

d enser cell s in the su mmerw ood I n some of the conif ers the .
,

w hit e p ines f or ex amp l e t here is onl y s l ight contrast b etw een ,

the tw o p ort ions and as a resu lt the w ood is v ery u nif orm in
,

texture and easy t o w ork I n the s ou th ern p ines and D ou gl as

‘

fi r on the other h and the su m m erw ood is u su all y v ery d ense and
, ,

d eep col ored p resenting a v ery mark ed contrast to the soft

, ,

st raw col ored sp rI ng w ood ( see F g s

-
i 4 6 a n d 47 ) 8 8
,
. .

3 7 F or m ore detailed dis cu ssion of t he s tru cture of w ood see S am u el J .

Record I d entification of the tim bers of temp era te N orth A m erica J ohn
, ,

W iley S ons N ew Y ork 1 93 4 , ,

.

A ls o H P Brown A J P anshin and C C F orsaith W ood technolog y

. .
,
. .
,
. .
, ,

Vol I , S tru ctu re, identifica tion, def ects, and uses of the com m ercial w oods
—
.

of the United S ta tes, M cGraw Hill B ook Co N ew Y ork 1 948 .

, , .

8 8 F or a dis cu ssion of the res u lts of t ests d esi ned t o sh ow t he relat iv e

g
s treng th of s p ring w ood and su m m erw ood lay ers see C C : F orsaith , The ,
.
1 62 FA CT ORS A FFE CTI N G M E C HA NI CA L P ROPERT I ES

Fo
res t P rodu cts L aboratory Photo
F I G 42
. Cross sections of hickory showing effect of chang es in rate of diam
.

eter g row th on t he s tru ctu re of a ring p orous w ood

-
Lef t, w ood of slow g row th
.

and l ow density and streng th, su ch as is usu ally f ound near the ci rcu m ference

of old g row th trees ; center, w ood of m oderate g rowth and relativ ely hig h dens
-

h
ity and streng th, w ich m ay be found near the center of trees that orig inate in
the v irg in forest ; rig ht, w ood of rap id g row th and hig h density , such as is
comm onl y f ou nd in second g row t h
“ ” —
m aterial X 2 2 V2 . .

Lumb er S t and ard s, p rov id e a density ru le f or the s el ection of

m at erial of these tw o w ood s f or the h igh est q u al ity f or strength
p u rp os es . T histhat D ou gl as fi r and s outhern p ine tim
re u ires
q
b ers shall show an av erag e of one third or m ore summ erw ood as
-

”
-

m easured at a sp ecifi ed p l ace 8 9 .

I n the v isu al insp ect ion of w ood f or d ensity how ev er not onl y , ,

the p rop ort ion of su m m erw ood but al s o its q u al ity shou ld be
'

t ak en int o consid erat ion I n the ring p orou s hard w oods f or

.
-

ex amp l e sp ecimens cont aining w id e b and s of su mmerw ood are

,

89 F or details of m easu rem ent of su mm erw ood see p ag es 233 5 — .

 E S T I M A TI ON OF D E N S IT Y 1 63

so metim es l t iv el y l ow in d ensity ow ing to a rather p orou s con

re a ,

d ition of the norm all y d ense l at e w ood or t o an ab norm all y high

'

p ro p ort ion of p a re n ch y m at ou s t iss u e in t his p ort ion of the g row th

Fo res t P rodu cts L aboratory Photo

F IG . 43 . Cross s ections of y ell ow p op lar S how ing the eff ect of chang e in rate

of diam eter g diff use p orou s w ood

row th on a Lef t, w ood of rap id g row th and
-
.

rel atively hig h sp ecific g rav ity p rodu ced du ring the early life of t he tree
u nder fav orabl e conditions ; rig ht, w ood of sl ow g rowth and low sp ecifi c g rav ity

p rodu ced af ter the tree had suf f ered a redu ction of its crow n du e t o
m any y ears of crow ding x10 . .

rin g . T his is esp eciall y so w ith oak and ash, 9 0 and w ood of
these sp ecies intend ed f or ex acting strength purp os es s hou ld be
s el ect ed f or rel at iv e w eight as w ell as p ercent ag e of su mm erw ood .

Rate of Grow th I n cert ain sp ecies of w ood there ap p ears to

.

90 There is a ty p e of ash , known t o the trade

p u m p kin ash, that as

p oss esses a rel ativ ely hig h p rop ortion of s u mm erw ood bu t is l ow in S p ecifi c

g rav ity S u ch m aterial breaks under com p arativ ely lig ht l oads and w ith a
failu re w hen sub j ected to static or im
.

charact eristic brash , or britt le, , p a ct

b ending . T his ty p e of w ood is Often characteristic Of the sev eral sp ecies in
th e w hite ash g rou p w hen g row n u nd er sw am p y conditions in the s ou th ern

p art of th eir rang e

‘

I t is not t o be con used w ith th e w ood of F raxinu s

. f
tom entosa, a distinct sp ecies , which is known u nder the comm on nam e of

p u m p kin ash .
1 64 FA CT ORS A FFE CTI N G M E CHA NI CAL P R OP ERT IE S

be so me l t ion b etw een d ensity and rat e of grow th the l att er

corre a ,

b eing ind icated by the nu m b er of grow th rings p er inch as meas ,

ured on t he cross section al ong a rep resent at iv e rad ial l ine In .

ot her w ord s in such w ood s th ere is a rat her d efi nit e rang e in

,

nu mb er of ring s p er inch that is f req u entl y ass ociat ed w ith rel a

tiv ely hig h d ensity There has b een a tend ency to ov eremp has iz e
.

the imp ort anceof this rel ation in the p ast how ev er and in no , ,

case s hou ld rat e of g row t h be g iv en p ref erence ov er actu al d ensity

\
in sel ecting m at erial f or stre ngth The q u al ity of the w ood mu st .

be consid ered as w ell as the w idt h of the grow th ring s .

S ince the anat om ical c h aract eris tics of w ood p l ay an imp ortant
p art in d etermining its d ensity and strength, it is neces sary t o
consid er the t hree cl ass es of t im b er— conif er ring p orou s hard
-
-

w ood and d if f u se p orou s h ardw ood sep arat ely I n the coni
“

- fi

.
,

f ers it is ev id ent f rom the p rev iou s d iscussion that any cond ition
, ,

af f ect ing the rel at iv e p rop ort ion O f thick w all ed summ erw ood
tracheid s and thin—
-

w all ed sp ring w ood cell s w ill infl u ence the

d ensity of the w ood This is p articu l arl y true in those sp ecies
.
,

su ch as sou t hern p ine and D ou g las fi r t hat sh ow a m ark ed con

“

trast in d ensity b etw een the tw o portions of the grow th ring and
p ossess d efi nit e b and s of ea ch I n g eneral it may be s aid that in
.
,

the conif ers b ot h v ery w id e and v ery narrow g rt h ring s u su all y

cont ain a s mall er p rop ortion of su mmerw ood th an ring s of int er

m ed iat e w idth Conseq u entl y the sp ecim ens rep resenting eith er
.
,
-

ext rem e of grow t h are norm ally l ow er in d ensity t han t hos e of _

av erag e g row t h T his f act is recogniz ed in the basic p rovisions

.

f or stru ctu ral m at erial of A merican Lu mb er S t and ard s w hich

sp ecif y a s o call ed ring cou nt ru l e f or the dense grad es of D ou gl as
- -

fi r and s ou thern p ine and f or cl ose g rained D ou gl as fi r and red -

w ood "1
.

I n comp aring sp ecim ens o f a g iv en ring p orou s hardw ood -

show ing v ariou s rat es Of grow t h it m ay be not ed that as the , ,

w idth of the grow th ring s increas es the p orou s sp ring w ood z one , ,

d oes not usu all y increase in p rop ortion A ccord ingly the Rid er .
,

grow t h ring s u su all y cont ain a great er p ercent age of summ erwood
in w hich the th ick w all ed strength g iv ing fib ers ab ound than do
-

,
-

the narrow er ones ( see F ig F or ex amp l e in oak of g ood

.
,

q u al ity and rap id grow th the l arge p ores or v essels of the sp ring
,

w ood m ay occu p y 6 to 1 0 p ercent of the v ol ume of a t im b er

-

91 S ee p ag es —
233 5 f or detail ed req u ire m ents .
1 66 F A CT OR S A FFECT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P R OPERTIE S

rap i d grow th in earl y l if e and as a resu lt p oss ess ed w id e ring s of low

sp ecifi c g rav ity near t he cent er I n the second g row th t rees the
.
-

w ood of l ow sp ecifi c g rav ity w as cont ained in the w id e g row th

ring s u su all y occup y ing the central p ort ion of the t rees T his
-

w as esp e ciall y t ru e in s t and s w here the t rees st art ed w ith p l enty

of grow ing sp ace and then crow d ed each other as t hey increased in
-

s iz e T he w ood of m ed ium g row th rat e in w ell s t ock ed second

.
-

g row th s t and s w as as heav y as the b est w ood from v irg in grow th -

trees .

A s a resu lt of his s tu d y of w hit e ash P au l 9 3 m ade the f oll ow

,

ing d edu ct ions concerning ring p orou s w ood s w hich w ere cor
-

roborat ed by his inv estig at ion of p ig nu t and s hagb ark hick ory :

D u ring the earl y l if e of the w hite as h trees stu d ied the

“
1 .
_ ,

rat e Of grow th did not s eem t o infl u ence the s p ecifi c g rav ity ,

since w ood of hig h sp ecifi c g rav ity w as f orm ed w hether the .

grow th w as rap id or s l ow .

T he w hit e ash trees t hat m aint ained a nea rl y u nif orm rat e
“
2 .

of grow th in d iamet er did not show any great d if f erences in the

S p ecifi c g rav ity of the w ood p rod u ced in d if f erent p eriod s of th eir

grow th .

“
3 . A ret ard at ion of the g row th of the w hite ash t rees stu d ied ,

as ex hib it ed by t he f orm at ion of narrow er annu al ring s p rod u ced ,

w ood of l ow sp ecifi c g rav ity .

A n increas e in the rat e of grow th of the w hit e ash trees

“
4 .

inv estig at ed f oll ow ing a p eriod of sup p res sed g row th p rod u ced
, ,
”
w ood of h igh sp ecifi c g rav ity .

R eg ard ing the ef fect of chang es in rat e of grow t h of a d if fu se

p orou s w ood w ithin a tree du e to the alt eration of grow ing cond i
tions d uring its l if e P au l 9 3 f ound that I n su g ar m ap l e and y ell ow
,

o
p p l ar t he re s u lt s w ere e ss en t i
-all y t he s am e as in t h e r ing —p orou s
ash and h ick ory T he m ap l e and p op l ar s how ed l es s ab ru p t
.

chang es in s p ecifi c gravity w it h the fi rst ret ard at ion of the

grow th rat e than the ring — p orou s w ood s but the cont inu at ion of
,
fi

the adv erse g row ing cond it ions resu lt ed in the f orm at ion not bnly
of narrow er ring s bu t al s o of m ore p orou s wo od s o t hat the ,

sp ecifi c g rav ity w as corresp ond ingl y d ecreased ( see F ig .

The w ood p rod u ced d u ring the init ial g row th p eriod s ev en thou gh ,

grow th w as slow and the w ood p rodu ced d uring p eriod s of main
,

t ained or of accel erat ed rat e of grow th in d iamet er w ere the

heav iest .
 P OS I T I ON I N T REE 1 67

P o s it ion in T ree

T he infl u ence tree on the strength p rop erties of of p os it ion in

w ood is u su all y cl osel y rel at ed to d if f erences in sp ecifi c g rav ity .

V ariat ions throu ghout a p articu l ar cross sect ion are g enerally in
accord w it h rat e of grow th as p rev iou s l y d is cu ss ed ( p ag es 1 6 3

The w ood in the ou t er p ortions of the cros s section of m ature t rees

of l arg e s iz e is in b oth hard w ood s and s oftw ood s charact er , ,

ist ically of s l ow grow th and accord ingl y l ig ht and rel at iv el y w eak .

I n the soft w ood s the w ood immed iat el y adj acent t o the p ith is ,

norm all y l ow er in d ensity and strength t han that occurring

som ew hat f arther out from the p ith .

A s a g eneral ru l e it m ay be s aid that ex cep t f or b uttressed trees ,

or t rees w ith sw ell ed b as es u su all y f ou nd g row ing und er sw amp y

cond it ions the b utt l og cont ains w ood of g reat er d ens ity and
“

st rength t han that occu rring n i in m i

t e ed at e or top l og s
r 9 4 .

I n a recent stu d y of the p rop erties of second grow th D ou gl as -

fi r the sp ecifi c g rav ity of w ood adj acent to the p ith as w ell as
,

that further remov ed from the cent er of the cross sect ion w as
f ound to d ecrease w ith increasing h eight ab ov e ground 9 5 A t '

any p art icu l ar heigh t the w ood near the p it h w as cons ist entl y

l ight er than that occurring at some d is tance from the p ith as

show n in F ig 44A M odu l us of ru p tu re ( F ig 44B ) and mod u l u s
. . .

of el ast icity v aried in a simil ar m anner .

94 L J M arkw ardt and

. . T R C W ilson, S treng th and related p rop erties
. . .

of w oods g rown in the United S ta tes, U S D ept A g r T ech Bu l 479 , . . . . . .

W ashing ton, 1 935 , p . 40 .

A lso R F Luxf ord . . and L J Markw ardt The s treng th and related p rop
. .
,

erties of redw ood U , S . . D ep t A g r T ech Bu l 305 Washing ton 1 93 2

. . . .
, , .

JE ds on M y er,
.
"
T he s tru ctu re and s treng th of f ou r N orth A m erican
w oods as infl u enced by rang e, habita t, and p osition in the tree, N . Y . S tat e
Col F or T ech P ubl 3 1 S y racuse 1 930
. . . .
_
, ,
.

R W S terns, Canadian D ou g las fir : its m echanical

. . and p hysical p rop er
ties Canada D ep t I nt F or S erv Bu l 6 0
J ohnson and F Roth S ou thern p ine—mechanical and p hysical
. . . . .
, ,

J . B . .
,

p rop erties U S D ep t A g r F or S erv Circ 1 2 W ashing ton 1 896

,
. . . . . . .
, ,
.

A . W . Brust and E . E . B erk eley , T he distribution and v ariatio s n of

certain s treng th and el astic p rop erties of clear s ou thern y ellow p ine w ood,
P roc A m S oc T es t M at , Phil adelp hia Vol 35
. .
,
.
, 1 93 5 , p p 1 3 1 . . . .
— .

9 5 F rederick F W an aard and E u ene V Z u m w alt S om e s tren th

g g .
, g p rop .

erties of s econd g rowth D ou g l as fi r, Jou r F Or , W ashing t on, V ol 47, Jan

-
. . . .

1 949, p p 1 8— 24 . .
 "

1 68 F A CT OR S A FFE CT IN G M ECHA N I CA L P ROPE RTI ES

A lthou g h stu d ies of Canad ian Whit e sp ru ce 9 6 ind icat e that , in

this sp ecies , the w ood trees is heav ier
t ow ard the t op s of ol d

than that f ormed l ow er in the s t em the resu lt s of num erou s ,

Eu rop ean ob s ervat ions ind icat e t h at t his rel ations hIp is not

20 30 40
Heig ht above g round ( f eet)

F I G 44A
.

44 . Eff ect of p osition in the tree on the p rop erties of second -

g row th

D ou g las fir . A . S p ecifi c g ravity . B . M odu lus of rup tu re.

Z one 1 extends from 1 % to 3 from

inches the p ith.
'

Z one 2 ext ends from 3 t o 6 % inches from the p ith.

charac eri
s t ftw oods g enerall y nor ev en of therel at ed
tic of so ,

N orw ay Sp ru ce of E u rop e althou gh su ch a trend is ap p aremtly

,

l l tt
not unusu a in the a e sp cr e ies 9 7 W ood f rom the l ow er p or .

96 T A . . M cE lhanney Canadian Woods : their p rop erties

and ass ociat es ,

an d u ses, C anad a D ep t I nt ,
O tt aw a,
. 1 935 , pp
. 7 1 —2 . .

9 7 S ee E ric V olk ert U nt u ch u n e n fib er G rosse u nd V ert eilu ng des

,
ers g
Raum g ew ichts in N ad elholz stam m en, S chrif tenreihe der Herm ann Gbring
'
'

A kademie der D eu tschen F ors twissens chaf t, Frankf urt , B a nd 2 , 1 9 41 , p p .

1 133
-
.
 1 70 FA CT OR S A FFE CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P R OP ERT IES

of t ap er of the b ol e is u su all y l ess than th at requ ired f or su ch a

rela t ionship and s u gg est ed th at the t ree m ay p rod u ce w ood of

hig her sp ecific g rav ity w ith corresp ond ingl y g reater streng th t o
, ,

com p ens at e f or its l ack of the req u ired d iam et er in the l ow er p or

tions of the b ol e A ccord ing to this hy p othesis the ratio of the

.

d ensity of the w ood near the b ase t o that h igher u p in a tree

b ol e w ou ld be great er in a cy l ind rical st em than in one that is
st rongl y t ap ered .

Ag e of T ree

T he infl u ence of tree on the strength of currentl y f ormed

ag e of

w ood is rel at ed to m any f act ors af f ect ing the g row th of the tree ,

and it is im p ossibl e t o st at e any g eneral rel ationship s in this

resp ect S tu d ies of the p rop ert ies of the w ood of a nu mb er of
.
_

p l ant ation grow n conif erou s trees 2 5 to 3 5 y ears ol d hav e show n

-

them to be consid erabl y l ow er in d ensity and strength p rop ert ies

( p articu l arly in m od u l u s of el asticity and m ax imum cru shing
strength ) t han old er, f orest g row n m at erial 1 0 0 I n the stu d y of
-
.

s econd g row t h D ou gl as fi r p rev iou s l y m ent ioned 9 5 the rel at ion

-

ship w as d et erm ined b et w een ag e and sp ecifi c g rav ity at v ariou s

heights in trees sel ect ed as rep resent at iv e of the dominant or

cod ominant crow n cl ass es in st and s of av erag e st ock ing ( F ig .

4 5A ) A sim il ar rel ationsh ip w as f ou nd f or m od u l u s of rup tu re

.

( F ig 458 ) and m odu l us of el asticity B oth d ensity and strength

. .

of cu rrentl y f orm ed w ood increased w it h ag e of tree at any p ar

ticu l ar height bu t the rel at iv el y sm all increase show n b et w een 60

,

and 8 0 y ears su gg est s t hat thes e p rop ert ies p rob abl y l evel off “

a ft er an und et ermined p eriod of y ears b ey ond the l im it s that w ere

st u d ied .

Con d it ion s of Gro w t h

I t is v id ent from the nature of the p rod u ction of w ood that the
e

v arious environment al f act ors concerned w ith the growth of trees ,

su ch as g eog rap hical d istrib u t ion el ev at ion air t emp erat ure s ol ar
, , ,

rad iat ion h u mid ity and p recip it at ion

, s oil ch aract eristics and , ,

grow ing sp ace m ay be ex p ect ed t o ex ert an infl u ence on the

,

1 00 A Richard Ols on N icholas V P ol etika, and Henry W Hicock

.
‘

, . .
,

S treng th p rop erties of p lanta tion g row n conif erous woods, Conn A g r Exp t
'

-
. . .

S ta B ul 5 1 1 , N ew Hav en, 1 947

. . .
 C ON D I T I ON S OF GROW T H 171

30 40 50
Heig ht above g round ( f eet)
F IG . 45A

30 40 50
Heig ht above g round ( f eet)
F IG . 45 B

45 . Eff ect of ag e of tree on t he p rop erties of currentl y formed w ood

at v ariou s heig h ts in t he bol e .
( D ata f or second g row th -
D oug las fir )
.

A Sp ecifi c g rav ity t L B M odul us of rup ture

. . .
1 72 F A CT OR S A FFE CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P R OP E R TIES
-

stru c u re and chem ica

t l comp osit ion of w ood and, consequently ,

1 0 1
on its t echnical p rop ert ies .

Emp irical id eas concerning the ef f ect of cert ain of thes e f act ors
on the q u al it y of w ood h av e b een f orm ed as a resu lt of ex p erience

g ained in the l ong cont inu ed u se of the ma t erial and theu sers of
-

w ood of t en d iscriminat e ag ainst a sp ecies f rom a g iv en reg ion or

'

ag ains t cert ain cond it ions of grow th F or ex am p l e a m ark ed .

,

d if f erence is recogniz ed b etw een the strength of tf f e Rocky M oun

t ain and Coast ty p es of D ou gl as fi r the l att er b eing consid ered
‘

_
,

d ecid edly su p erior W id e ring ed second g row t . sp ecim ens of - -

oak ash and hick ory are al m ost u niv ers all y ack now l edg ed as
, ,
“ ”
su p erior in strength and t ou ghnes s t o v irg in grow th p ieces
.
-

of thes e w ood s N ort hern and A p p al achian oak are g enerall y

.

cons id ered of s oft er t extu re than that f rom the s ou thern l ow l and s ,

and sep arat e s ched u l es h av e b een f ou nd neces s ary f or k il n

d ry ing the tw o general typ es of w ood F urther a d iscrimination .

,

is al so s om et im es niad e ag ainst other s outhern h ard w ood s as it ,

is b el iev ed that the s ame k ind of m at erial from northern areas is

d ecid edly sup erior in m any resp ects .

T he imp ort ance of s ome of the env ironm ent al f actors is oft en
ov eres t im at ed how ev er and s omet im es the d is criminat ions hav e
, ,

no actu al b asis of f act T his is p articu l arl y tru e in reg ard to .

the su p p osed infl u ence of g eograp hical d istrib u t ion and el ev ation .

Comp aris on of d at a on m echanical and p hy sical p rop ert ies of

y ell ow p op l ar at Y al e f ail ed to rev eal any ap p reciabl e d iff er
ences b etween m at erial g row n in K ent u cky N ort h Carol ina T en , ,

nessee V irginia or Connect icu t

,
I t is onl y w ith sp ecies su ch as
,
.

D ou gl as fi r wh ich g row ov er a w id e a rea charact eriz ed by

, , _

d istinct d iff erences in cl im atic cond itions th at any app arent ,

correl at ion is f ou nd b etw een q u al ity and g eographic l ocat ion .

A s a case in p oint variat ions in the p rop erties of ash w ere f ound
,

t o be great er w ith in a tre e and b etw een ind iv id u al t rees f rom t he

’

s am e sit e t h an w ere the d if f erences in the av erag e d ensiy of

t
w ood f rom high el ev at ions I n th e A p p al achian M ou nt ains and the
ov erfl ow reg ions of the M iss is sip p i R v e
i r 1 0 2 I n this p articu l ar .

1 01 F or dis cu ss ion inv olv factors

ed in th e stu dy of this p rob lem s ee
of

A rthu r K oehler and B ens on H P au l D iscu ssion of research on the relation .

,

of g row th f actors to the q u ality of w ood p rodu ced in f ores t trees, F or P rod . .

L ab M im eo Rep t M adis on, 1 929

'

. . . .
,

1 0 2 P aul f ootnote 98 .
,
1 74 FA CT ORS A FF E CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P R OPE RT I ES -

T A BLE 1 1 . P R OB A BLE VA RI A T I ON I N S T RE N GT H OF R A N D OM T R E E F R OM
A VE R A GE F OR S P E C I E S

P rop erty
S p ecifi c g ravity based on v olu m e w hen g reen
S tat ic bending :
F ib er stress at p rop ortional limit
M odulu s of rup tu re
M odulus of elasticity
W ork t o m axim um l oad
I m p act b ending :
Fiber stress at p rop ortional lim it
W ork t o p rop ortional lim it
Heig ht of drop
Com p ression p arallel to g rain
F iber Stress at p rop ortional lim it
Crushing streng th
Comp ress ion p erp endicul ar to g rain : Fiber
s t ress at p rop ortional lim it
“

Hardness :
E nd 10
S ide 9
S hearing th p arallel to g rain
s treng 7
T ension p erp endicular t o g rain 12
From L J . . M arkw ardt and T R C
. . . W ilson ,
S treng th and d p rop erties
relate

of woods g rown in the United S tates, U S . . D ep t . Ag r. T ech Bu l 47 9 , W ashing

. .

t on, 1 9 3 5 .

nou rishment theory ( E rnahru ng s Theorie) in w hich he con ,

t end ed that the qu al ity of w ood is d ep end ent on the rel ation
"

ex ist ing am ong s oil f ert il ity trans p irat i

on of w at er by the crow n
,

of the t ree and as s im il ation , He assert ed t hat the d ensity of .

the w ood is infl u enced by the ratio of amou nt of cond u ct ing t issu e
to su p p ort ing t issu e ; conseq u entl y the g reat er the transp irat ion ,

comp ared w it h t he p rod u ct ion of w ood s u b st ance the g reat er the ,

v ol um e of p orou s cond ucting t issu e f orm ed and the l ight er the

«
,

w ood On the other hand d enser w ood is form ed w hen norm al

‘

.
,

t ransp iration is accomp anied by rap id assimil at ion .

I n th e Unit ed S t at es the inv est ig at ions of P au l 1 0 6 carrie

d on ,

since 1 9 22 hav e b een m os t comp rehensiv e

,
W ork ing w ith w hit e .

ash p ignu t and sh agb ark hick ory rock el m su g ar m ap l e y ell ow

, , , ,

p op l ar s ou thern p ine and second g row th red w ood P aul arriv ed

-

, , ,

at the f oll ow ing concl u sions reg ard ing the infl u ence of g row ing

cond it ions on the q u al ity Of w ood :

1 0 6 P aul f ootnot e 9 3 .
,
 CON D ITI ONS OF GROWT H 1 75

l . T he g l t ion
grow ing sp ace is the silv icu ltu ral t ool
re u a of

which the f orester can u se m os t easil y in controll ing the sp ecifi c

g rav ity of w ood T he sp ecies stu d ied show ed a read y resp onse
.

to chang es in the cond it ion of th e st and , w hether it be crow d ing or

thinning .

I n all of the b road l eav ed sp ecies inv estig at ed sev ere crow d
“
-

ing in the st and s resu lt ed in a d ecrease in the sp ecifi c grav ity of

w ood w hil e rel ief f rom crow d ing w as al w ay s accomp anied by
,

an increase in sp ecifi c g rav ity

-

W ood hav ing the m ost unif orm p rop erties and the highest
“

q u al ity w ith resp ect to b oth strength p rop erties and freed om f rom
d ef ects is p rod u ced in the hard w ood s w hen the trees are grow n
, ,

su fficientl y cl os e t og et her w hil e y ou ng t o cau se re m ov al Of l at

eral b ranches and are su b s eq u ent l y t hinned su fficientl y t o m ain
,

t ain or increase the rate of d iameter grow th of the trees .

4 Where dry sit es or soil s l ow in f ert il ity are inv olv ed the
.
“
,

s ilv icu ltural t reat m ent ( of hard w ood s ) shou ld al so aim t o b enefit

the w at er hold ing cap acity and the f ert il ity of thes oil
-
.

D u ring the earl y y ears of the conif erou s st and s stu d ied the
“
5 .

s iz e b f the ind iv id u al t ree crow n ap p ears t o be t he p rincip al f act or

in d et erm ining the sp ecifi c g rav ity of the w ood .

T he y ou ng sou thern p ine and red w ood trees w it h l arg e

“
6 .

crow ns grow ing in f airl y Op en st and s p rod u ced g reat er am ount s

o f sp ring w ood than su mme rw ood in the annu al ring s w hil e trees

of s im
,

il ar ag e w ith sm a ll crow ns g row ing in f airl y d ense st and s

‘

p rod u ced m ore nearl y eq u al am ou nt s of sp ringw ood and of sum

m erw ood .

7 .
“
Wh ere crow d ingthern p ine st and had resu lt ed in a
in a s ou

d ecl ine in the sp ecifi c grav ity of the w ood a thinning either cau sed
,

a su b s equ ent increase in rat e of grow t h in d iam et er accomp anied

by a rem ark abl e increase in sp ecifi c g rav ity w h en al l of the

g rt h cond it ions in the st and w ere esp eciall y f av orabl e or su ch ,

a t hinning cau sed a d ecreas e in the sp ecifi c g rav ity of the w ood

w hen the g row th cond itions w ere ap p arentl y m ore f av orabl e to

the p rod u ct ion of sp ring wood t han summerw ood ( see F ig s 4 6 .

and

8 .
“
l ly crowd ed trees on the g ood sit es continu ed to
T he c ose

p rod u ce w oo d of h ig h sp ecifi c g rav it y u nd er cond it ions of crow d

ing t hat g reatl y red u ced the grow th rate I n su ch trees th e p ro .

p ort ion of summ erw ood w as rel ativ el y high .

1 76 FA CT ORS A FFE CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P R OP ERTIE S

9 . Heavy w ood in the op en s an s of s ou ther

t d n p ine w as p ro
du ced w hen the l m oistu re
con d itions of s oi and of s oil f ert il ity

w ere su ch that t he t rees cont inu ed to g row throu ghou t the v eg et a

tiv e s eas on suffi cientl y to m aint ain a hig h p rop ortion Of summer
w ood in the annu al g row th ring s .

Fores t P rodu cts L aboratory Photo

F IG . 46 . Cross section of sh ortl ea f p ine tree s how ing (A ) restricted g row th

during a p eriod of crow ding , and ( B ) subseq u ent increase in g

-

row t h follow ing

the rem ov al of s om e Of the surrou nding trees .

d—
'

10 . T he
grow th shortl eaf p ine grow ing on a v ery dry
s econ

s it e p rod u ced w ood of mu ch l ow er sp ecifi c g rav ity than t hat of the

ot her second g row t h shortl ea f p ine st and s inv est ig at ed

-
.
“

“
1 1 . I n conif erou s sp ecies su ch as the s outhern p ines and red
,

w ood the control of sp ecifi c g rav ity by the infl u ence of g row ing
,
-

sp ace mu st be d ealt w it h s om ew hat d if f erentl y th an in the b road

 1 78 F A CT OR S AF F E CTI N G M E CHA N I CA L P ROP ERT IE S
“

th en h av e l arg er crow ns m ore knots short er cl ear b ol es and a

, , ,

h igher p ercent ag e of sap w ood bu t to Of fset these d isadv ant ag es ,

it w ill be p ossibl e t o g row a t ree of sp ecifi ed d iam et er in a mu ch “

”
short er t im e .

M icros t ru ct u re of W oo d
f rom their efi ect on the density of w ood grow th cond i
A sid e
'

tions m ay af f ect the strength of w ood throu gh their influ ence on

the charact er of the cell u l ar stru cture of w ood the stru cture of ,
’

the cell w all or ev en on the comp osit ion of wood su bstance its elf
'

, .

Littl e ev id ence has b een accu mu l at ed to ind icat e the d eg ree t o

w hich v ariations in p rop ortion am ong v ariou s typ es of cell s m ay
af f ect the strengt h of w ood of com p arabl e d ensity A lthou gh .

many inv est ig at ors hav e att emp t ed to correl at e fib er l ength w ith
st rength p rop ert ies no rel at ionship in this resp ect has b een f ou nd
, .

S tu d ies of the m icros cop ic and su b micros cop ic stru ctu re of the cell
w all h av e b een m ore su cces s f u l in ex p l aining the b asic cau ses of
v ariat ion in the strength p rop ert ies of w ood .

A m ong the v ariou s ch aract erist ics t hat hav e b een ex amined is
“

the orient ation of the fib ril s that com p ose the p rincip al p ort ion
of the second ary cell w all V ary ing d eg rees Of correl at ion hav e
.

b een ind icat ed betw een fib ril angl e and the s trength and el astic
t
p rop er ies o f w o o d 1 0 7 M odu l u s of ru p ture t ensil e s treng th
.
,

p arall el to grain m od u l u s of el ast icity and m ax imu m cru shing

, ,

streng th d ecreas e as the orient at ion of th e fib ril s d ev iat es f rom the

l ongitu d inal ax is of the w ood A tt ent ion has b een call ed to the .

greater fib ril angl e ( as measu red f rom the l ong itu d inal ax is ) in
sp ring w ood t rache id s com p ared w ith summ erw ood tracheid s of
,

conif ers and the b rashnes s of sp ring w ood h as b een att rib u t ed
,

A ccordi g t o o l
“
at l east in p art to this f act or n K eh er 1 08
S p ring
.
,

w ood of s oftw ood s is w eak er than su mm erw ood f or three

‘

1 07 Heref ord Garland A m icros cop ic stu dy of

,
f
coni erou s w ood in l
re ation

t o its st reng th p rop erties , A nn . M iss ouri B ot Gard , S t . . L ouis ,

“

V ol .

pp . 1—94 .

A ls o Pill ow and L uxf ord , f ootnot e 5 1 .

F K ollm ann and M A ntonefi , B eitrag z u r E rforschung des subm ikro

—
. .

sk Op is ch en F einb au s v on Hol z H olz ,

V ol 6 ,
1 9 43 pp 41 5 ,
.
,
. .

J ohn Hu g o Kram er, Grow th s treng th relations of red p ine, Unp ubl -
.

d octorat e dissert ation Y ale S chool F or , N ew Hav en 1 943

,
.
,
.

1 0 8 K oehl er f ootnot e 45 17
, p
. .
,
 M OIS T U RE CON TE N T 79

reas ons : (1 ) t of w ood su b st ance

the re at i e
l v ly sm a ll am ou n

p resent as ev id enced by the thin cell w all s and the l arg e cell
,

cav ities ( 2 ) the rel at iv el y l arg e sl op e Of the fib ril s in the

,

s econd ary w all and ( 3 ) the p res ence of a rel at iv el y g reat er p ro

,

p ortion of th e m iddl e l am ell a and the im m ed iat el y adj oining l ay er

”
w ith their p resu m abl y l ow er t ensil e streng th I n the w ood of .

y ou ng s of tw ood trees at l east a l arg e fib ril angl e is as sociat ed , ,

w ith rap id g row th and is b el iev ed t o be resp onsibl e f or the l ow

s t reng th p rop erties of su ch m at erial in rel at ion t o its d ens ity

I n add it ion t o the Orientation of stru ctu ral u nit s in the cell w all ,

there is s om e ev id ence that v ariation in chemical comp osition p ar ,

ticu l arly in the p rop ortion of l ig nin and cell u l ose m ay al so be a ,

f act or af f ecti g t e m c
n h e h an i a r r i
c l p op e t s o w ood
e f 1 0 9 .

M ois t u re Con t e n t

B y the m oisture content of w ood is m eant the w eight of the

w at er cont ained in the m at erial , ex p ressed as a p ercent ag e of the
v
o en -
dry w eight .
1 1 0
F or examp l e, if the w eight of a sp ecim en of
w ood bef ore f
d ry ing is 1 3 0 g rams and aft er ov en d rying is 1 00 ,

gram s it is s aid t o cont ain 30 p ercent moisture That is the

,
.
,

m oisture cont ent is the d iff erence b etw een the original and ov en
dry w eight s ( w hich rep res ent s the w eight of cont ained mois ture)

1 09 H E D adsw ell
. . and L F Haw ley
. .
, Chem ical com p osition of w ood in
relat ion t o p hy sical ch aract eristics—a p relim inary study , I nd and E ng
—
. .

Chem W ashing t on, V ol 2 1 , 1 929 , p p 9 73 5 . . .

A ls o S . H Cl ark e The
.
,
tou g hness of tim ber, F or P rod . . Res Lab P roj
. . .

1 8 , P roj Rep t 9 , Great Brit ain, 1 938

. . .

1 1 0 M oistu re cont ent is d et erm ined as d es cribed u nder Tim ber T esting ,

p ag e 280 .

E v en dry w ood cont ains trace of m oistu re, bu t , f or all

'

ov en -
a ex cep t

chem ical p u rp os es , it m ay b e cons id ered abs olu tely dry A nu mb er Of

“

w oods, s u ch as t h e p ines and cedars , cont ain resins , O ils , or oth er extrane
ou s m aterials th at are v olatile, at least in p art , at th e t emp eratu re at
w hich sp e cim ens m ois tu re det erm inations
are u sually dried in m aking .

Cons eq u ently t h e ap p arent m oistu re cont ent of sp ecim ens of th ese w oods
,

m ay b e g reat ly infl u enced by the am ount of su ch v olatile subst ances re

m ov ed in dry ing the p ieces A m ethod of d eterm ining the a ctu al m oistu re .

cont ent of s u ch w oods is discu ss ed on p ag e 2 8 1 S ee E B at em an and . .

E B eg ling er Exp erim ents on t he d eterm ination of m oistu re in w ood by

—
.
,

W ood
—
lab orat ory m ethods P roc A m 1 92 9 , p p 1 93 2 0 1 ;
P res A ssn Chicag o,
—
. . . .
,

als o Rep t . of C omm 8 3 , M ois tu re

. cont ent d et erm i
nation, I bid , p p 1 80 93 . . .
1 80 FA CT ORS A FFE CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P ROPE RT I ES

d iv id ed by the ov en dry w eight T his is exp res sed as a p er

-

cent ag e by mu lt ip l y ing by 1 0 0 .

T here is a w id e v ariat ion in the am ount of moisture cont ained

in the u nseasoned w ood of the v ariou s sp ecies of l iv ing t rees .

A m ong the h ard w ood s w hit e ash and bl ack l ocu st are comp ara
"

tiv ely dry av erag ing ab ou t 4 0 p ercent m oisture w hereas b ass

, ,

Wood and chestnu t are rel at iv el y w et cont aining ov er 1 0 0 p ercent , .

A sim il ar v ar iat ion is found among the conif ers w estern red ced ar ,

and D ou gl as fir av erag ing l ess t han 40 p ercent w hereas su ch

-

w ood s as incens e ced ar b al sam and w hit e fi r east ern heml ock , , ,

su g ar p ine and E ng el m ann sp ru ce cont ain 1 0 0 p ercent or m ore

,

moisture on the average ( see T abl e

M ost of the hard w ood s show a f airl y u nif orm d istrib u tion of
m oisture b etw een heartw ood and sap w ood inu nseasoned tim b er ,

but in cert ain of the conif ers the s ap w ood is d ecid edl y m ore m oist ,

in m any cases app roaching the m ax imum att ainabl e f or w ood of a

p art icu l ar sp ecifi c g rav ity as show n in F ig 48 T hus in south ern . .
,

y ell ow p ine t he m oistu re cont ent of the s apw oo d is u su all y in .

ex cess Of 1 00 p ercent w hereas the heartw ood rang es f rom 30

,

to 40 p ercent It is ev id ent that in sp ecies characteriz ed by

.
,

su ch a d ist inct d if f erence the w eight of u nseas oned w ood m ay ,

v ary ov er w id e l imit s d ep end ing on the p rop ortion Of s apw ood

,

cont ained in it . I n s om e conif erou s t rees t here is als o a p ro

-

nounced v ariat ion in the m oisture cont ent of the heartw ood
it self that at the b as e b eing d ecid edl y m ore m oist th an the com
,
.

p a ra t iv el y dry h e art w ood hig her u p in t he t ree T his p rov ed t o .

be the case in red w ood in w hich the m oistu re cont ent of the ,

heartw ood w as f ou nd t o d ecrease g rad u all y from an av erag e of

ap p rox im at el y 1 5 0 percent at the b as e t o ab out 60 p ercent at a

height of 8 0 f eet ; ab ov e t his p oint the m oistu re rem ained p rac

1
ticall y const ant 1 1
.

T he m oistu re cont ent of air dry w ood in s erv ice v aries ov er

-

rather w id e l imit s dep end ing on the cl im at e p eriod of s easoning

, , ,

and the s iz e and f orm oi the p iece The sp ecies m ay al s o be a

‘

r
. .

f act or esp ecially w hen rel at iv el y short seasoning p eriod s are in

,

v olv ed since the v arious w ood s d if f er m ark edly in the rat e at

,

w h ich they g iv e up their m oisture w hen su bj ect ed to dry ing cond i

tions as w ell as in the rat e at w hich they ab sorb m oisture d uring
,

1 11 R . F Luxf ord D istribution

. m oistu re in v irg in
,
of redw ood trees,
Tim berman, P ortland Oreg ; V ol 3 1 , F eb 1930 p 1 06
“

. . .
,
.
,
1 82 F A CT ORS AF FE CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P R OPE RT IES

of comp ara
tiv ely dry w ood chang es the w eight p er cu b ic f oot ,

d oes not chang e s o mu ch as m ight be exp ect ed This is du e to .

the f act t hat as dry w ood t ak es on m oisture the w eig ht t end s t o

, ,

increase b ecau se of the add ed w at er w hil e at the s am e t im e its ,

v ol um e also t end s t o increas e since the resu lt ant sw ell ing cau ses
‘

the w ood su b st ance t o occupy a g reat er sp ace Conv ersel y the .

,

f urther d rying of the m at erial d ecreases b oth its w eight and

v ol ume A ru l e of thum b f or estim ating chang es in the w eight
.
_

p er cub ic f oot of w ood at a m oisture cont ent near 1 2 p ercent is

t o consid er a p ercent chang e in w eight as a ccom p any ing a 1
p ercent chang e in m oisture T hu s w ood at 8 p ercent m oisture .
,

cont ent w eighs ab ou t 2 p ercent l ess p er cu b ic foot t han at 1 2

p ercent wh ereas at 1 4 p ercent the w eight is ab ou t 1 p ercent

,

great er than at 1 2 p ercent 1 1 2 .

L arg e t im b ers s eas on v ery s l ow l y and m ay h av e a hig her

moisture cont ent ev en aft er l ong p eriod s of s eas oning than
, ,

thinner m at erial ; al so the m oisture w ill l ik el y be unev enl y dis

tribu t ed throu ghou t the cross section of the p ieces T ests m ad e .

by the F orest S erv ice on y ell ow p ine b ridg e s tring ers s ome 1 2 by ,

1 2 inches in cross section and ot hers 8 by 1 6 inches s h ow ed th at ,

aft er tw o y ears of s eas oning the av erag e moisture cont ent of the

ext erior shell ext end ing halfw ay t o the cent er w as 1 8 p ercent ,

whereas that of the rem aining int erior w as p ercent R ed .

w ood t imb ers 8 by 1 6 inches in cros s s ection av erag ed 1 7 p ercent

, ,

in the ou t er p ortions and 3 3 p ercent in the inn er core aft er

s eas oning f or 2 0 m onths
“

1 1 3
.

K il n dried w ood ex hib it s a w id e v ariat ion in m ois tu re cont ent

-

d ep end ing on the u se to w hich the m at erial is to be p ut F or .

ex act ing u s es w here a l ow m oisture cont ent is es sent ial

,
as in ,

furniture cab inet w ork int erior fi nish and fl ooring r and in air
, ,

p l ane p art s it is us u all y ap p reciabl y b el ow t hat of thorou ghl y

,

air d ried m at erial

-
F or ot her f orms of w ood su ch as sheathing
.
, ,

roof b oard s and f ram ing k il n d ry ing is oft en resort ed t o m erel y

, ,

t o rem ov e the b u lk of the m oisture in a rel at iv el y sh ort t ime?and

the m oisture cont ent m ay v ary f rom 1 0 t o 2 5 p ercent or m ore .

1 12 L J
. . M arkw ardt Com p ara tive
,
s treng th p rop erties of woods g row n
in the United S ta tes, U . S . D ep t . Ag r . T ech Bu l
. . 1 58 , W ashing t on, 1 93 0 ,
p . 20 .

113 A rthu r K oehler and Rolf T helen ,

The kiln drying o f lu m ber M cGraw
,

Hill B ook Co N ew Y ork 1 926 p 36

.
, , ,
. .
 M OI S T URE CON T EN T A N D S T RE N GT H OF W OOD 1 83

RE L A TI ON OF M OI S T U RE CON TE N T To ST RE N GT H OF W OOD 1 1 4

As exp l ained in the d is cussion of check s as d ef ects ( p ag e

w hen w ood is d ried b el ow the fi ber s atu rat ion p oint the w all s -

of the ind iv id u al cel l s b ecom e more and m ore comp act T he .

fib ers consequ entl y b ecome strong er and stif f er and as a resu lt a , , ,

d ecrease in m oisture cont ent is accomp anied by an increase in

m ost of the strength p rop erties of cl ear w ood A b ov e the fi ber .

s atu rat ion p oint ch ang es in m oisture cont ent h av e no app arent

ef f ect on the st reng th Of the w ood Sm all cl ear sp ecim ens of w ood .

in a t horou ghl y air dry cond ition ( 1 2 p ercent m oisture) h av e -

p ra cticall y tw ice the strength in b end ing and end w ise comp ression
of the s am e m at erial w hen uns eas oned w hereas w hen the , ,

m at erial is k il n d ried ( to ap p rox im at el y 5 p ercent moistu re) the

-

increase in strengt h m ay be threef old T he rel at ion b etw een the .

m ois ture cont ent and the strength of the w ood of S itk a sp ru ce is
show n in F ig 49 . .

That the chang es in the d if ferent strength p rop erties are not
the s ame f or g iv en chang es in m oisture cont ent is ind icat ed in
F ig 49 as w ell as in T abl e 1 2 w hich show s the ap prox im at e
.
, ,

v ariation in strength w ith a 1 p ercent chang e in moisture b el ow

the fiber s aturat ion p oint
-
S ince the increase in streng th accom .

p any ing l oss Of m oistu re is an ex p onent ial rel at ionship as show n ,

in F ig 49 these p ercent ag e v al u es shou ld be app l ied s u ccessiv el y

.
,

f or each 1 p ercent chang e in m oisture cont ent in arriv ing at the

increas e in strength resulting from a m oistu re cont ent d ecrease of
sev eral p ercent F rom T abl e 1 2 it m ay be seen t hat strengt h as
.

a b eam ( modu l u s of ru p tu re) and as a col u m n ( m ax imum cru sh

ing streng th in end w is e comp res sion) is increas ed to a m ark ed

ext ent as the w ood b ecom es d rier w h ereas st iff ness ( m od u l u s of ,

el ast icit y) is infl u enced t o a l es ser d eg ree by su ch m ois ture

ch ang es A n ex cep tion to the g eneral ru l e that the strength of
‘

cl ear w ood increases app reciabl y as the m oist u re cont ent de

creases is ob serv ed in the p rop ert ies rel at ed t o t ou ghness B oth .

w ork to m ax imu m l oad in st at ic b end ing and height of d rop of

hammer neces sary to p rod u ce comp l et e f ail ure in imp act b end ing
114 F or fu rther dis cu ss ion s ee T R C W ils on, S treng th m ois tu re relations . . .
-

f or wood, U S D ep t A g r T ech Bu l 282 W ashing ton, 1 93 2

. . . . . .
,
.

A ls o T R C W ils on, T A Carls on, and R F L uxf ord T he ef fect of

. . . . . . .
,

W
"

arti a l sea s oning on t h e streng th of w ood , P roc A m ood P res A ssn

p . . .

Chicag o, 1 930 , p p 3 49 78 .
— .
1 84 FA CT OR S AF FE CTI N G M ECHA N I CA L P ROP ERTI ES

g
chan e on l y sl ightl y as the moisture cont ent d ecreases Th is .

cond it ion is ex p l ained by t he f act th at t ou ghness inv olv es p l i

8 0 00

'

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 i s:
Moisture content in per cent of oven dry weig ht
-

Fo
res t P roducts L
a bora tory D ata

F IG . 49 . Relation between streng th and moistu re content Of small clear sp eci

m ens of S itk a sp ruce
‘

ab il ity as w el l as streng th A lth ou gh dry w ood w il l sup p ort a

.

great er l oad than unseas oned m aterial it w il l not b end so f ar

,
1 86 F A CTOR S A FFECTI N G ME CHA NICA L P ROP ERT I E S

v id es the most accurate m ethod of a dj ust ment . T his equ ation is

u su all y w ritt en

(C D ) l og

in w hich A , B , C, and D m oistu re

t t v al ues and S 4 S E con en
'

are
r

, , ,

S 0 and S D are corresp ond ing streng th v al u es

, T his eq uation is .

that of a s traight l ine ( y b ace) and it s u se is b ased on the ,

f act that m oisture content v al u es b el ow the fiber s aturat ion p oint

- -

and the l og arithm s of corresp on d ing strength v al u es S how a

s traight l ine rel at ionship
-
By su b stitu t ing a v erag e green and
.

air dry strength v al u es f or a art icu l ar sp ecies f rom T abl es 1 and

p
- -

2 f or S A and S B in the eq u at ion t og ether w ith app rop riat e v al u es

,

f or A and B it is a s imp l e m atter to adj u st a streng th v al u e

,

( S o) at C p ercent moistu re cont ent to its eq u iv al ent ( S D ) at

the d es ired m oistu re cont ent ( D ) A s ind icat ed p rev ious l y the
.
,

comm on m ois tu re cont ent t o w hich air dry sp ecimens are adj u st ed -

is 1 2 p ercent I n u sing g reen s trength v al u es f rom T abl e 1 f or

.

S A it is im p ort ant t o u se the v al ue f or A corresp ond ing to the

,

fi ber s aturation p oint ab ov e w hich s trength is const ant

-

,
T his .

m oistu re cont ent v al u e is comm onl y assu med to be 24 p ercent

-

ex cep t f or the f ollow ing

'

Percent
Birch, y ellow 27
Hemlock , w estern 26
Larch ,
w estern 28
P ine, loblolly 21
long leaf 21
Redw ood 21
S p ruce, red 27
S itka 27

A pp l ication t ion 1 0 m ay be ill u strat ed by adj ust ing

of q
e ua

the m ax imum cru shing strength of a sp ecimen of hard m a p le ,

d et ermined as p ou nd s p er s q u are inch b as ed On t est s at

e cent m oist u re co n t en t t o 1 2 p ercent m oistu re cont ent

p r .
,

Then B 12 SB 7830 ( T abl e 2 )

A 24 SA 40 2 0 ( T abl e 1 )
C S0
D 12 SD
 E FFE CT OF M ET HOD OF D RY I N G ON S T RE N GTH 1 87

1 2 ) l og

24 12

S1 2 8960 p ou nd s p er s q u are inch and is the m ax imu m cru sh

I ng strengt h f or this sp ecimen adj u st ed t o 1 2 p ercent m ois t u re

con en t t .

A ll method s f or the d stment of s trength f or d if f erences in

a

m ois ture cont ent are b ased on the assu mp tion that m oistu re dis
tribution is u nif orm throug hou t the sp ecimen P ref erence is .

oft en g iv en w hen p ossibl e t o t est ing w ood in the u nseasoned con

—
“

, ,

d ition s ince no m att er how w et the w ood m ay be there is no

, , ,

ap p arent chang e in s trengt h and correct ion f or m oistu re cont ent ,

cons eq u entl y d oes not hav e t o be consid ered .

T he strength ening ef fect of d ry ing how ev er althou g h oft en

-

, ,

v ery m ark ed in small cl ear sp ecimens m ay be entirely of f s et in ,

l arg er p ieces by the d ev el op ment of check s and other d ef ect s

d uring s eas oning This is p articu l arl y tru e in the l ow er grad es
.

of stru ctural mat erial ow ing t o the p rev al ence of check ing in
,

and arou nd k not s A s a resu lt the l ow er g rad es of l arg e t imb ers

.
,

and ab out 2 5 p ercent of the high er grad es s how no increase in

strength w ith d ry ing althou gh the av erag e st rength of su ch

,

timb ers is increased s l ightly .

E F F E CT OF M E TH OD OF D RY I N G ON S T RE N GT H

T he method d ry ing m ay hav e a p ronounced ef f ect on the

of -

strengt h of w ood d ep end ing on the ext ent t o w hich s easoning de

“

f eets are d ev el op ed I n many quarters there is a common b el ief

.

that k il n d ried w ood is inf erio

-
r in s trength t o air d ried m at erial -

I n s ome inst ances w h ere w ood has b een k il n d ried und er u nf av or

,

abl e cond it ions oi t emp eratu re and hum id ity the s t rength m ay be ,

consid erabl y red uced as a resu lt of check ing the d ev el op m ent of .

sev ere int ernal st resses ( as in casehard ening ) and chemical

Checking and ev en casehard ening m ay
‘

chang es in the w ood .

al so occu r in air d ry ing and in cert ain sp ecies l ittl e can be

,

d one to control them ef f ect iv el y W ith p rop er k il n d ry ing how .

,

ev er the seas oning inj uries can be red u ced t o a m inimu m if not
, ,

ent irel y av oid ed in al l w oods and m at erial so d ried is fu ll y

, ,
.

eq u al in strength p rop ert i es t o air d ried st ock of the S am e q u al ity -

and moisture cont ent This is b orne out by the res u lt s of ov er

.
1 88 F A CTORS A FFE CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P R OPE RT I ES
'

m echanical t est s m ad e by the F orest P rod u ct s L ab orat ory

in connec tion w ith the
k il n d ry ing of w ood f or airp l ane con .

stru ct ion 1 1 6 These t est s show ed f urther that the strength

.

p rop erti es of w ood p art icu l arl y t ou g hness or resist ance to s hock
, ,

m ay be q u it e serious l y redu ced u nd er cert ain d ry ing cond it ions

w ithou t any v isibl e evid ence of su ch inj ury .

A nother reas on f or the p rej u d ice ag ainst k il n d ried w ood is -

f ound in the manner of f ail ure since v e ry dry w ood f ail s m ore ,

ab ru p tl y and w ith l ess b end ing than m at erial of a higher moist ure

cont ent How ev er althou gh incl ined t o be m ore b rittl e the d rier
.
, ,

p iece is cap abl e of su p p ort ing a g reat er l oad u nl ess it has b een ,

d ried u nd er v ery unf av orabl e cond itions .

T he rel ation Of m oisture cont ent t o the strength of cl ear w ood

d oes not h old w h en v ery dry w ood is all ow ed t o reab s orb moisture .

A p iece of w ood d ried to 3 or 4 p ercent and then ex p osed to atmos

p heric cond it ions w hich cau s e an increas e t o 1 5 p ercent m oistu re
cont ent is s omew hat w eak er and m ore b rittl e than a s imil ar p iece
.

that h as nev er b een dried b el ow 1 5 p ercent 1 1 7 The same ef f ect

is p rod uced w h en dry w ood is s oak ed in w at er su ch m at erial ,

be ing s om ew hat l ess resil ient th an it w as in the orig inal un

seas oned cond it ion .

T em p era t u re

T he ef f ects t emp eratu re on the strength and el astic p rop erties

of

of w ood may be cl assifi ed as t em p orary or p erf nanent T em .

ora r ef f ect s are t hose t h at e x is t on l y at the p art icu l ar t emp era

p y
tu re inv olv ed and are ind ep end ent of the p eriod of exp osure to
high or l ow t emperatures P erm an ent eff ect s are t hose that are
.

ret ained aft er the w ood h as b een rest ored t o norm al t emp erat ure
“

and are a f u nct ion of d urat ion of t emp eratu re as w ell as t emp era

tu re its el f .

S ev eral inv est ig at ors hav e st u d ied the t emp orary infl u ence of
hig h or l ow t em p eratu res on w ood p rop ert ies and the ef f ects of ,

t emp eratures as low as — 3 2 0 F and as high as 400 F h av e b een

° °
. .

116 T R C
. . . W ils on
fiect of kiln drying on the
,
The e s treng th of airp lane

w oods N at Adv is Comm A ero Rep t 6 8 W ashing ton

,
. . . . .
, ,
1 92 0 .

A ls o M arkw ardt and W ilson f ootnote 9 4 p 5 7 , ,

. .

117 K oehle r and T helen, f ootnote 1 1 3, p . 2 76 .

1 90 F A CT OR S A FF E CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P R OPE RT IE S
"
“

be x p ected to increase in m od u lu s of rup ture by l ess than 2 0

e

p ercent u nd er a comp arabl e t emp eratu re chang e T he imp act .

strengt h of s at urat ed f roz en w ood is consid erabl

y l ess th an t hat
of dry w ood .

The work of Greenhill 1 2 0 d eal ing w ith the infl u ence of t em

p erature and m oisture cont ent on p rop erties in t ension p erp endicu
l ar to the g rain is of esp ecial int erest from the st and p oint of the
f undam ent al nature of the stresses d ev el op ed in k il n d rying A t .

°
1 80 F the t ens il e streng t h and m od u lu s of el ast icity across the
.

grain w ere redu ced to one third t o one— hal f th e v al u es f or cor

-

resp ond ing p rop ert ies at norm al at m os h eric t em eratu re At

p p .

l ow m ois ture cont ent the red u ctions w ith t emp eratu re increase
w ere m u ch l ess strik ing .

W hen w ood is exp os ed to S ufliciently high t emp eratu res cert ain ,

p erm anent ch ang es are b rou g ht ab ou t in the w ood su b st ance '

w hich in tu rn a f f ect the streng th of the m at erial

, , The p er .

m anent infl u ence of high t em p eratu res on t he p rop ert ies of

'

w oo d h as b een s tu d ied ecently by M acL ean

r 1 2 1
His fi nd ing s .
,

b ased on t es t s of t hin w ood sp ecim ens of s ev eral sp ecies show ,

that p rop erties ind icat iv e of sh ock resist ance ( t ou ghness and w ork
to m ax imu m l oad in st at ic b end ing ) are m u ch m ore s ensit iv e t o
the d et eriorating ef f ect s of he at ing th an are m od u l u s of rup tu re

or m od u l u s Of el ast icity

N one of the p rop ert ies of w ood w ere af f ect ed w hen t est ed at
room t em p eratu re a ft er h eat ing in an ov en at 3 20 F
°
f or hour .
,

and ev en a ft er heat ing at t his t em p eratu re f or 1 6 hou rs t ou gh

, ,

ness and w ork tom ax im u m l oad w ere the onl y p rop ert ies th at
show ed m ore t h an a s l ight d ecreas e F oll ow ing the l att er t reat .

m ent shock resist ance p rop ert ies w ere redu ced t o ab ou t 5 0 t o 8 0
,
-

p ercent Of comp arabl e v al u es f or control s p ecim ens D et eriora .

t ion is m ore rap id w hen w ood is heat ed in s aturat ed st eam than

in dry air at the s am e t emp eratu re Heat ing in st eam at 3 2 D E °
. .

f or 4 hou rs red u ced w ork to m ax imu m l oad t o ab ou t 5 0 p ercent

of control v al u es w hereas th e s am e p eriod of heat ing I n an ov en
,
°
at 3 20 F p rod u ced no m ark ed red u ct ion I n st reng th
. .

M u ch l ow er t em p erat ures m ay seriou s l y aff ect strength p rop

1 20 W L Greenhill S treng th tests p erp endicu lar t o the g rain\of t imb er '

. .
,

at v ariou s
-

t emp eratures and m oistu re cont ents , Jou r Cou n S ci

. . . and I nd .

R es A u stralia V ol 9 N O 4, 1 93 6 , p p 26 5
, ,
.
,
. .

1 2 1 J D M acL ean E ect o heat on the

, ff.
f p rop erties and serviceability of
w ood : exp erim ents on thin w ood sp ecim ens, F or Prod L ab R ep t R 1 47 1 , . . . .

M adison 1 945 . .
 P RE S ER VA TI VE T REA T M E NT 1 91

erties if the he
at ing p eriod is of l ong d uration . E l ev en m onths
’

ex p os u re to an air t emp eratu re of

°
215 F . d
re u ce d w ork to
m ax imum l oad to 2 6 p ercent of orig inal , m od u l us of ru p ture to
5 5 p ercent , and m od u l u s Of el asticity t o 8 3 p ercent I mmers ion .

in b oil ing w at er f or p eriod s u p t o 6 4 hours had rel at iv el y l ittl e

p erm anent f t on m echanical p rop erties and the p ractice of
ef ec ,

st eam ing or s oak ing w ood ih b oil ing w at er f or short p eriod s to-

imp rov e its p l iab il ity f or b end ing to sharp curv atu re has in it sel f , ,

onl y a minor d am ag ing ef f ect on its su b s equ ent p rop e rties ( T he .

strengt h of b ent w ood p rod u ct s su ch as f urnit ure p art s and b oat

-

f ram es is Of course d ep end ent on the d egree of ov erstressing

' ‘

, ,

inv olv ed in p rod u cing the d esired curv atu re ) T he sp ecifi c eff ect s .

of v ariou s m et hod s and p eriod s Of h eat ing on shock resist ance ,

d is cu ssed in the p reced ing p aragrap hs are b ased l arg el y on t est s

of D ou g l as fi r Th ese rel ationsh ip s are b el iev ed t o hold in a
.

g eneral w ay f or all w ood s but ind iv idu al sp ecies m ay be af f ect ed

,

s om ew hat m ore or l ess t han D ou gl as fir u nd er comp arabl e cond i

tions of heating .

s imil arl y ind icat ed that

1 22
E arl ier w ork by K oehl er and P ill ow
t ou ghness is m ore su bj ect t o red u ction than other p rop erties such ,

as sp ecifi c grav ity and m ax imu m cru shing strength as a resu lt ,

of ex p osu re to high t emp eratu re A t end ency t ow ard an increas .

ing f req u ency o f b rash f ail u res in w h it e ash ( bu t not in S itk a

°
s p ru ce) b et w een 2 a nd 8 d ay s of h eat ing at 2 80 F w as not ed by .

these inv estig at ors .

A lthou gh the m ost out st and ing p erm anent eff ect Of h igh tem
p er atu re is a redu c t ion in s h ock res is t in g a b il it y oth er p
-
rop ert ies ,

su ch as b end ing and comp ress iv e st rengt hs of w ood may be

not iceabl y af f ect ed if heat ing is continu ed f or a su ffi cientl y l ong

p eriod .

P res erva t ive T re a t m en t

Num erou s inv estig ations hav e b een m ad e f rom time t o t im e by

v ariou s ag encies to d et ermine the ef f ect of st and ard p reserv at iv es
1 22 K oehler and M Y P illow Ef fect of hig h t em p eratu res on the m ode
A . . .
,

of fracture of a s oftw ood S ou thern Lu m berman N ashville Vol 1 2 1 D ec 1 9 .

—
, , ,
.
, ,

1 925 , pp . 219 21 .

M . Y . P illow , E ffect of hig h tem p eratu res on the m ode of fractu re and

other p rop erties of a hardw ood, S ou thern I/ um berm an, N ashv ille, Vol 1 3 7, .

Oct 1 5 , 1 929, p p 58, 60

. . .
 1 92 FA CT ORS A FFE CTI N G M E CHA N I CA L PR OP ERT I ES

and v tiv e treatm ent s on the strength of w ood 1 2 3 T he

p res er a .

resu lt s of th es e t est s ind icat e th at an

y w eak ening of w ood d uring
treatm ent is du e t o the m et hod of p rep arat ion or imp reg nation
rat her t h an t o the p reserv at iv e u s ed Creosot e d oes not ex hib it .

any chem ical reaction on the w ood and hence is not inj uriou s
, , .

Zinc chl orid e is al so v irtu all y inactiv e in the rel at iv el y w eak

s ol u tions ( 2 t o 4 p ercent ) u s ed in comm ercial
p ractice althou g h ,

the p resence of the s alt in the w ood ap p arentl y m ak es it some

w h at b rittl e und er imp act I n hig h concentrat ions and at hig h .

t emp eratures how ev er z inc chl orid e is cap abl e of d isintegrating

, ,

the w ood su b st ance P ent achl orop henol copp er nap hthenate .
, ,

and ot her st and ard p reserv at iv es hav e no know n inj uriou s ef f ect s

on the p rop ert ies of w ood .

M ost of the w eak ening of wood that accomp anies p reserv at iv e

treatment can be attrib ut ed to the high t emp eratures Oft en u sed
in ord er to ob t ain S atis f act ory imp reg nat ions of the p reserv a
i
t v es 1 24
. This is p articu l arl y tru e w hen ex ces siv e t emp eratures
are m aint ained f or l ong p eriod s in conj u nct ion w ith rel at iv el y

high p res sures as is f req u entl y the case in t reat ing w ood s t hat are
,

d ifficu lt to imp regnat e satis f act orily .

The d etrim ent al ef f ect of a g iv en p reservat iv e treatm ent is al s o

d ep en d ent on the k ind of w ood and to s ome ext ent on the f orm , ,

of m at erial D ou gl as fi r is rep u t ed to be inj u red m ore t han

.

other w ood s that are comm onl y treat ed b ecau se o f its m ark ed

res is t ance t o im p reg nat ion How ev er there is ev id ence that .

,
“

s ou t hern p ine is al s o s eriou s l y inj u red by the v ery s ev ere t reat

ing cond itions ( p rel im inary steam ing ) to w hich that w ood is oft en
su bj ect ed P ol es and p il ing are l ess oft en d am ag ed in t reatm ent
.

than saw ed p ieces ow ing to the p resence of a l arg er p rop ortion

,

of s ap w ood w hich is l ess ref ract ory F u rtherm ore p ol es are l ess .
,

1 23 F or a f
p art ial list of re erences on the v arious t ests condu cted in t his
cou ntry , s ee M echanical p rop erties of t reat ed w ood , R ep t Of Com m on . .

P rop erties of T reat ed W ood ,

P roc A m
. . Wood P res A ssn , Chicag
. . o, 4 9 23 ,

p p 36 1 2 -
. .

S ee als o Georg e M Hunt and G eorg e A Garratt W ood p res erva tion,
— —
. .
,

M cGra w Hill B ook Co ,

N e w.Y ork 1 938 pp 30 6 11 , ,
. .

T R C W ils on Ef f ect of creosot e on streng th Of fi r t imbers Tim berman,

— —
.
. .
, ,

P ortl and , Oreg .

, V ol 3 1 .
,
J une 1 93 0 , p p 5 0 2 , 5 4 6
. .

1 24 H S B etts
. . and J . A . N ew lin, S treng th tes ts of s tru ctu ra l tim bers
trea ted by comm ercial w ood p res erving -

p rocesses, U . . S . D ep t . Ag r . Bu l .

28 6 , W ashing t on, 1 9 1 5 .
1 94 F A CT OR S A FF E CTI NG ME CHA NI CA L P R OPE R T IE S

1 i
r r

Q‘ Q >
r >

w ho

at
0
re m ai
0 8
—m
0
n
a
0 0
mmmm
0 0 0
 P RE SERVA T I VE T RE A T M E N T 1 95

T A B LE 1 4 . S T RE N GT H L OS S E S R E S ULT I N G FROM S TE A M I N G OF

UN S E A S O N E D S H OR T LE A F A N D S LA S H P I NE SA P W O O D *

P ercentag e L oss in S treng t h

S tatic B ending

M odulu s of M odulu s of

Rup tu re El asticity

condu ct ed on sp ecim ens m aintained in a m oist condition °

T ests at 35 F .

f or d ays or w eeks p rior t o

s ev eral testing at room t emp eratu re .

From S tanl ey J B u ckm an and . Lou is W . R ees , Eff ect of st eaming on th e

s treng th of sou th ern yell ow p ine, P roc A m Wood P res A ssn Chicag o, 1 9 40 ,
—
. . . .
,

pp 33 1 6 0
. .

whit e d p ol es an
ce ar d has b een ext end ed to cross t ies of l odg ep ol e
p in e E ng e
,
l m a nn sp ru ce and other sp ecies I nv est ig at ions on the
,
.

s trength of incis ed D ou gl as fi r S O t reat ed y ield ed the f oll ow ing

1 27
i
concl u s ons :
1 I ncising D ou gl as fi r ties w eak ens th em but l ittl e in comp res
.

s ion p erp end icu l ar t o the g rain the incised m at erial show ing ,

an av erag e st rengt h that w as m ore t han 9 7 p ercent of t hat of the

nonincis ed .

2.I ncising D ou gl as b eam s aff ect s the b end ing strength fir .

onl y s l ight l y the l oss in fib er st res s at p rop ort ional l imit m odu l u s
, ,

of ru p t u re and h oriz ont al shear b eing s l ightl y m ore than 2

,

1 27 R H Raws on Th e Efi ect on D oug las fi r ties of incising and of

. .
,

creos ot ing by t he b oiling under v acuum P roc A m W ood P res

— p rocess
- -
. . . .

A ssn , Chicag o, 1 926 p p 1 9 1 6

.
,
. .

R H Raw son, A study Of creosote t reatm ent of s ix inch by tw elv e inch

—
- -
.

D ou g las fi r beams, cov ering b oiling under v acuum p ressu re p rocess and the - -

influ ence of incis ing ,

I bid , 1 92 7 , p p 2 03 1 3
. .
— .
1 96
-
F A CT ORS A FFECT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P ROPERT IE S

p ercent T he . com b ined t reating m ay re

ef ec
f t of incising and

d u ce the fib er stres s at p rop ort ional l imit s l ightl y m ore than 1 0

p ercent w hereas in m od u l u s of rup tu re and horiz ont al shear t he
,

red u ction is l ess t han 7 p ercent .

3 S eas oning D ou gl as fi r by b oil ing u nd er v acuu m u sing a

.
,

m ax imu m t emp erat ure Of 1 9 2 F und er a m inimu m v acuum of

°
.

2 3 inch es d oes not w eak en the tim b er to any f urther ext ent t han
,

d oes air s easoning in usu al p ractice .

4 T he S l ig ht l oss du e to incis ing is a g reat d eal m ore than

.

comp ensat ed f or by t he increas e d ab sorp tion and great er uni “

f orm ity Of p enetrat ion obt ained T he incised timb ers ab s orb ed .

43 p ercent more creosot e th an thos e not incised w hen treat ed

u nd er id ent ical cond it ions .

He a rt w ood an d S a p w oo d

I n m any x mination of the end of a log rev eal s

sp ecies , e a

a rel at iv el y d ark col ored inner core the h eartw ood, Surrou nd ed by
-

a l ig ht er col ored z one t he s apw ood

-
T he sap w ood is of v it al
, .

imp ort ance in the l if e hist ory of a l iv ing t ree b eing concerned w ith ,

the cond u ction of s oil m oistu re and cont ained mineral nutrient s
f rom the roots to the l eav es w ith the t emp orary st orag e of food , ,

and w ith the me chanical su pp ort of the u p p er p art s of the tree .

Contrary to p op u l ar b el ief the great m aj ority of the cell s com

,

p os ing the s ap w ood are dead ; onl y t hose concerned w ith f ood
st orag e ( p arenchy m a cell s ) cont ain p rot op l asm and are a ct u all y

a l iv e I n the earl y l if e of a t ree the w ood y p ortions ar

. e entirel y

com p osed of sap w ood bu t as the t ru nk and l arg er b ranches ih

, ,

creas e in d iamet er by t he f orm at ion of new s ap w ood l ay ers on the

ou t s id e of the al read y ex is t ing w ood the inner s ap w ood ch ang es ,

to heartwood Such a change is accomp anied by the d eath of

.

the p arenchyma cell s and in m os t sp ecies by the d ep osit ion in

, ,

the immed iat el y ad j acent w ood of v ariou s su b st ances su ch as ,

gums t annins resins oroil s Heartw ood d eriv es its namé en

' ’

f
'

.
, , ,

tirely f rom its p osit ion in the tree ; its sol e funct ion is t hat of
m echanical su pp ort and a t ree m ay th riv e ev en if its heartw ood is
,

comp l et el y d ecay ed .

I n some w ood s su ch as bl ack w al nu t bl ack l ocu s t redw ood

, , , ,

east ern red ced ar and the l ik e the charact er of the m at erial s
, ,

d ep osit ed in the heartw ood is su ch as to p rod u ce a p ronounced

1 98 F A CT OR S A FF E CT I N G M E CHA NI CA L P ROP ERT IE S

d if f erence in the streng th of the tw o typ es of w ood How ev er .

,

ex cep t ions t o t his g eneral ru l e h av e b een not ed in red w ood

-

w est ern red ced ar and bl a ck l ocust al l cont aining l arg e am ou nt s

“

1 hthese sp ecies the extractiv es

,

of extract iv e in their heartw ood .

f ormed in the w ood as it chang es f rom sap w ood to heartw ood

hav e been f ound t o I ncreas e the strength of the heartw ood E nd .

w ise comp ressiv e s treng th s how s the great est increase m odu l u s ,

of rup ture in b end ing s omew hat l ess and shock resist ance the ,

l east I n f act und er s ome cond itions the shock resis t ance of
.
,

the heartw ood app ears to be l ow ered 1 2 9 .

W hen actu al d if f erences in strength b etw een heartw ood and

s ap w ood d o occu r, th ey are u su all y ass ociat ed w it h v ariat ions in

d ensity and p rev al ence of d ef ect s A s has b een p rev iousl y ex .

p l ained the cond itions und er w hich a tree g row s hav e a m ark ed
,

ef f ect on the d ensity and res u lt ant s trength of its Wood If the .

grow ing cond itions are such as to maint ain the p rod u ct ion of '

w ood of high d ensity t hrou ghout t he l if e Of a tree the heartw ood ,

and s ap w ood shou ld not ex hib it any p ronounced d if f erence in

cl ear w ood st rength

-
On the other h and if the d ensity of the
.
,

w ood p rod u ced w ith the p as s ag e of time d ecreases or increas es ,

the cl ear w ood s trength of the s ap w ood w ill corresp ond ingl y de
-

crease or inc ase re “ 0 A lthou gh ex cep tions freq u entl y occu r

.
,

it m ay be s aid t hat as a g eneral ru l e the s ap w ood l aid on lat e

, ,

in the l if e of a mature tree is soft er l ig ht er w eak er and m ore

“

, , ,

ev en t ex tu red than the wood p rod u ced d u ring the earl ier s t a g es
-

’
of the t rees d ev el op m ent and su b s eq u entl y t rans f orm ed t o heart

w ood .

F rom the p oint of V iew of f reed om from d ef ect s the s ap w ood ,

is norm all y d ecid edl y sup erior T he l ow er b ranches w hich p rev ail.

al m ost to the ground in y ou ng t rees ev entu all y die and are b rok en

off . Su b sequ ent d iam et er g row th of the t runk m ay comp l et el y

cov er the s tu b s but t hey rem ain as k not s in the int erior p ort ions
,

of the tree I n conseq u ence the sap w ood of the m ore siz abl e
.
,

trees and p articu l arl y of those grow n in d ens e st and s w here

,

crow d ing b ring s ab out the l os s of the l ow er b ranches rel a

tiv ely earl y in l if e w ill cont ain f ew er k not s than the h eartw ood
,
.

F urt herm ore the heartw ood of a l iv ing t ree is m ore su bj ect to
,

1 29 R F Luxf ord , E f fect of extractiv es on the streng th of w ood, Jou r .

A g r R es , W ashing t on, V ol 42 , 1 93 1 , p p 80 1 —
. .

. 26 . . .

1 3 0 T he relat ions b etw een the dens it

y and streng th of w ood in conifers
and ring p orous and diff use p orous hardw oods are dis cussed on p ag es 1 52 6 6
- - — .
 HEA RT W OOD A N D S A P W OOD 1 99

sha ke ,
tt ack and d ecay 1 3 1 any of which may m ateriall y
insect a , ,

red u ce the st rength of the w ood I t is ev id ent t heref ore that .

, ,

the strength of a g iv en p iece of w ood is not d ep end ent on w hether

it is heartw ood or s ap w ood bu t rather on the actu al q u al ity of ,

the p iece as d et erm ined by its d ensity and the ext ent t o w hich
,

d ef ects are p resent .

S ince stru ctural t imb ers and w ood in other f orms are tre
qu ently us ed in ex p osed situ ations the resist ance that su ch ,

m at erial of f ers t o d et erioration by d ecay is oft en an imp ort ant

considerat ion Consequ entl y u nd er su ch cond itions it is comm on
.
, ,

p ract ice to sp ecify the u se of either naturall y d urabl e w ood or

that m ad e artifi c ially d ecay resist ant by treatment w ith creos ot e -
'

or ot her suit abl e p res erv at iv e F rom the st and p oint of p ro .

l ong ed resist ance to d ecay a s atis f act ory p reserv ativ e treatment ,

is to be p ref erred p articu l arl y a s it is ad ap t abl e to p ract icall y

,

all k ind s of w ood .

I n nat ural d urab il ity heartw ood is in g eneral d ecid edl y , , ,

su p erior to s ap w ood althou gh as has b een ex p l ained u nd er the

'

, ,

d is cu ssion of D ecay not all heartw ood is resist ant to d ecay ,

( see p ag es 1 0 9 On the other h and w h en the m at erial is ,

to be imp reg nat ed w ith p res erv at iv es a l arg e am ount of s ap w ood ,

is p ref erabl e S ince w ith f ew ex cep t ions it is m ore read il y p ene

'

trated than heartw ood How ev er there is a w id e rang e in the .

,

ea se w it h w h ich the v ariou s w ood s m ay be treat ed S om e su ch .

,

as the heartw oO d Of whit e oak and red g um are v ery d iff icu lt to ,

imp regnat e ; others as the heartw ood Of D ou gl as fi r sou thern ,

.

in w t n l h an d the sp ru ces are s om ew h at l es s ref rac

“

p e ,
es er arc .

, ,

t ory ; w hereas still others incl u d ing red oak s ap p ine s ap g um , , , ,

and the h eartw ood of p ond eros a p ine are t reat ed w it h eas e In , .

east ern h em l ock b ot h heart w ood and s ap w ood are ab ou t eq u all y

,

res ist ant t o imp reg n a i

t on J ”2
‘
-T

is in distinct contras t t o the condition existing in w ood in serv ice

1 3 1 T his ,

in w hich the heartw ood is norm ally m ore du rable and m ay be accounted f or
“

by the f act that in the living tree the m oisture content of the s ap w ood is s o
hig h as t o redu ce the av ailab l e air supp ly bel ow the minimu m necessary f or
the dev elop m ent of decay .

C H T eesdale R ela tive resis tance of variou s conif ers to inj ection
1 32 . .
,

w ith creos ote U S D ep t A g r Bu l 1 0 1 , W ashing t on 1 9 1 4

,
. . . .
, .

A lso C H T eesdale and J D M acL ean R elative resis tance of various

. . . .
,

hardwoods to inj ection with creosote, U S D ep t A g r Bu l 606 , W ashing t on . . . . .

,

1918 .

J D M acL ean,M anual on p reservative treatm ent of w ood by p ressure,

—
. .

U S D ep t A g r M isc Publ 224 Washing ton 1 93 5 p p

. . . . . .
, , , . 16 1 7 .
20 0 FA CT ORS A FF E CT I N G M E CHA NI CA L P ROP ERT I E S

In dd ition to col or p rev al ence of d ef ects d urab il ity and

a , , ,

treat ab il ity there are a numb er of other charact eris tic general
,

d if f erences b etw een heartw ood and sap w ood S ap w ood seas ons .

more rap idl y t han heartw ood and is usu all y l ess subj ect to ‘

s eas onin g d ef ects How ev er it t end s to S hrink and sw ell m ore

.
,

w ith chang es in atm osp heric hu mid ity T he red u ced shrink ag e .

of heart w ood is of p art icu l ar s ig nifi cance in col ored w ood s such ,

as red w ood th at cont ain su b s t ant ial am ou nt s of extract iv e m at e

,
” “
rial s in the cell w a ll s and is attrib u t ed to the b u lk ing ef f ect of
these su b st ances T he great er p erm eab il ity of the sap w ood is a
.

d is adv ant ag e in w ood s used f or t ank s w ood p ip e tig ht coop erag e , , ,

and other p u rp os es that inv olv e the confi nem ent Of l iquid s T he .

rel at iv e l a ck of od or and l ea chabl e col oring m at erial s in the s ap '

w ood m ay be an adv ant ag e in cert ain u ses but a d is adv ant ag e ,

in oth ers .

Liv e V ers u s D e a d T im b er
S p ecifi cat ions f or the p urchase of t imb er s ometimes stip u l ate
that m at erial f rom trees that hav e b een k ill ed by fi re or other
cau s es w ill not be accep t ed reg ardl ess of how sou nd the w ood m ay
,

be . T hat such a p rej u d ice is unf ound ed is b orne out by the

av ail abl e inf ormation w hich ind icat es th at t im b er cut f rom
,

insect or fi re k ill ed trees or f rom chest nu t trees k ill ed by the

i

- -

ch estnu t bl ig ht is as su it a l e f or stru ctu ral u s es as t hat f rom l iv e

b
trees of S imil ar qu al ity p rov id ed the w ood has not b een subse
,

3
qu entl y inj ured by d ecay or by further insect attaC k 1 3 I f the .

trees are l eft st and ing on the stump too l ong aft er b eing k ill ed ,

they m ay be seriousl y d et eriorat ed by d ecay or insect att ack or

b adl y check ed as the w ood d ries out How ev er d et erioration .
,

that is j u st as serious m ay t ak e p l ace in t imb er from l iv e trees

if it is not p rop erl y cared f or aft er b eing out I t shou ld be .

b orne in mind that the great b u lk of the w ood in a l iv ing tree '

is d ead onl y a comp arat iv el y sm all p rop ortion of the sap wood
,

cell s cont aining l iv ing p rot op l asm .

1 33Com p ara tive valu e of timber cu t f rom live and dead trees, F or P rod . .

L ab T ech N ote 1 0 1 M adis on

. .
,
.

A u tiliz ation g u ide f or blig ht killed ches tnu t, F or P rod Lab T ech N ote
-
. . . .

22 4 M adison
,
.

T A M cElhanney and R S P erry , Rep ort on tests of the relativ e

. . . .

streng th of g reen cut and fi re killed w estern cedar p ol e t imber Western

—
- - -

Lum berm an, Vancouv er, B C , V ol 25 , S ep t 1 928 , p p 886 , 8 96 7

. . . . . .
2 02 FA CT OR S A F F E CT I N G M E CHA N I CA L P R OPE RTI ES

rap i d d ail y ch an es t emp erature w hich occu r at this tim e of

g in
y ear and cau s e a cont ract ion and ex p ansion of the outer s ap w ood
l ay ers and ( 2 ) the cont inu ed activ ities of those root s that are
,

b el ow the f rost l ine D uring w int er m onths the int ak e of

“

m oisture from the l ow er root s is not Of fs et by the ev ap orat ion

of w ater from t he crow n of the t ree p art icu l arl y in those sp ecies
,

that l os e their l eav es d uring the d orm ant p eriod Consequ entl y .

th ere is a grad u al b u ild ing u p of p ressure w ithin the t ree that is

not rel iev ed u ntil the b u d s Op en and ev ap orat ion b eg ins in the
new l y f orming l eav es .

T he rep ut ed g reat er d urab il ity of w int er cu t w ood is al so b as ed

-

on th e seasonal v ariat ion in th e com p osit ion of the s ap the cl aim ,

s om et im es b eing m ad e th at in the su m m er esp eciall y t he s ap

cont ains cert ain chem ical stibs t ances t hat af f ect th e p rop ert ies

Of w ood and m ak e it p art icu l arl y su s cep t ibl e t o d ecay A lt hou gh .

s eas onal difi erences in s ap comp osition u nd ou b t edl y do occur ,

p articu l arl y in st arch and s u g ar cont ent they are confi ned t o ,

the s ap w ood w hich is inv ariab ly l ack ing in natural d urab il ity
,
.

A ny p rol ong ation of l if e du e t o this cau se w ou l d be s l ig ht at

, ,

b est .

T he su p eriority of w int er f ell ed tim b er w he re su ch ex ist s is

-

, ,

a ctu all y d ep endent on the cl im at ic cond it ions and the care

w ith w hich the m at erial is handl ed aft er f ell ing D uring cold .

w eat her the d ry ing of the w ood p roceed s s l ow ly and mu ch l ess

ch eck ing and sp l itt ing of th e w ood is l ik el y t o occur th an d u rin g
the w arm summer m ont hs F u rth erm ore d ecay is inhi
. b it ed by ,

the l ow t emp eratures p rev ail ing in m ost s ections of the cou nt ry
d uring the w int er and the exp osed p ortions of the w ood h av e a
,

chance t o seas on b el ow the m inimu m m oist ure cont ent necess ary

f or the d ev el op m ent of d ecay b ef ore the w ood d est roy ing fung i -

b ecom e activ e L ik ew ise the v ariou s w ood b oring insect s that

.
,
-

att ack u ns eas oned t im b e r are held in check d uring the cold

m onths How ev er these adv ant ag es of w inter cu t w ood m ay be

.
,
-

com p l et el y nu ll ifi ed if the t imb er f ell ed at other seas ons of the

y ear is caref u ll y h andl ed .

I n concl u sion it m ay be s aid that if t rees f ell ed at v ariou s t im es

,

d uring the y ear are cut int o l umb er imm ed iat el y af ter f ell ing and
k il n d ried in ex actl y the s am e m anner no d iff erence du e to the
-

s eason of cu t ting w ill be not ed .

 DURA TI ON OF S T RESS 203

D u ra t io n of S t r es s

b etw een m agnitu d e of l oad and l og arithm of

T he r el at ionship
t ime ov er w hich the l oad is sup p ort ed is show n in F ig 5 1 T he . .

ef f ect of l ong cont inu ed l oad ing is d is mi

-
ss ed in connect ion w ith

w ork ing stresses on p ag es 2 1 0— 11 L oad s g reat er than t hos e .

carried u nd er s t and ard s t at ic t est ing cond it ions can be su p

p ort ed w hen s tres s is of onl y a f ewsecond s d urat ion

’
R ecent .

w ork at the F orest P r od u ct s L ab ora t ory using sp ecial eq u ip ,

m ent f or the rap id l oad ing of t est sp ecim ens has show n that ,

the l oad sup p ort ed by b eams and col umns f or sh ort p eriod s is a
f unction of b oth l oad ing tim e and d urat ion of stress 1 3 7 I n this .

l att er w ork duration of stres s is cons id ered as the t im e int erv al

f oll ow ing the comp l etion of its ap p l ication during w hich a con
s t ant l oad is m aint ained .

On the b asis of thes e resu lt s it is est imat ed that a S itk a sp ru ce,

b eam l oad ed in second t o 1 09 p ercent of its st and ard s t at ic

b end ing m ax imum l oad w oul d f ail aft er second s d u rat ion of

st res s w hereas a s imil ar b eam l oad ed at a u nif orm rat e ov er a

,

l oad ing p eriod of 3 second s w ou l d supp ort a l oad 1 1 7 p ercent of

that att ained und er st and ard St atic— b end ing cond itions ( see
F ig .

I n the me t ests v ariat ion in rat e of l oad ing f ail ed to infl u ence
sa

m od u l u s of el ast icit y but a not iceabl e relaxation Or red u ction in

, ,

stress , w as s how n w hen the defl ectiO n of rap idl y l o ad ed b eam s

w as m aint ained Ten minut es aft er att aining a rap idl y de

‘

v el oped m ax imum s tress ( equ iv al ent to m od u lu s of rup ture in

st and ard st atic t e st s of s imil ar sp ecim ens ) , S itk a Sp ru ce b eam s

m aint ained at const ant d efl ect ion ret ained a residUal stress 8 5
p er cen t of m a xim u m T h is rep resent s a 1.5 p e rcen t red u ct ion in
l oad A t l ow er l oad s rel ax ation w as l ess app arent and p rob abl y
.

w ou l d not be app reciabl e at l oad s l ess th an 5 0 p ercent of the

m ax imu m carried u nd er st and ard st atic t est cond it ions T he .

infl u ence of su ch sho rt p eriod s of st ress is esp eciall y im p ort ant

from the st and p oint of aircraft and simil ar u ses in w hich d esign
is b ased on st resses of but a f ew second s d urat ion .

1 37 M P Brok aw
. . and G .W F ost er Efiect of rap id loading and du ration
.
,

f the s treng th p rop erties of w ood tes ted in comp ression and
“

o s tres s on

fl exu re F or P rod Lab Rep t

,
. . . . 1 5 1 8, M adis on 1 945
,
.
F a t ig ue

F atig ue re ers f ect o f numerous cy cl es of rep eated

f t o the ef

s tress on a m at erial Rep et ition f or a f ew t imes of stresses b el ow

'

u lt im at e streng th p rob abl y has no ap p reciabl e ef f ect on m od u l u s

of rup ture or m ax imum cru shing strength althou g h m od u l u s ,

of el ast icity is red u ced aft er the fi rst l oad ing In t ests cond u ct ed .

at the F orest P ro d u ct s L ab orat ory K omm ers f ound that aft er

“

ten rep et it ions of l oad ing in the s am e d irect ion to w ith in a f ew

p ercent of u lt im at e strength S itk asp ru ce and D ou gl as fi r sp eci ,

m ens l oad ed in st atic b end ing and comp ression p arall el t o the
grain w ere p ractically as strong as the control sp ecimens 1 3 8 .

M od u l us of el ast icity how ev er w as red u ced by as mu ch as , ,

'

2 0 p ercent A t end ency f or th is redu ction to cont inu e at a

. .

p rogressiv el y s l ow er rat e w ith increased nu mb er of rep etit ions

w as ind icat ed .

Rel at iv el y f ew stu d ies hav e b een m ad e of the f atig u e char

.

a cteristics of w ood but av ail abl e d at a ind icat e t hat the endurance
,

l imit the m ax imu m stress t hat can be imp os ed an infi nit e num b er
,

of t im es w ith ou t f ail ure of b eam s su bj ect ed to rev ersed l oad ,

ing in w h ich the fib ers are alt ernat el y st ressed in t ension and
,

com p ress ion is 2 5 to 3 ,

0 pe c
r en t o f m od u l u s o f r u p t u re 1 39 .

1 4 0 ha e
Recen t t es st a t t h e F o res t P ro d u ct s L a b or a t or y v in ,

g eneral confi rmed the resu lt s of earl ier stu d ies I n t est s of
,
.

y ell ow b i rc h y e ll ow p op l a r,
S itk a sp ru ce a n d D ou gl ,
a s fir ,
.

end urance st rength f or each sp ecies at 5 0 m ill ion cy cl es of

rev ers ed stress w as ap prox im at el y 2 7 p ercent of m od u l u s of

rup t u re W hen l oad ing w as rep eat ed in one d irect ion only
. ,

end urance s t rength at 50 mill ion cy cl es w as ap p rox im at el y 3 6

p erc e n t o f m od u l u s of ru p t u re .

REF ERE N CES

A M ERI CA N S OCI ETY F OR T ES TI N G M ATERI A L S : D efi nitions of t erm s relating

t o t imb er S erial D esig nation D 9 3 0 1 930 B ook of S tandards A nn S oc
.
-

,
.

T est M at P hiladelp hia P t I I

. .
, ,
. .

1 38 W J K omm ers
. .
,
E ff ect o f ten rep e titions o f s tress on the bending and
comp ressive s treng ths of S it ka sp ru ce and D ou g las fir F or
,
. P rod Lab
. .

Rep t 1 320 M adison 1 943

—
. .
, ,

1 3 9 M arkw ardt and W ilson f ootnot e 9 4 59 61

pp , ,
. .

1 40 W J K omm ers The a ti u e beha vior o w ood and

. .
f g f p ly w ood s u bj ected
,

to rep eated and reversed bending s tresses F or P rod Lab Rep t 1 3 2 7, , . . . .

M adis on, 1 9 43 .
 P A R T

W o rk in g S t r es s es

F o r S t ru ct u r a l Lu m b er

I NT R O D U CT I O N

F or conv eniencein d esigning structural timb ers strength v al ues ,

d eriv ed from l ab orat ory test d at a are commonl y adj u st ed t o meet

-

the cond it ions that m ay be imp osed on the m at erial in a ctu al

s erv ice T o be efficient thes e adj u st ed v al u es or w orking
.
, ,

s tres s es as they are know n shou ld p rov id e f or the cl osest p ossibl e

,

ut il iz at ion of w ood comm ensu rat e w ith ab s ol u t e assu rance of

s at is f act ory serv ice an d s af ety W ork ing stres ses are commonl y .

d eriv ed f or fi ber s tres s in bending ( b end ing strength ) horiz ontal ,

s hear comp res sion p aral lel to g rain ( strengt h as a col u m n)

, and ,

comp ress ion p erp endicu lar to g rain f or the m ore im p ort ant

s tru ct ural w ood s I n add it ion v al u es are s et u p f or m odu lu s of

.
,

elas ticity ( stif fness ) althou gh these are actu al av erag e t est
.
,

v al ues a nd not adj ust ed work ing stresses .

I n the p ast t abl es of w ork ing stresses f or w ood f ou nd in

, ,
’
v arious engineers handb ooks and in the b uild ing cod es of m any
cit ies f or the m ost p art w ere f ar f rom ag reem e
,
nt on the v al u es
as sig ned t o any g iv en sp ecies F urther su ch t abl es al m os t w ith
.
,

ou t ex cep t ion p l aced no l im it at ion on the g rad e or qu al ity of

the m a e t ria l f or w hi ch t h e ass ig ned v a l u es w e re int en d ed 1 .

I n an att em p t t o correct t his l ack of s t and ard iz ation and t o

insure s af e and effi cient u t il iz at ion of w ood in const ru ct ion the ,

F orest P rod u cts L ab orat ory a b ranch of the Unit ed S t at es ,

F orest S erv ice recommend ed in 1 9 3 4 a u nif orm b asis f or the

,

es t abl ishm ent of w ork ing st res ses f or grad es conf orm ing t o th e
’

ro v i sio ns o f A m e rican L u m b er S t a n d a rd s
2
U n if orm Stress
p .

1 Recom m ended bu ilding code req uirem ents f or w orking s tresses in

bu ilding m a terials, U S D ep t Com m Bldg Cod e Com Rep t W ash
“

. . . . .
. .
,

ing ton, 1 92 6 .

2 These b asic p rov isions , as p ub lished in rev is ed f orm by the U S -

. .

D ep artm ent Com m erce in Lu m ber, Sim p lifi ed P ractice

of Recom m endation
R I 6 39
-

,
are incorp orated in a later section .

20 6
 FA CT ORS IN D ERI VA T I ON OF BA S IC S T RE S S ES 20 7

grad ing of stru ctural l umb er b ased on t hese p rincip l es has b een
, ,

ad op ted by the l u m b er ind u st ry and althou gh u nf ort unat el y not

, ,

y et incorp orat ed in al l b u ild ing cod es st and ard iz ed w ork ing ,

st res ses f or al l est abl is hed s tress g ra des of l um b er are now av ail

abl e t o th e d es ig ner .

A lthou gh w ork ing stresses are int end ed f or d irect app l icat ion
to l um b er of t he g rad es and d im ensions comm onl y emp l oy ed in
the constru ction of b u il ding s b ridg es and S imil ar stru ctures
, , ,

m any Of the p rincip l es inv olv ed in their d eriv at ion are ap p l icabl e
to nu merous other u ses in w hich w ood is su bj ect ed t o stres s .

F A CT O R S CON CERN ED I N T HE D ER IVA T I O N OF B A S I C

S T RE S S E S

W ork ing stresses are not d eriv ed d irectl y f rom lab orat ory t est -

v alu es but rather are b ased on the d et erminat ion of int ermed iat e
basic stres s v al u es f or d ef ect f ree w ood
-
V al u es f or b asic stress
-
.

are in ef f ect w ork ing stres ses f or cl ear s traight g rained l u m b er

, , ,
-
.

They hav e b een d eriv ed f rom av erag e v al u es f or the fund a

m ent al st rength p rop erties oi each k ind of w ood as d et ermined ,

from hund red s of thou sand s of t est s cond u ct ed at the F orest

P rod u ct s L ab orat ory and m od ifi ed accord ing t o the charac
,

teristics of t he v ariou s sp ecies concerned as rev eal ed by t he ,

p erf orm ance of s tru ctu ral t imb ers I n the d eriv at ion of b asic
.

stress v al u es co nsid eration h as b een giv en to ( 1 ) v ariab il ity in

,

the strength of the cl ear w ood ( 2 ) d urat ion of l oad and ( 3 ) the
, ,

p ossib il ity of a ccid ent al ov erl oad Onl y the red u ct ion intro
.

“
du ced t o t ak e care of accid ent al ov erl oad ing is a t ru e f act or of
”
sa f ety .

A lthou gh the strength of cl ear w ood p art icu l arl y in comp res ,

sion and b end ing m ay be I ncreased to a m ark ed d eg ree by

,

s eas oning b asic str

,
ess v al u es are f ou nd ed on the strength p rop
-

erties Of u nseas oned w ood S tru ct ural t im b ers are comm onl y
.

p l aced in s erv ice in an u nseasoned or onl y p art iall y s easoned , ,

cond it ion Ev en if su ch m at erial is t horou ghl y seas oned p rior

.

to inst all at ion l oss of m oisture in t imb ers of stru ctu ral siz e is
,

normall y accomp anied by check ing and O ther d ry ing d ef ects ,

w hich t end t o of f set the g ain in strength du e t o l ow ered m oisture

cont ent T est s hav e ind icated that the l ow er g rad es of l arge
.

timb ers and ab ou t 2 5 p ercent of the higher grad es do not increase

in strength on d ry ing al thou gh the av erag e Strength of the
,
208 WORK I N G S T RE SS E S F OR S T RU CT URA L LU M BER

mat erial
'

b ett er q u al ity is raised s l ight l y T he d eriv ation of

of .

b asic s tresses f rom t est s of g reen or unseas oned w ood m ay thus

be seen to rep res ent a m ore or l es s cons erv ativ e practice d ep end ent ,

l arg el y on the ex tent t o w hich d ef ects m ay d ev el op d uring season

ing of the t im b er .

'

3 1 00 -
3 9 00 470 0 550 0 6 30 0 7 1 00 79 0 0 8 700 9 500
Modulus of rupture ( pounds per square inch)
Cop y P rep ared by Fo res t P rodu cts L abora tory

F I G 50
. Variability in m odulu s of rup tu re Of u nseasoned S itka sp ru ce A ll
. .

sp ecim ens w ere cl ear, bu t in sel cting th em no attention w as p aid t o s p ecific

e
g ravity Or p osition in the tree .

Varia t ion in S t r e n g t h of Cl e a r W oo d
S ince b asic stresses f or any k ind of tim b er are d eriv ed from
av erag e strength v al u es as d et ermined f rom l ab orat ory t es t s on
,

sm all sp ecim ens they mu st t ak e int o accou nt the p oss ibl e v aria
,

tl on In strength b el ow that av erag e: I n other w ord s cons id era ,

tion must be g iv en not to the mat erial of av erag e strength but ,

to the w eak est p iece t hat m ay be u sed T his is of v ital im

"
.

p ort ance as it is not u nu su al t o fi nd t est sp ecimens hav ing onl y

-

ab ou t one half t o t hree f ourths the av

- -
erag e v al u es f or the
sp ecies in s om e strength p rop ert ies T he p rob abl e v ariation in
.
x

the strength of u nseasoned cl ear w ood is ind icat ed in the accom

p an y ing f req u ency cu rv e f or m o d u l u s o f ru p t u re of S itk a sp ru ce
( F ig . w hich is al s o rep res ent at iv e of the normal v ariation
210 W ORK I N G S T RES S ES F OR S T RU CT URAL LU M BER

I n clos e g rained D ou gl as fi r and red w ood it is p ossibl e to el iminat e

-

cert ain m at erial of l ow s treng th by app l y ing the s o call ed ring -

coun t or rate of —g row th ru le w hich p rov id es f or m at erial h av ing

-

a rat e of g row th that is u su all y ass ociat ed w it h rel at iv el y hig h

d ensity in thes e sp ecies T he d eriv ed b asic stresses in com

.

p ression and in fib er stress in b end ing f or cl os e grained D ou gl as

-

fi r and red w ood are increased b ecause of t his requirement .

S ou t hern p ine and D ou gl as fi r are b ot h ch aract eriz ed by a

d istinct contrast b etw een the tw o p ortions of the annu al ring ,

and the app rox im at e d ensity of a p iece m ay be read il y d et ermined

from an est im at e of the av erag e p rop ortion of summerw ood .

Cons equ entl y by app l y ing a su it abl e density ru le to these tw o

,

w ood s it is p ossibl e to secu re m at erial of h igh charact er f rom

,

the st and p oint of strength and unif ormity of strength of the, ,

cl ear w ood Th is is d one in grad ing rul es conf orming to

.

A m erican L u m b er S t and ard s and as a resu lt imp rov ed p rop ert ies
'

, ,

f or d ense m at erial are recogniz ed in the b asic stresses f or t hese

tw o Wood s B asic stres ses in com p ression fib er st res s in b end ing
.
, ,

and shear f or d ense s ou thern p ine and D ou gl as fi r are one S ixt h

great er than the v al u es assigned to mat erial not sel ect ed accord ing
to the d ensity ru l e .

D u ra t io n of Lo a d

D uration of s resst has j

an imp ort ant
b earing on the l oad that
a g iv en t imb er w ill su pp ort T ests hav e d emonstrat ed that the
.

l oad required to b reak b eams in l ong tim e l oad ing is ab out tw o -

third s of t hat requ ired to b reak them und er ord inary st at ic l oad
ing in the l ab orat ory W hen the d uration of stress is short ened
.

st ill fu rther as in imp act l oad ing the l oad requ ired to b reak
—
, ,

a imt b er is inc rea s ed ov er t ha t ob s erv ed in s t at ic b end ing t est s .

T he rel at ion b etw een u lt im at e b end ing st rength and d uration of

l oad is illu strat ed f or S itk a sp ru ce in the accomp any ing d iagram
i I th v t he v al u e d eriv ed f rom the st and ard
( g
F . n e cu r e

st at ic b end ing t est w hich req u ires on the av erag e ab ou t 5 m in

-

ut es is t ak en as 1 00 p ercent
,
F ew d at a are av ail abl e f or p eriod s
.

of t im e mu ch l es s t han 1 second A l og arithmic scal e is u sed f or

.

the t im e coord inate .

T he v al u es f or b asic stress are f or the m ost critical d urat ion of

“

st ress nam el y l ong tim e l oa ding and are S O red uced as to insure
-

,
,
 DURA T I ON OF L OA D 21 1

t hat stres s w ill be k ep t w ithin the p rop ortional l imit I n d eriv ing .

these v al u es f or the sev eral strength p rop erties consid eration is ,

g iv en to the f act that the ef f ect Of increased d urat ion Of stress on

s trength is d irectl y rel at ed t o the d if f erence b etw een p rop ort iona l

l imit and u ltimate strength T his d if f erence how ev er is not

.
, ,

necess aril y the s am e f or stru ctural t imb ers as f or small cl ear

s p ecimens 5 W hereas f ormerly l ess red u ction w as m ad e in l ab
.

m
i

0
3

Duration of stress

Fo res t Produ cts L abora tory D a ta

F IG . 51 . Variation in u l tim ate bending streng th w ith du ration of stress .

D uration of s tress is defined here as the total time betw een ap p lication of

initial l oad and at tainm ent of u l timat e loa d or failure .

ora ory t t est v alu es in p rov id ing f or the eff ect of l ong t im e l oad ing
- -

in comp ression p arall el to g rain than in fib er stress in b end ing

“
-

s ince the p roport ional l im it w as sup p os edl y cl os er t o u lt im at e

s trength in t he f or m er p rop erty , recent d urat ion of l oad t est s at

the F orest P rod u ct s L ab orat ory ind icat e that the l ong t im e l oad -

l im it f or stru ctural t im b er is app roxim at el y tw o third s of the

u ltim at e l oad in st atic t esting in b oth p rop erties .

5R ecommendations f or basic s tresses, F or P rod L ab Rep t R 1 7 1 5 , S up . . . .

l m 2 U S D t A M i P ib l 1 8 5 M di n 1 9 48
’

p e ent t o : ep g r. s c 1 . .
,
a s o ,. . .
212 WORK IN G S T RESS ES F OR S T RU CT U RA L LU M BER

A ccid e n t a l O ve rl o a d in g

A lthou g h theload s to w hich a s tru cture is su bj ected s hou ld not

int entionall y ex ceed the d es ig n l oad s om e p rovis ion mu s t nev er ,

theles s be m ad e f or sm all a ccid enta l ov erl oad s I n d eriv ing b asic .

s tress es f or cl ear w ood a red u ct ion of tw o fi ft hs in the v al u e f or

fi b er stres s in b end ing has b een p rovid ed f or accid ent al ov erl oad
ing , and in comp ression p arall el to g rain the corresp ond ing redu c
tion amount s t o ab ou t one third N O sp ecifi c red u ction f or ov er .

l oad ing is p rovid ed in comp ression p erp end icu l ar t o g rain or in

sh ear alt hou g h this f act or is u nd ou bt edl y incl u d ed in the l arg e
,

ov er all red uct ion p rov id ed in the cas e of s hearing s tress

-
.

B A S I C S T RE S S
-
VA LUE S F O R CLEA R W O OD
B asic t
s ress es d if f erent sp ecies or
f or l
c ear mat erial of 38
cat eg ories of l u m b er are s how n in T abl e 1 5 T he v al u es show n .

in the t abl e rep res ent an increase in cert ain t yp es Of stress ov er

those u sed p rior to World W ar I I bu t are not S O high as thos e
st ip u l at ed in Gov ernm ent al w artime cons erv at ion regu l at ions and

su b s eq u entl y recom m end ed as st and ard p ract ice by the l u m b er

manu f acturers ass ociat ions

’ 6 W ith s ome m od ifi cation to be .

d is cu ssed l at er current w ork ing stress recommend at ions of the

,
-

N ational Lu m b er M anu f acturers A ssociat ion conf orm toj g hese

b asic s tress v alu es 7
-
.

The ef fect of the sev eral f act ors that infl uence the d et ermina
tion of b asic stresses is by no means the s ame f or all strength
p rop erties I n the f oll ow ing p aragrap hs the rel ation of thes e
.

comp onent s to the t ot al red u ct ion f act or, u s ed in d eriv ing b asic

s tress es f rom l ab orat ory t est v al u es is b riefl y cons id ered f or each

-

of the p rop ert ies l ist ed in T abl e 1 5 namel y :extrem e fib er stress in ,

b end ing , comp ression p erp end icu l ar to grain comp ression p arall el ,

to grain h oriz ont al S hear and m od u l us of el ast icity

,
I t shou ld
,
.

be b orne in m ind throu ghou t the ensu ing d is cu ssion how ev er , ,

that the recomm end ed b asic stresses are qu it e cl osel y rel ated to
6 N a tional em erg ency sp eci cations fi f or the desig n, f abrication, and
erection o f s tress -

g rade lu m ber and itsf as tening s f or building s, W ar P rod .

B oard Cons D iv ision D irectiv e

,
.
,
t on, A u g
,
9 1 943 N o 2 9 W ashing
. .
,
.

A lso N a tional desig n sp ecifica tion f or s tress g rade lu m ber and its f as ten
‘

ing s, N at Lbr M f rs A ssn , W ashing ton 1 944

. . . .
,
.

7 N a tional desi n s eci ca tion or s tress g rade lu m ber and its f as tening s,
g p fi f -

rev .
,
N at Lbr M f rs A ssn
. . . .
, W ashing ton, 1 9 48 .
51 4 BA S I C ST RE SS
-
VA LUES F OR CL EA R WOOD

w
.

0 w
a
2 fi o o o o o o o o o o o o s
v o c c o
5 c o
m
o o o o o o 8 o 8 o o o o
m m w m m w
o o o o
o o a i m m m o
:2 m
3 o
S
6
3
m fi a fi fi fi fi fi . H fi H

2 E

o o o o o o o o o c o o o
o m m m m o m m m m m m o
o o o o o m w o m o
H fi fl h
fi fl H H

o o o
o m o
fi a

a
m
o
a
o
o
a
o
m
S
S E
E ? o 9
w
E 5 z 3
a
w 8 o m
a o
s M m o w
s
g
o o
B 5
c a
o d
m o
o o 0 fi s
3
w h fi $
a
w _ o w
h
s
a
s m
s
o é
m
2
S o
g o 5 5 B o B 8
5
E
c o 0 o w
a s p g 9 fi 6
m w E8 a o
5 3 q

—
w M w o x
2
.
s s fi
J a

? w E 8 s o o w 9 5 h o o o
o
b 6
o
3 w
m s o e
.
” 8 8 . o o
o o
.
6
fi
n
2
8
a
o H
e o
. ” fi

s a
k k 0

S m o
0
Q £ 5 a w w
a 9
u
D
2 2 fi o v
fi n 3 1 5 s a E a
m
md E m m m m mfi m m
c m o o o s
a g
a
m ? 5 m r
m
r r
fi g
 E XT RE M E F I BE R S T RE S S I N B E N D I N G 215

e xp erience and j u dgm ent in the u se of t imb er f or many y ears ;

cons eq u entl y the red u ct ion f act or by w hich the b as ic stres s m a
, y
be cal cu l at ed from l ab orat ory t est v al u es is O ft en consid erabl y -

m od ifi ed on the b asis of t his ex p erience and j u dg ment I nsof ar .

as p ossibl e the sy st em at ic p roced u re f or the est abl ishm ent of

,

b asic stress va lu es is show n by ty p ical ex am p l es

-
.

Ex t rem e F ib e r S t re s s in B e n d in g

B asic v al u es f or extreme fi b er in b end ing are d eriv ed

-
t
s ress

from av erag e v al ues f or modu l us of rup ture as Obt ained f rom

l ab orat ory t ests in st atic b end ing on s mall cl ear unseasoned
sp ecime s n 8 T hese t est v alues are adj usted in consid eration of
.

the th ree f act ors p rev iou sl y d iscuss ed : v ariat ion in the strength
of cl ear w ood l ong time l oad ing and accid ent al ov erl oad ing
,
-

, .

T he v al u es f or ind iv id u al sp ecies p resent ed in T abl e 1 5 hav e not

b een d et ermined s trictl y by the sy st ematic app l ication of a p recise
f ormu l a but h av e b een est abl ish ed w ith add itional consid eration
Of the stru ctural p erf orm ance record of the p articu l ar sp ecies .

I n general h ow ev er the ov er all redu ction incl u d es a l ow ering

, ,
-

of the l ab orat ory t est v al u e f or m od u l u s of ru p t ure by one f ou rth

-

f or variab il ity one th ird f or l ong t im e l oad ing and tw o fi fth s f or

,
-

accid ent al ov erl oad ing I n d eriv ing the b asic stress f or coast
.

D ou gl as fi r f or ex amp l e the av er ,
ag e mod u l u s of rup tu re f or ,

sm all cl ear un seasoned sp ecimens t est ed in st at ic b end ing

‘

.
, ,

( 7 6 00 p ound s p er squ are inch ) is reduced as f oll ows :

76 00 X X 22 80 p ound s p er s qu are inch
A s ind icat ed in T abl e 1 5, th is v al ue has b een adj u sted to 22 00

B oth p rop ortional lim it ( fiber stress at p rop ortional lim it ) and u ltim at e
“
8

streng th ( m odu lu s Of ru p tu re ) have b een considered , but t he latt er is t ak en

as t he m ore dep endable b asis f or the det erm ination of basic stress T he .

f oll owing sp ecifi c reasons are g iv en f or this choice : T here is a p er

sonal elem ent in det ermining the p rop ortional lim it , ( 2 ) slig ht inaccu racies
“

in m easu rem ents of defl ect ions oft en cause considerable error in p rop or
tional limit v alues, ( 3 ) def ects in stru ctu ral timb ers m ay be such that ,

in t esting , certain p ortions are stressed t o or b ey ond the p rop ortional limit
w ith ou t dis cov ery , and ( 4) there is an elem ent of saf ety in the dif f erential
of b etw een the p rop ortional lim it and m odu lu s of rup ture
streng th
v alu es
”
.
—
J A N ew lin and T R C W ils on M echanical P rop erties of woods
. . . . .
,

g rown in the United S ta tes, U S D ep t A g r Bu l 5 56 , W ashing ton, 1 9 1 7, . . . . .

p. 13 .
216 WORKI N G S T RESS E S F OR S T RU CT URAL LU M BER
“

p ou nd s p er s qu are inch, on the b asis of stru ctUral e xp erience w ith

this sp ecies
S ince t typ e D oug l as fi r and red w ood grad es in
cer ain coas
t -

ol u d e a p rov ision f or cl os e g raine d w ood el im inat ing s ome of the

w eak es t rap id grow th m at erial b asic—

-

stres s v al u es f or su ch m at e ,

rial hav e b een increas ed by Thus cl os e grained coast -

D ou gl as fi r h as a b asic stres s v al u e f or extrem e fib er in b end ing

-

of 2 350 p ou nd s p er s q u are inch I n recognit ion of the still great er .

st rength p rov id ed w h en sel ect ion f or d ensity is sp ecifi ed v al u es

,

f or d ense s ou th ern y ell ow p ine and D ou gl as fi r ( coast and Rocky

M ount ain typ es ) are increased by and f or b oth of these im ,

p ort ant stru ctural t imb ers a b asic stress v al u e of 2 550 p ound s
“

p er s q u are inch ( 220 0 has b een est abl ished .

I n g eneral the w eak est accep t abl e sp ecim en of cl ear wood

-

, ,

s el ect ed onl y by the ex cl u sion of ex cep t ionall y l ightw eight m at e

rial w ill hav e an actu al f act or of Saf ety or p rov ision f or acci
,
-

d ent al ov erl oad of app rox imat ely ,

the av erag e S p ecim en a
f actor of s af ety f or l ong time l oad ing of ab out 2 14 and f or a f ew
-

minut es ( if a 5 minu t e d u rat ion of stress is assumed as in st at ic

-

b end ing ) a f act or of saf ety of app rox imat ely 3 143 Th ese b asic
,
.

st ress v al u es f or extrem e fib er in b end ing ( T abl e 1 5 ) rep res ent a

1 0 p ercent increase ov er t hose f orm erl y recommend ed by the

F orest Prod uct s L ab orat ory .

Co m p r es sio n P erp en d icu l a r t o th e Gr a in

-

B asic t
s resses in com p ression grain are p erp end icu l ar to the
d eriv ed from av erag e l ab orat ory t est v alues f or fi b er stress at -

p rop ort ional l imit w h ich are ind icat iv e of the g reat est stress that
,

can be ap p l ied w ith ou t inj u ry t o the w ood I t is p ract ically im .

p oss ibl e t o d et er m ine m ax im u m s t reng th in th is r esp ec t e ith er ,

in t est or in serv ice Red u ction f act ors ranging from ab out
.

t o 2 hav e b een app l ied to l ab orat ory v al u es f or stress at p rop or

tional l imit in the est abl ishm ent of the b asic stress v alu es shown -

in T abl e 1 5 Coast D ou gl as fi r f or ex amp l e w ith a l ab orat ory

.
, ,

d et ermined fi ber stress v al u e of 5 1 0 p ound s p er s qu are inch in the

-

u nseasoned cond ition has an assig ned b asic stress v al u e of 3 2 0

,
-
.

p ou n d s p er s q u are inch in v olv ing a t ot al red uc,

t ion f act or of
ab ou t This red u ction all ow s chiefl y f or p ossibl e v ariat ion
in the strength of cl ear w ood T he negl ect of oth er f act ors is . .
 W ORK I N G ST RES SES F OR S T RU CT URA L LUM BER
'

218

s ou y ell ow p ine by
thern In
T abl e 1 5 the b asic stress in
comp res sion p arall el to the grain f or cl ose grained D ou gl as fi r is -

show n as 1 55 0 p ou nd s p er sq u are inch ( 1 45 0 X and f or

d ense D ou gl as fi r as 1 700 p ound s p er sq u are inch ( 1 45 0

T he b asic s tresses show n f or comp ression p arall el to grain
rep rese nt no chang e as a resu lt Of a recent re ex aminat ion of -

ava il abl e d at a at the F ores t P rod u ct s L ab orat ory .

M a xim u m Horiz on t al S h e a r
B asic t
s resses f or m ax imum
h oriz ont al sh ear in b eams ,

string ers , j oists , and p l ank s are d eriv ed f rom v al u es f or shearing

s trength p arall el t o the g rain as d et ermined in t est s of sm all cl ear

,

sp ecim ens in the u ns easoned cond it ion A rel at iv el y h igh redu c

.

tion f act or ap prox imat ely 6 to 8 is u sed in adj u sting t est v al u es

A m
, ,

to the b asic stress v al u es g iv en in T abl e 1 5

-
aj or p art of .

t his red u ction is introd u ced as a s tres s concentrat ion f act or -

.

Horiz ont al shear v al ues f or D ou gl as fi r f or ex am p l e inv olv e an

-

, ,

ov er all red u ct ion of or app r xim ately 7 No increase

p
-

is all ow ed f or cl ose g rained w ood in red w ood and D ou gl as fi r

-

w here su ch m at erial is s eg reg at ed by g rad e althou gh the u su al ,

increas e of is ap p l ied f or d ens e D ou gl as fi r and sou thern y ell ow

p ine . A b asic stress v al u e of 1 5 0 p ound s p er s qu are inch ( 1 3 0 X
has b een est abl ished f or d ense D ou gl as fi r on this b as is .

T he l arg e red u ction f act or inv olv ed in the est abl ishm ent of
b asic v al u es f or horiz ont al sh ear is necess it at ed by the emp irical
'

natu re of the bl ock S h ear t est u sed in the d et erminat ion of

-

l ab orat ory shear v al u es W hen b eams f ail in horiz ont al sh ear

.
,

the cal cu l at ed sh earing s tresses are inv ariabl y l ess than the v al u es
ind icat ed by the st and ard l ab orat ory bl ock S hear t est Thu s -
.
,

in the est abl ishm ent Of b asic stress v al u es the comp arat iv e
-

v al u es d et ermined in l ab orat ory t esting of sm all bl ock s hav e b een

consid erabl y m od ifi ed on the b as is of ex p erience g ained in the

t esting of t imb ers of stru ctural S iz e V al u es show n f or hori

.

z ontal shear incl u d e a 1 0 p ercent increase ov er t hose f orm erl y

recomm end ed by t he F ores t P rod uct s L ab orat ory .

M od u l u s of El a s t icit y

V al u es f or m od u l u s of l
e as ticity g iv en in T abl e 1 5 are not
d
re u ce d v al ues com p ara bl e to other b asic stress v al u es
-

Th ey .
 E FF E CT OF DURA TI ON OF L OA D ON S T RE SS VA LUE S 219

are m erel y the v g m od u l u s of el asticity v al u es d etermined

a era e

in s t atic b end ing t ests of sm all cl ear u nseasoned sp ecimens

-

F or .

d esign p urp oses m od u lu s of el asticity v al u es h av e b een round ed

,

off to the neares t p ound s p er s qu are inch T he actu al .

av erag e t est v al ue f or coast D ou gl as fi r f or ex amp l e is , ,

p ound s p er s q u are inch ( T abl e and t his v al u e has b een

round ed Off to p ou nd s p er s q u are inch in T abl e 1 5 No .

increase is all ow ed f or cl os e grained or d ense m at erial

-
.

Duration of maximum load

v P
Cu r e rep ared by Fo
res t P rodu cts L aboratory

F IG 52. . Relation Of basic s tress to duration of m axI m u m l oad .

Ef f e ct of D u rat ion of Lo a d on B a s ic S t re s s Val u es

-

T he b asic -
t
s ress v al ues giv en in T abl e 1 5
d irectly app l icabl e are

to l oad s of l ong duration I n m any inst ances stres s v al ues

‘

ad ap t ed t o short er p eriod s of l oad ing are d esired I n the m aj or .

ity of b u ild ing stru ctu res f or ex amp l e m ax imum d es ig n l oad s are
, ,

ef f ect iv e f or rel at iv el y sh ort p eriod s T he ab il ity of w ood to .

ab s or b ap p reciabl y greater l oad s f or sh orter p eriod s of time is

ill u st rat ed in F ig Current w ork ing stress recomm enda
.
-

10 “
P rocedu re f or d eterm ining missible du rations f or less than m axi
p er
- -

mu m loads may be illu strated by the f ollow ing exam p le : S up p ose 7 day s
‘

cu m u lativ e du ration is assu m ed f or s om e inf req u ently rep eated liv e load

at m axim u m d esig n lev el ; th e s tress ch os en f or this condition is ab ou t 1 3 5

p ercent of the safe stress f or p erm anent l oad ing L oading at 1 5 p ercent .

below the m ax im u m d esig n lev el w ou ld resu lt in a stress 1 1 5 p ercent of

that f or p erm anent loading ( 85 p ercent of 1 35 is T hat s tress w ou ld b e
2 20 W OR KI N G S T RESS ES F OR S T RU CT URA L LU M BER

tions of the N ational Lum b er M anu f acturers A ss ociat ion1 t ak e

1

a dv ant ag e of the increased b asic stres s v al u es

-
ass ociat ed w ith

nor mal .
l oading conditions .

T HE B A S I S F OR S T R U CT UR AL LUM BER G RA D E S

T hep urp os e t l grad es of l umb er is t o p rov id e m at e

of s ruc ura
t
rial Of u niform strength t o w hich app rop riat e w ork ing stresses .

may b e assig ned f or a p art icu l ar typ e of u se in constru ction A t .

one t im e eng ineering handb ook s cont ained a singl e w ork ing —
, s t ress

v al ue f or each species in comm on stru ctural u s e and no ind ica ,

tion of qu al ity w as g iv en P rior to 1 9 2 9 pu bl ished g rad ing ru l es

.
,

f or stru ctu ral m at erial w ith assig ned w ork ing stress v alu es h ad -

b een issu ed f or onl y a f ew sp ecies W ithou t an ord erl y b asis f or .

cl ass ify ing stru ct u ral l um b er and ev al u at ing its strengt h charac

t eristics the us er ran the risk of p oor constru ct ion by arb itraril y
,

assig ning ex cess iv el y hi h w ork ing st res ses or p os sibl y u t il iz ed

u nneces s aril y l arg e siz es y a c cep t ing ov erl y conser v at iv e w o rk

ing stress v al u es
-
.

T he most imp ort ant f act ors th at infl u ence the strength of
st ru ctural mat erial are th e siz e num b er and l ocat ion of d ef ect s , ,

and t o som e ext ent the d ensity of the w ood and its m oistu re
, ,

cont ent d uring us e These f act ors mu st be consid ered in d esign

.

or grad ing if m ax imu m efliciency in u til iz at ion is t o be obt ained .

Stru ctural grad es cont rol d ef ect s by l imiting th eir siz e ext ent , ,

and l ocat ion in accord ance w ith t heir ef f ect u p on strength .

A m ong the earl iest g rad ing ru l es th at recog niz ed the essent ial
in ci l es of s t ru ct u ral l u m b er grad ing W ere thos e p u bl ished by
p r p
the U S F orest S erv ice in
. . Und er these ru l es a b eam w as
d iv id ed int o three z ones : ( 1 ) the cent er p ortion of its l ength
incl u d ing the s u rf ace st ressed in t ension ( 2 ) the z one st res sed in
:

comp res sion at th e op p osit e f ace of th e cent er p ort ion of the

Saf e f Or mu l at iv e p eriod of ab out 1 y ear I n lik e m anner l oading at

'
'

a cu .
,

25 p ercent b el ow m aximu m desig n l ev el w ou ld result in a w orking stress

abou t eq u al t o t hat f or p erm anent l oading ns ofar
and cou ld b e neg l ect ed i ,

as cu m u l ativ e du ration is concerned

”
R ecommendations f or basic s tresses . ,

f ootnote 5 .

11 N ational desig n sp ecification f or s tress g -

ra de lu m ber and its f as tening s,

rev .
,
f ootnot e 7 .

12 M cG Cline . and A . L Heim

.
,
Tes ts f
o s tru ctu ral tim bers, U . S . D ep t .

Ag r . F or S erv B u l 1 0 8
. . .
,
W ashing t on, 1 9 1 2 .
2 22 WORKI NG S T RES S E S F OR S T RU CT URAL LU M BER
“

of the m at erial w hen l oa d ed on the narrow f ace as a j oist Or on

the w id e f ace as a p l ank S u ch l um b er m ay theref ore be u sed
.

on edg e as j oist s or raft ers or fl at as s caf f old

p l ank or f act o ry
.

fl ooring S tru ctural l umb er of these siz es is al so su bj ect ed to

.

d irect stress in tension or comp ression w hen emp l oy ed as chord

and Web m em b ers of t im b er t ru sses .

B eams and s tring ers Lum b er of rect angu l ar cros s section

.
.

5 inches or m ore in thick ness and 8 inches or m ore in w idt h ,

grad ed w ith resp ect to s trength in b end ing w hen l oad ed on the
narrow f ace S u ch m at erial is emp l oy ed a
. s b eams g ird ers and , ,

s tring ers M at erial to be u sed as cap s and b ridg e t ies w here

.
,

b end ing strength is a f act or sh ou ld be sp ecifi ed in b eam and ,

d imensions more commonl y con

.

stringer g rad es althou g h of

sidered as t imb ers I n ap p l y ing the k not prov isions Of b eam and
. ,

s t ring er grad es t o such m at erial the l imit at ions p l aced on narrow ,

f aces are ap p l icabl e to h oriz ont al f aces ( if Vertical l oad ing is

assum ed )
'

and th os e s t at ed f or w id e f aces ap pl y t o the v ertical

,

f aces of cap s or b ridg e ties .

P os ts and tim bers Lum b er of sq u are or ap p rox im at el y s qu are

.

cross s ect ion 5 by 5 inches or l arg er 1 6 grad ed p rim aril y f or

, .
,

u s e as p os t s or col umns su p p ort ing a long itu d inal l oad Su ch .

l umb er is al so ad ap ted to u se as sill s and oth er miscell aneous

u
p p r ose s f or w hic h b en d ing s t re ngth is not e s p eci all y imp ort an t .

S t a n d a rd D im en s io n s
.

F or j oist s and p l ank s the thickness aft er surf acing 1 s l im it ed to

inch l ess t han the nom inal d imens ion A inch l imit b el ow .
-

nominal d im ension is al s o p l aced on w idth s u p t o 7 inches F or . .

w idths of 8 inches or m ore the su rf aced w idth m ay be inch

,

l ess than nominal Thu s a surf aced 4 by 1 0 inch j oist actu ally
.
- - -

m easu res 3 % by inches .

A ft er su rf acing the d im ensions of b eams and st ring ers may be

,

inch l ess than nominal In th ick ness and w idth .

St and ard surf aced p ost s and t imb ers in siz es l ess tha n 6 by 6

inches m ay be inch u nd ersiz e I n each d im ension and in S iz es , ,

6 by 6 inches or great er inch l ess than nom inal siz e in each

,

d im ension .

16 The m inim um s iz e of p osts and t im b ers is defi ned as 4 by 4 inches in

Guide t o the g rad ing f
o s tru ctural tim bers, ootnot e 1 3 f .
 K N OT S 22 3

17
B as ic P ro vis ion s f o r Gra d in g R u l e s f o r S t ru ct u ra l Lu m b er

The p rincip al l imit ed in s tru ctural g rad es are

d ef ects w hich are

k nots Sl op e of g rain shak es and checks Consid eration is al s o

, , , .

g iv en to the ex clusion of d ecay and of ex cep tionall y low d ensity

“

w eak w ood Sp ecifi c ru l es are st at ed f or the est im ation of d ensity

.

in s out hern y ell ow p ine and D ou gl as fi r .

WEI GH T
N o p ieces of p erm itt ed in
‘

x
e cep tionall y l ig ht w eig ht are any

grad e .

S OU N D WOOD
S tru ctural g rad es of l umb er cont ain onl y sou nd w ood free from ,

any f orm of d ecay incip ient or adv anced ex cep t th at p eck is

, ,

p erm itt ed t o t he s am e ext ent as hol es

1 8
. .

D E F I N I T I ON S OF F A CE S A ND EDGE S
T hef aces of a p iece of d imension or of a timb er are the f ou r
l ong itu d inal surf aces of the p iece sometimes f urther d esignat ed ,
” “
as w id e f aces or narrow f aces
I n a p iece of l um b er g rad ed f or u se in b end ing w id e f aces are ,

tak en as v ertical f aces and narrow f aces as h oriz ont al f aces

'

, ,

unl ess otherw ise not ed .

The edg es O f a p iece of l um b er are und erst ood to be the nar

.

row er f aces and the sid es the w id er f aces

,
I n d es crib ing the .

l ocation of k nots and other d ef ect s in stru ctural mat erial how ,

ev er the edg es oi a g iv en f ace are und erst ood to be the intersec

,

tion of tw o adj acent f aces .

K N OTS
T he infl u ence knot is d et ermined by its siz e l ocation and
of a , ,

the typ e of stress t o w hich the zone in w hich it occurs m ay be

su bj ect ed K not l imit at ions and their m ethod of m easurem ent
.

17 Lu m ber, S im p lifi ed P ractice Recomm endation R I6 39 , -

f ootnote 14 .

18 This stat em ent ex clu ding decay is ap p l icable to g rades of s tru ctu ral

lu mb er w hose 5 0 p ercent that Of clear w ood

s treng th ex ceeds I n recom .

m ending p rovisions f or the g rad ing of stru ctural dim ension ( j oist and p lank )
in g rades hav ing l ess than 5 0 p ercent of the streng th of cl ear m ateria l , p ieces
cont aining a lim it ed am ou nt of decay are accep table . F or. P rod L ab . .

Rep t R I 2 25 , M adison, 1 940 ,

.
_
S u p p lem ent 1 t o U S
-

. . D ep t A g r M isc
. . .

P ubl 1 85 . .
22 4 WORK IN G ST RE S SES F OR ST R U CT URAL LU M BER

Measured between
lines parallel

Measured as
averag e of
maximum and
minimum diameters

A Knots
. on narrow
f ace only or on
wide f ace only

Measured at both
Not me
asured ends between lines
parall el to edg e

maximum and
minimum d iameters

B Knots appearing
.

on both narrow
and wide f aces

F IG 53
. . M easurement of knots in j oist and pl ank .
22 6 WORK I N G S T RES SES F OR S T RUCT URA L LU M BER

b ottom edg es and the l imit ation of knots in these l ocations to a

,

siz e s m all er t han t hat p erm itt ed al ong the cent er l ine is est ab

lish ed on this b asis T he red u ction in strength du e t o a knot

.

near the edg e of a w id e f ace is app rox im at el y equiv al ent t o

red ucing the d ep th of the j oist by an am ount eq u al t o the s iz e

F I G 54 Relativ e siz e of knots p ermitted in various p ortions of j oist and

—
-
. .

p lank or beam and string er g rades

-
-

A M aximum siz e on narrow face in

. .

middl e third of leng th B M aximum siz e at edg e of w ide face in middl e third
. .

of l eng th C M axim um siz e at center line Of w ide face ( In beam and

‘

. . .

string er siz es A and B are eq ual ) .

of the k not ( S trength of a j oist is p rop ortional to its net d ep th

.

sq u ared ) F or m ost comm on k not s iz es the red u ction in strength

.
,

is rou ghl y tw ice the rat ioOf siz e of knot to w idt h of f ace .

Consid ering the u s e of the same p iece as a p l ank k not l imit a ,

tions at the edg es of w id e f aces are m ore s ev ere than w ould be

req u ired since theoret icall y the siz e ap p l y ing al ong the cent er
,

l ine Of the w id e f ace w ou ld ap p l y across the entire w idth when

u sed as p l ank I t has b een f ou nd h ow ev er th at u nd er p racti
.
, ,
 KN OT S 2 27

ca ll y d itions of u se knot s al ong the edg es of p l ank s are

all con ,

more obj ectionabl e than k not s al ong the cent er l ine T he s am e .

knot l imit ations are ap p l ied theref ore to m at erial to be u sed

, ,

either as j oist or p l ank and the s am e w ork ing s tres ses ass ig ned
,

f or u se either on edg e or fl at .

The increase in siz e of k not s p ermitt ed on the narrow f aces and

at the edg es O f w id e f aces b ey ond the middl e t hird of the l ength

of the p iece refl ect s the red uced s tresses in t ens ion and comp res
“

s ion in t hese areas in b ot h j oist s and p l ank s w h en l oad ed in

b end ing b etw een tw o end supp orts

The f requ ency of k not s on any f ace w ithin the m iddl e h al f of
the l eng th of a p iece is l imit ed f or a 1 6 f oot p iece by an ag
,
-

g re g ate siz e 4 1
A? times that of the l arg est k not p ermitted on t hat
f ace.

W h en used as memb ers in d irect stress as in t imb er trusses,

knot l imitations s p ecifi ed f or the m iddl e one third or one hal f - -

l ength sh ou l d be app l ied throu gh out the entire l ength of the

iece 1 9
p .

B eams and S tring ers . On a f ace the siz e Of a k not is

narrow
measured ( as and p l ank s ) b etw een l ines encl osing the
in j oist s
k not and p arall el to the edg es O f the p iece W hen the s am e k not .

app ears on b oth a narrow f ace and t he adj acent one f ourth of

a w id e f ace it is measu red on the w id e f ace onl y and its siz e

, ,

is ex p ressed as its sm all es t d iamet er ( F ig T he siz e of a

knot on a wid e f ace is its sm
.

all est d iamet er

ts of knots crossing corners of sid e—

.

M easuremen cu t p ieces and

of sp ik e knot s ext ending ent irel y across f aces are id ent ical w ith
those st at ed und er j oists and p l ank s ( F ig .

S iz es of k not s p erm itt ed b ey ond the middl e third of the l ength

and b etw een the edg e and cent er l ine of a w id e f ace at any

cross sect ion are increased as st at ed und er j oist s and p l ank s

“

( F ig 5 4)
.

I n st ru ctural l umb er of b eam and string er d im ensions the p ro ,

or t io n o f the cross s ect io n in fl u enc ed by a k no t of g iv en dim en

p
sions is not so g reat as in the case of j oist and p l ank M inimum .

1 9 I n recomm endin
g p rov isions f or stru ctural dim ension ( j oist and pl ank )
in g rades hav ing less than 5 0 p ercent of t he streng th of clear material , knots
and s l op e of g rain are lim it ed t o the s am e v alu e throu g hou t their l eng th
'

in Order that m at erial cu t t o shorter leng ths after g rading may not be
l ow ered in g rade S upp lem ent 1 t o U S D ep t A g r M is c P ubl 185 ,
“

. . . . . . .

f ootnote 18 .
228 W OR K I N G S T RES SE S F OR S T R U CT URAL LU M BER
'

d iameter is theref ore u sed in exp ressing the siz e of a knot on a

w id e f ace One of the b est ex amp l es ill u strat ing the j u st ifi cation
.

Measured between
lines parallel

A . Knots on narrow
f ace only or on
wide f ace only

Not measure

Meas ured between Measured at both

lines parallel endsb etween lines
to edg e parallel to edg e

diameter

5 appearing on both
narrow and wide f aces

F I G 55
. . M easurement of kn ots in beams and string ers .

f or t ak ing the small est d iamet er on a v ertical f ace is thesp l itting

Of a b ox ed heart b eam int o tw o p ieces T he l ong sp ik e knots
.

ex p os ed in this w ay w oul d be no more inj uriou s t o the s trength

2 30 W ORK I N G STRESSES F OR S T RU CT URAL LU M BER
“

S L OPE OF GRA I N
S l op e of g rain is m easured o er a suffi cient
v
d ist ance t o assure
d et ermination of the g eneral s l op e d isreg ard ing short l ocal d ev ia
,

tions Of grain I n j oist s and p l an

. k s and b eam s and st ring ers ,

n l im it at ions are p l aced on the mid dl e half of the

s l op e of g rai

l ength of the p iece T hese l imit ations are b ased on the assump
.

Measured as averag e
of maximum and
minimum diameters

F IG . 56 . M easurement of knots in p ests and tim bers .

t ion that the m em b er w ill be l oad ed in b end ing on a singl e sp an .

S u ch l imit at ions shou ld be app l ied t o the middl e tw o t hird s of

l ength w hen u sed ov er d ou bl e sp ans and to the entire l eng th w hen
u sed ov er three or m ore sp ans They shou ld al so be ap p l ied to
.

the entire l ength w hen j oist and p l ank are su bj ected t o d irect
n t ru ss memb ers
s tres s as i
20
.

S H A K ES , CH ECK S , AN D SP LI T S g

Shak es d the area Of a b eam a ct ing in resist ance t o shear

re u ce ,

and the l imit at ions p l a ced on sh ak e are b as ed on this redu ct ion

Check s and sp l it s are l im it ed on th e s am e b asis as sh ak es and no ,

comb inat ion of sh ak es ch eck s and s p l it s is p ermitt ed th at w ou ld

, ,

redu ce s treng th t o a gr eat er ext ent th an w ou l d the all ow abl e siz e

20 S ee f ootnot e 19 .
 S HA KE S, CHECKS , A ND S P L IT S 23 1

of sha e a one
k
l Shak e in u ns easoned mem b ers l oad ed in b end ing
.

is assumed to red uce shearing stres s in d irect p rop ort ion to its
ext ent A g reat er amount Of shak e is p erm itt ed in seasoned
.

mat erial m ad e u p f or by the increased res ist ance of the rem aining
,

cross s ect ion wh en seas oned I n seasoned m at erial s of j oist and

.

p l ank beam and string er g rad es shak e is p ermitt ed in d irect

'

, ,

p p
r o ort ion of increas e f rom on e n inth the w idth of the p iece I n a
-

grad e of the strength of unseasoned cl ear w ood to fi v e ninths the -

w idth of the p iece in a grad e hav ing one h alf the streng th of u n -

seasoned cl ear w ood .

A Shake in joist an
'

. d plank or B S hake in post and timber sizes

.

beam and strin g er sizes

F IG . 57 M easurement of shakes in stru ctural lumber .

S hak es are m easured

d of a p iece I n j oists and
I
on the en s .

p l ank s b eams and string ers only thos e s h ak es occu rring w ithin
, ,

the middl e h al f of the d ep th ( w id e d imension) are consid ered .

T he siz e of a shak e is the d ist ance b etw een l ines encl osing the
shak e and p arall el t o the w id e f aces of the p iece ( F i
.
g .

P ermissibl e siz e is d et erm ined by the w idth of the narrow f ace .

I n p ost s and t im b ers the siz e of a shak e is the d ist ance b etw een
l ines encl osing the shak e and p arall el t o those f aces Of the p iece
that resu lt in the great er m easurement of sh ak e ( F ig .

L imit at ions on check s and sp l its in j oist s and p l ank s and b eams
and string ers ap ply to b oth end s of the p iece bu t onl y w it hin the
‘
,

middl e h al f of its d ep th ( w idth of w id e f ace) and w ithin 3 t imes

its d ep th from the end T he size of check w ithin th is p ort ion
.
2 32 W ORK I NG ST RES SES F OR S T RUCT URA L LU M BER
“

of p iece is its timat ed area ( w idth x l engt h) al ong the

'

a es ,

horiz ont al section show ing m ax imu m check ed area d iv id ed by ,

3 t imes the d ep th of the p iece ( F ig W h en check s on tw o .

ll l f re op p os it e or nearl y s o the sum of t heir s iz es is

“

p ar a e aces a ,

t ak en .

S iz e of check or s pli
t area of check or s p li
t 3W .

Joist and plank beam and string

, zes : Measured
er s i
only in midd le half of depth within 3 W f rom end .

Post and timber s izes :Measured f rom any surf ace

within 3 W f rom end of piece .

F IG . 58 . Measurement of check s and sp lits in stru ctural lumber .

I n p ost s and t imb ers , the siz e of a check w ithin3 tim es

w idth of a p iece f rom either end is its estim at ed area, t ak en al ong .

the l ongitu d inal section show ing m ax imum check ed area, d ivid ed
by 3 t imes the w idth of the p iece .

P I T CH P OCK ET S
.

'

P it ch p ock et s are ord inaril y not def ects in a stru ctural grad e .

N ume rou s p it ch p ock et s , how ev er, ind icat e a g eneral eakness w

or ac l k of b ond ,
and such a p iece h oul d be carefu ll y in
s sp ect ed f or

Sh ak es .
2 34 WORK IN G S TRE S SE S F OR S TR U CTURA L LUM B ER

band s of
growt h ring s w hich ap p ear g enerally d ark er than ad
j a cent norm al w ood 21
T he su mm erw ood m erg es int o th e sp ring
.

w ood ab norm all y w ith a gradu al rath er t han ab ru p t chang e of

col or th at is not norm al in these sp ecies Com p ression w ood .
,

althou gh d ense is l ow in t en il e s trength f or it s d ensity exhib it s s

,

a d ecid ed l ongitu dinal shrink ag e and is und esi r abl e in ev en a ,

sm all p art of th e cross s ection of hig h grad e st ru ctural ti m b ers - -

M ethod s of m easurem ent f or d ensit y are giv en f or the d et er

mination of d en e g rad es Of D ou gl as fi r and s ou th ern y el l ow
s

p ine .

D ens e D oug la s F ir D ou gl as fir of d ens e mat erial av erag es.

on eith er one end or t he other not l ess th an s ix annu al ri

ng s p er
inch and, in ad dition, one thir d or m ore summerw ood m easured -

v
o er a 3 inch p ort ion of a radial line l ocat ed as d es crib ed in the
-

f oll owin g p aragraph The contrast in col or b etw een su mm er

s .

w ood and sp ring w ood mu st be distinct Coars e g rained m at erial .

-

ex cl u d ed by this ru l e is accep t ed as d en e if av erag ing one h alf s -

or m ore su mm erw ood .

T he radial l ine s el ect ed f or d et erminat ion of d ensity is one

rep resent at iv e of the av erag e growt h as view ed on th e cross

eet ion I n b ox ed h eart p ieces th e radial line run: from the

.
- I

p it h t o th e co rn er f ar thest f rom the

p ith Wh en the l east dimcn .

sion is 6 inch es or l es s the 3 i nch p ort ion of the l in e b eg ins at a

,
-

d istance of 1 inch f rom the p ith Wh en the l east dim ension is .

m ore th an 6 inch es th e 3 inch p ort ion of th e line b egins at a

,
-

d ist ance from th e p ith equ al t o one f ourt h the l east dimension -
.

In sid e cut p ieces the cent er Of th e 3 inch radial l ine is at th e

- -

cent er of the end of th e p iece .

If a 3 in ch
-
b t ain ed m easurem ent is m ad e
radia l l ine cannot be o

ov er as m u ch of a 3 inch p ort ion as is av ail abl e -

D ens e S out hern P ine S ou thern p ine of d ense m at erial av er

-
.

ag es on either one end or th e ot her not l es s than six annu al ring s

p er inch and in ad dit ion one third or m ore su mm erw ood m eas
-

, , ,

n the f oll ow in g The izon

’

ured ov er a radial line a s d es crib ed i

‘

trast in col or b etw een summ erw ood and sp ringw ood mu st be
d istin ct Coarse grained m at erial ex cl u d ed by this rul e is ac
.
-

cep t ed as d ense if it av erag es one half or m ore su mm erw ood -

.

T he radial line is s el ect ed t o b e rep resent ativ e of t he grow th

sh ow n on th e cross eetion I n b ox ed h eart p ieces the m easure
)
I
( .
-

21 S ee section on D ef ect s
, p ag e 12 2 .
 S T RE N GT H RA T I OS 235

ment is m ad e v the third f ourth and fi fth inches f rom the

“

o er , ,

p ith l
a on g this
d ial l ine ra .

I n p ieces cont aining the p ith bu t not a 5 inch rad ial l ine w hich ,
-

are l ess than 2 by 8 inches in s ect ion or l ess th an 8 inches in

w idth t hat do not S how ov er 1 6 s qu are inches on the cross s ec

,

tion the insp ection is app l ied to the second inch f rom the p ith
, .

I n l arg er p ieces that do not S how a 5 inch l ine the insp ection -

ap p l ies t o the 3 inch es f arth est f rom the p ith .

I n cases w here t imb ers do not cont ain the p ith and it is im
p ossibl e t o l ocat e it w ith any d egree of accuracy the sam e in ,

sp ection is m ad e ov er 3 inch es on an app rox im at e rad ial l ine

b eginning at the edg e nearest the p ith in m at erial ov er 3 inches

in t hickness and on the second inch nearest the p ith in p ieces 3
,

inches or l ess in thickness

CL OS E GRAI N
S el ect ion f or rat e Of grow th is not s o great an as surance of high
strengt h as s el ect ion f or p ercent ag e of summ erw ood , bu t f or

m any p urp oses l tion f or rate of grow th in D ou gl as fi r and

s e ec

red w ood w ill assu re m at erial of su it abl e typ e .

Cl os e Granted D ou g las F ir
-
D ou gl as fir of cl ose grain av er
.

ag es On eith er one end or the other not l ess t h an 6 nor m ore than

2 0 annu al ring s p er inch m easured ov er a 3 — inch p ortion of a

,

rad ial l ine as d es crib ed p rev iou sl y u nd er the d ensity ru l e

. P ieces .

av erag ing 5 ring s or more t han 2 0 ring s p er inch are accep t ed

'

as cl ose g rained if they cont ain one th ird or more summ erw ood
—
- -
.

Cl os e Gran te d -
R ed w oo d C l ose grained redw ood av erages on
.

either one end or the other not l ess than 1 0 nor m ore th an 3 5

annu al ring s p er inch m easured ov er a 3 inch p ort ion of a rad ial

,
-

l ine as d escrib ed und er the d ensity ru l e f or D ou gl as fi r

,
.

S t ren g th R a t io s

T he streng th t ratio
l l umb er grad e is the p er
of t
a s ru c u ra

cent ag e rat io Of its strengt h t o th at of cl ear w ood I n other .

w ord s it is the ratio ex p ressed as a p ercent ag e of the w ork ing

-

, ,

st res s Of a g rade t o the b asic st ress f or cl ear m at erial of the

-

sp ecies if comp arabl e cond itions of l oad ing are assum ed

,
A .

t i l g d m b h ct iz ed b d iff erent s t rengt h rat ios

p a r
'
cu ar ra e ay e c ara er y
f or diff erent ty p es of stress as f or ex amp l e in the rat ios f or , ,
 w oRK I N G S T RESSE S
'

236 F OR S TR U CT UR A L LUMB ER

stress x trem e fib er in b end ing and m ax imum shearing stress in

in e

gra d es int end ed f or u se as b eams .

Sy st em atic st u d ies of th e inf lu ence of v ariou s d ef ect s on the

s treng th of w ood f u rnish the b asis f or th e st reng th rat ios p re

s ent ed in T abl es 1 6 throu gh 2 1 D ef ect l imit ations in stru ctura l

.

grad es of lumb er t o w h ich sp ecifi c w orking stress v al u es are as -

sig ned h av e b een est abl ished on the b asis of th ese st reng th ratios .

lVh en the l im it ations of a g rad e f or tw o ty p es of d ef ect af f ect ing

-

the sam e typ e of stress do not p rod u ce eq u iv al ent streng th rat ios ,

th e m ore crit ical d ef ect th at is the one corresp ond ing t o the l ow er
, ,

strength rat io d et ermines the w orking stress assigned t o the

,

grad e A lt hou gh s ome Of the t abl es sh ow d ef ect l imit at ions

.

corresp ond ing t o st reng th ratios as l ow as 2 5 p ercent cu rrent ,

t ress grad es of l umb er are ch aract eriz ed in g eneral by st rength , ,

ratios of ap p rox im at el y 50 p ercent or m ore .

L im it a t io n s on D e f e ct s in S t r u ct u r a l Lu m b er Gr a d es

T he l imit at ions p res crib ed f or a stru ctur al l u m b er grad e are

b as ed on its w ork ing stress requ irem ent s and its strength ratio
-
.

T h e S el ect S tru ctural grad e of l ongl eaf p ine b eam s and string ers
serv es t o ill u st rat e the p rincip l e inv olv ed ( T abl e Since
a d ensity ru l e is em p l oy ed in s el ect ing m at erial f or this grad e ,

th e b asic st ress ( T abl e 1 5 ) f or d ens e s ou thern p ine 2 5 50 p ound s ,

p er s qu are inch , is u s ed f or extrem e fi ber in bending In .

the d eriv at ion of orki g st f m al l oa d i i i ”

w n re ss es or on r ng c d t ons
on ,

the b asic stress v al u es app l icabl e t o p erm anent l oad ing are fi rst
-

increased by 1 0 p ercent resul ting in this case in an adj u st ed , ,

b asic stress of 2 8 00 p ound s p er s qu are inch T he w ork ing stres s .

of 2 40 0 p ou nd s p er s qu are inch that h as b een assigned t o this

grad e corresp ond s to a strength rat io of 8 6 p ercent

and is reasonabl y su b st ant iat ed by the ind iv idu al st reng th rat ios

b ased on knot siz e and s l op e of grain .

A w ork ing stress in horiz ontal s hea r of 1 2 0 p ou nd s p er sqil are

‘ ‘

inch has b een assigned t o this grad e I n d eriv ing this v alu e th e
.

b asic stress in horiz ont al shear f or d ens e s outhern p ine g iv en in ,

T abl e 1 5 as 1 90 p ound s p er squ are inch has b een su bj ect ed t o ,

an u p w ard rev ision of 1 0 p ercent f or norm al l oad ing i 1 9 0 X

-

and a streng t h rat io of 5 7 p ercent h as

N a tional des ig n sp ecification f or s tress g rade

-
lu mber and its f as tening s,

rev .
, f ootnot e 7 .
 TA B LE 1 7 P E R C E N T A GE S T RE N GT H RA T I OS F OR EXT RE M E FI B E R “

IN
BE N D I N G F OR VA RI O U S S I Z ES O F K N OT S *
_

Joists and P lanks :Edg e of Wide Face

W idth of Face ,
in .

Knot ,
in
. 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

X -

90 93 95 96 97 97 97 97 97 97 98
X 84 89 92 93 94 95 95 95 96 96 96
X 78 85 89 91 92 93 93 94 94 94 95
X 73 81 86 89 90 91 92 92 93 93 93
X 68 78 83 86 88 89 90 91 91 91 92
63 74 80 84 87 88 88 89 89 90 90
58 71 77 82 85 86 87 87 88 89 89
53 67 75 79 83 84 85 86 86 87 88
49 64 72 77 81 ~
82 83 84 85 86 86
40 60 69 75 79 80 82 83 83 84 85
36 57 67 73 77 79 80 81 82 83 84
32 54 64 71 75 77 78 80 81 81 82
28 51 62 69 74 75 77 78 79 80 81
48 59 67 72 74 75 77 78 79 80
45 57 65 70 72 . 74 75 76 77 -
78
40 55 63 68 70 72 74 75 76 77
37 52 61 67 69 71 72 73 75 76
34 50 59 65 67 69 71 72 73 74
32 48 57 63 66 68 69 71 72 73
29 46 55 62 64 66 68 69 71 72
27 42 53 60 63 65 66 68 69 71
25 40 51 58 61 63 65 67 68 69
38 50 57 60 62 64 65 67 68
36 48 55 58 60 62 64 66 67
34 46 54 57 59 61 63 64 66
32 39 52 55 58 60 62 63 65
30 37 51 54 56 58 60 62 63
28 35 49 52 55 57 59 .
61 62
26 34 48 51 54 56 58 60 61
33 50 52 55 57 58 60
31 45 48 51 53 55 57 59
30 42 47 50 52 54 56 58
28 40 46 51 53 55 57
27 39 43 50 52 54 55
25 37 41 51 53 54
36 40 50 51 53
35 39 50 52
33 37 51
32 36 50
31 35
30 34
29 33
28 32
26 30
25 29
28
27
26
25
The knot siz es S p ecified are those t hat ap p ly t o the m iddle third of t he
leng th, as stated on p ag e 2 2 5 S treng th ratios of 45 p ercent or hig her are
.

based on nominal w idth of f ace ; those b elow 4 5 p ercent on actu al w id th .

S treng th ra tios abov e 50 p ercent from Guide to the g rading of s tru ctu ral
timbers and the determination of w orking stres ses , U S D ep t A g r M is c P ubl
-

. . . . . .

1 85 , and those betw een 2 5 and 5 0 ercent from F or P rod L ab R ep t R1 2 2 5 , . . . .

S up p lement 1 to U S D ep t A g r
. . isc P ub] 1 8 5
. . . . .
 L I M ITA TI ONS F OR S T RU CT U RA L LU M BE R GRA D E S 23 9

T A B LE 1 8 PE R C E N T A GE S T R E N GT H RA TI O S F O R E XT R E M E F I B E R I N
.

BE N D I N G A N D COM P RE S S I ON P A RA LLE L T o GRA I N F OR VA RI O U S S I Z E S

OF KN OT S *

Beams and S tring ers , J ois ts and Planks :Center L ine of Wide F ace .

S treng th R atios f or S tress in E xtreme Fiber in B ending

P osts and T im bers :A ny P oint on A ny Face S treng th R atios f or S tress .

in Com p ression P arallel to Grain

Width of F ace, in .

K not , in . 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

88 91 92 94 95 96 96 97 97 97 97 97
94 82 86 88 91 93 94 94 95 95 95 96 96
1 76 81 84 88 90 92 93 93 93 94 94 94
70 76 80 85 88 90 91 91 92 92 93 93
63 71 76 82 85 88 89 89 90 91 91 91
57 66 71 79 83 86 87 88 88 89 89 90
51 61 67 75 80 84 85 86 87 87 88 88
45 56 63 72 78 82 83 84 85 86 86 87
32 51 59 69 75 79 81 82 83 84 85 85
25 55 66 73 77 79 80 82 82 83 84
51 63 70 75 77 79 80 81 82 83
47 60 68 73 75 77 78 79 80 81
39 57 65 71 73 75 76 78 79 80
34 54 63 69 71 73 75 76 77 78
29 50 60 67 69 71 73 74 76 77
25 47 58 65 67 70 71 73 74 75
41 55 63 66 68 70 71 73 74
37 53 61 64 66 68 70 71 72
34 50 59 62 64 66 68 70 71
31 48 57 60 62 65 66 68 69
27 45 54 58 61 63 65 66 68
40 52 56 59 61 63 65 66
37 50 54 57 59 61 63 65
35 48 52 55 58 60 62 63
32 46 50 53 56 58 60 62
29 42 48 52 54 57 59 60
39 57 59
'

27 46 50 53 55
37 43 51 53 56 57
35 42 52 54 56
33 40 50 53 55
‘

31 38 51 53
29 36 52
26 34 50
32
30
28
26

T he knot S iz es sp ecified ap p ly t o the m iddle third th of beam s , of the l eng

s tring ers , Joists , and p lanks as s t at ed on p ag e 22 5 S treng th ratios of 4 5 . .

p ercent or hig h er are based on nom inal w id th of ace ; th ose below 45 p ercent f
on a ctu al w idth .

f
S treng th ratios abov e 5 0 p ercent rom Gu ide to the g rading of s tru ctu ral
timbers and the determination of w orking s tres s es , S ep t A g r M is c P u b] U D
'

. . . . . .

f
1 8 5 , and those betw een 2 5 and 5 0 p ercent rom F or P rod L ab R ep t R I 2 2 5 , . . . .

S upp lem ent 1 t o S U . . D

ep t A g r M is c P ubl 1 8 5
. .
-

. .
2 40 W ORK I NG S T RE S SES F OR S T RU CT URA L LU M BER

b een u sed This is in g ood agreem ent w ith the shak e and check
.

l im it ations p rovid ed in the gra d e d es crip tion . .

This grad e al s o carries an assigned all ow abl e stress in com

p ression p ara ll el to g rain of 1 750 p ou nd s p er s q u are inch rep re
‘
,

senting a s treng th ratio of 9 4 p ercent w hen comp ared w ith the

rev is ed b as ic stress o f 1 8 70 p ou nds p er s qu are inch ob t ained b

y

T A B LE 1 9 . P E R C E N T A GE S T R E N GT H RA T I O S F OR S T RE S S IN E XT R E ME
FI B E R IN B E N D IN G AN D CO M PRE S S I ON P A R A LLE L To GR A I N F OR

V AR I O US SL P
O ES OF GR A IN *

B eam s and S tring ers , Jois ts and P l anks :E xtrem e F iber in B ending
P osts and T im bers :Com p ression P arall el t o Grain

S l op e of Extrem e Fib er Comp ression

Grain in B ending P arallel t o Grain
1 in 20 1 00 1 00
1 in 1 8 85 1 00
1 in 1 6 80 1 00
1 in 1 5 76 1 00
1 in 1 4 74 87
1 in 1 2 69 82
1 in 1 0 61 74
1 in 8 53 66
1 in 6 56

S l op es of g rain -

Sp ecifi ed are th ose th at ap p l y t o th e middle half of t h e

leng th of beams and s tri
n g ers and of j oists and p l ank s as s tat ed on p ag e 2 30 ;
t h ey throu g h ou t the l eng th of p os t and timb er g rades
ap p ly .

f
S treng th ratios rom Gu ide tq the g rading of s tru ctu ra l timbers and the deter
mination of w orking stress es, U S ep t A g r M is c P ubl 1 85 . . D . . . . .

a 1 0 p ercent
-

u p w ar d a dj u stm ent v alu e ( 1 700 p ound s p er

of th e
s qu are inch ) S how n f or comp ress ion p arall el t o g rain in T abl e

Com p arison of this strength rat io w ith the 8 6 p ercent

T o q u alify f or us e in com p ression p arallel t o th e g rain ith assig ned
23 w
w orking s tress v alu es , b eam and s tring er and j ois t and p lank g rades m u s t
-

m eet th e f ollow ing p rov is ions : T h e sum of t he siz es of all

“

knots in any

6 inches l eng th m ay not ex ceed tw ice t h e m axim um p erm issible siz e of

of

knot . T w o knots of m axim u m p erm issibl e siz e m ay not b e l ocat ed w ithin

the sa m e 6 inches of l eng th on any f ace . N ational d esig n sp ecifica tion,
f ootnot e 7 .

24
A lthou g h , in p rincip l e ,
a 1 0 p ercent u p w ard adj us tm ent of b asic stress
in comp ression p arall el t o g rain on t he b as is of norm al l oadi ng conditions
rather th an p erm anent l oading is recog niz ed in th e N a tional desig n sp eci
fication, rev 1 9 48 , in actu al p ra ctice a 2 0 p ercent in crease ov er basic stress
.
-

v alu es of T abl e 1 5 h as b een assu m ed in th e d eriv at ion of w orking st ress es f or

est ab li
s h ed st ress g rad es . S ee f ootnote 7 .
2 42 WORK IN G S T RE SS ES F OR S T RU CT URA L LU M BER
m c c c c c c c c c c c c c c a m m m m «m m N
: o o o o o o o o o o o o o o m mmmm a mm a

m mm«m
.

o c c c c c G d c c c c m m N c a
mm mo m
t

m w
“

2 o o o o o o o o o o o o a a a

mw mmE m m mm w m
.

o o o O 0 O O O o o N
i o o
fi H S 3 S O
H S o
fi f o e a a m m a am m m w m

c o O 0 G 0 0 0 am w n mN c m mmm mN a
3 o o
fi H S 2 E2 2 2 mme o m a mmmmmmw 5 s

2
8 8 o o o O 9 0 amm « N o mmmm o w o m
mmmm5 w 3 2
t

w o o o O mmmo o m » n
8 0
fi H H H 3 2 . u .

25
w m m « m mmo w w m m
_

0
9 o
2 a ma N o o o w N o
mmmmw h k m 2
N
o
a
o
2 o a . . w w e o n m .

o fi : fi :

fi g
w
w O 0 m m
2 a a mm N c
2
« mw w c p« N
m? m
S 9 :
3 mm w m . A
. Cm e
. e o ma m.

0 0 O w m ww N mm w w N fi c m mmm
v
“

e m w w w mm 2 e e 5 b n m3 m mN N
3 2 S . 4
.

c c m o N n N mmw w @
m o o a 5 w 5 E». o © m mw m N

c «m o m mm N O
N o m w m m m
t
3 N
a . a 4

d mm w mm « mN N
3
ommmm o mm w mN
g o mm mm m a m a a mmmmmw mmw mw 5
mw n mmw m N c ommm mmw mN a a o o
3 a e o mma a a 8 mm mmmmmw mw mmw n

mm m m N cmmm mmw m a mN o m
N
H a a a m o 3 mmmmmmw m 5 n » u n
. m
.

o w s w w w w o w w A w w w w o w w R w w w w w
H w w w w w w w w w w w w w w w e e R e e e e e
w 4

fl 8 s w a w a o w w w w w o w R w w w a w w w w w
m 3 w w w w w w w w w w w w w e R e e e s w w e w w
p
w
5
z w «w o w w w w o w w w a w A w w a w s m w a
8 w w w w w w w w w w e e k s w w w w w w w m w w
5£

w
.

2 w
w w a w w w a w w w H w w w a w w w fi
0 w w w w w w w e e e R w w w w w w w w

m N mmN a o mo n m o h « mmmN O m
6 a o mmw s n u n o e w m mS . . v m m m N N

mmm w N w «o w a R w o m
m mmm 5 u “ w o w w w s w m
. m

om Aw w m w m
N mm RN
. . w w m w N

w
1

w W
A A
o
. 2 N N
s 0
s8
.
 L I M IT A T I ON S F OR S T RU CT U RA L LU M BER GRA D E S 2 43

o w emm H o m e w N m b w w N e w e w
m e mmm e n m n »
.

“
. Z
. e e e e e e e m e

h mm a o l b e m mmmm H m b mm a
e e m w n e n m
. 2
. e e e e e e e e e m .

o mm m a w e w H m b w N e
w m m m n
. e e e e e e e e m .

e w w m N a m w a
m
. h 2
. e e e m . e e m .

Bw o h m o
e e e e e n

m w m w m w b w N o
.

e e N e e e
mm t
b
2
fi
. . n h u
. . e e e e e e e e m . e e e n

N o we mm w o
En N
e e a b e
, n » n e e _ e e em e . m e e n

M m b mm a mw N o
K i
. e e e e . en me . e n

w mm o w w w o
e e e e e e e n

o b w e
e e e m .
 S

244 W ORK I N G S T RE S S ES F OR S T RUCT U RA L LU M BER

T A BLE 2 1 . P E R C E N T A GE S T RE N GT H R A T I O S F OR S T RE S S IN COM P R E S S I ON
P A R A LLE L To GR A I N F OR VA RI O U S S I ZE S OF S HA K E S AND CH E CK S *

P osts and T imb ers

Green M aterial, Seasoned M aterial ,

W idth of p iece, in . Width of p iece, in .

6 8 10 12 4 5 6 8 10 12

T he S iz es of S hake and check sp eci ed are fi m easured as s tated on p ag es

S treng th ratios are based on nom i al n w idth of p iece .

S treng th ratios from Guide to the g rading of s tru ctu ra l timbers and the deter
mination of working s tresses , U . S . D ep t . Ag r. M isc P ubl 1 85
. . .
 i

2 46 -

W ORK I N G S T RESSE S F OR S T RU CT U RA L LU M BER

T A BLE 2 3 . GRA DE 2400 F ( S E LE CT ST RUCT URA L ) L ON GLEA F PI NE

J OI S TS P LA N KS
‘

A ND

M aximu m S lop e of Grain; 1 in 1 8 ; S treng th Ratio 8 5 p ercent *

M axim um P ermissible S iz e of

Knots
Within M iddle Third
of L eng th A long Center
L ine of
On N arrow A t Edg e of Wide F ace
Face Wide Face

58 None

60 mitted

From T able 1 9 .

1 From T able 1 6
‘
.

I From T able 1 7 .

From Table 1 8 .

From T able 20 .

T abl e S trength rat ios are not app l ied to m odu l us of

el as ticity v al ues A lthou g h b as ed on t ests of cl ear sp ecim ens
.
,

th ese v al u es h av e b een consid ered reasonably ap p l icabl e to ma

terial of s tructural l umb er qu al ity , and const ant modu lu s of
- -

el asticity v alu es are assigned to al l grad es of a p articu l ar sp ecies

"

W OR K I N G S T RE S S ES B Y LUM BER G RA D ES

W ork ing stress v alu es

-
f or v arious g rad es of t t
s ru c u ra l l umb er
are g iv en in T abl e 24 .

25 N ational desig n sp ecification, f ootnote 7 .

 CON D ITI ON OF E XP OS URE 2 47

26
D u ra t ion of L o ad

T he v al u es f or w ork ing t
g iv en in T abl e 2 4 are ap p l icabl e
s ress

to normal loading conditions that is a continu ou s or accum u l at ed , ,

t ot al p eriod of app rox imatel y three y ears und er m ax imum d es ign

l oad F or l oad s that are maint ained either continu ou sly or
.

cu mu l at iv el y a t the m ax imu m d esig n l ev el f or many y ears all ,

w ork ing stress v al u es s how n in T abl e 2 4 ( ex cep t th ose f or m od u l us

-

of el ast icit y ) S hou ld be red uced by 1 0 p ercent ( F ig W ith .

the ex cep tion of mo d u l us of el asticity w ork ing stress v al u es may ,

-

’
be increased by 1 5 p ercent f or l oad s of 2 month s du rat ion f or ,

ex amp l e snow l oad s ; by 2 5 p ercent f or l oad s of 7 d ays d urat ion ;

’
,

by p ercent f or earthqu ak e and w ind l oad ing ; and by 1 0 0

p ercent f or imp a ct l oad ing I mp act l oad ing m ay be d isreg ard ed
.

if t he stress resu lt ing f rom imp act al one d oes not ex ceed the w ork
ing stress all ow ed f or norm al l o ad ing I n no case S hou ld the .

res u lt ing stru ctu ral m em b er be sm all er th an that requ ired f or

norm al l oad s of l ong er d uration

,
.

Con d it io n of Exp os u re

W ork ing stresses ind icat ed p rev iou sl y , are b ased on the
,
as

t
s ren gth of green m at erial 7 and are g enerall y consid ered ap
2

p l icabl e to serv ice u nd er eith er dry or w et cond it ions , as l ong

as the w ood is not bj ect to d eterioration W ork ing stresses in
su .

comp ress ion perp end icu l ar t o the g rain are an ex cep t ion T he .

v al ues in comp ression p erp end icu l ar to grain show n in T abl e 2 4

are b as ed on an assumed surf a ce s easoned cond it ion at the t im e -

of inst all ation F or seasoned l umb er u sed und er cont inu ou s l y

.

dry cond it io ns th ese v al u es m ay be increased 1 0 p ercent and , ,

conv ers el y w h e n used u nd er co

,
nt inu ousl y w et cond itions they
rat ios f or the
2 8
s h ou ld be red u ced 1 0 p ercent I n the p ast .
,

red u ct ion of w ork ing stresses in extrem e fib er in b end ing com ,

p r ess ion p arall el t o g rain an d c om p res s ion p er

,p end icu l ar t o

grain hav e b een recommend ed f or v arious typ es of ex p osure

26 N ational desig n sp ecification , f ootnote 7 .

27 W orking st resses f or j oists and p l anks and sm all p os ts and tim bers ,
“

4 inches or less in thickness, are deriv ed in cons ideration of their imp rov ed
stre ng th when seasoned and are f
there ore p rop erly ap p licabl e w ithout
m odifi cation to dry conditions of u s e only .

2 3 Guide to the radin

g g of s tru ctu ral tim bers, footnote 13 .
2 48 W ORKI N G S T RES S E S F OR S T RU CT ]

Fo
m H
w o
w c c e o o e O e o e e o o o O
o z m
w 0 o o N e e O h e N e e w e O
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Em90
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. .

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. .

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.

. a mm x
s , .
s
. . ”

u m o o o w m a m o o o
c 0 o c e c m o 0 c o o O
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.
m w m w mo e fi n w w
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.
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m
W ORK I N G ST RE S S E S S T RU CT U RA L LUM BER

m
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.

a
e e N e u h
w N e m o
u
w H fl a
Em 0
o 9

n da 4 o e O o o IO
'
KO K )

e em58 fi 8 8 m e e e

w on m 4 “
“

m 8

N
fi
o
s
8
3 m
me 6 0
8
a 4
:
 WORK I N G S T R E S S E S BY LU M BER GRA D E S 251

o o e e e e o m o o o e G o e C C o e O e
m e N mw N w N e m e e O e h O e n N O b
h w M u w M n e m fi e w N e m N c e e N o
fi fi fi “ w H ” fi fi fl a a fi fi fi fi a fi H H

mmo
.

n e c
e fi a e fi e
w w n w w m

0 .

e m e O O
w w w N N
a fi fl fi fi

v
i
8 s

a
m
.
x
z
u
x {
w
H .
n s
Hw 2
w
a a a a a
t r
8 a
mm
t z
9
s
m
t t

a b h ”
8 m
59 p
w
m

w
o
h.

a
s
8
mow
_

c c o w w w w
o o w o w w e
w w w
.
w w s e e
B w s “ s s fi w n
a
o
25 2 WORK I NG S T RE SS E S F OR S TR U CT UR A L LU M BER

o o o o o O e m o o o o o o o o o o e o
e o o e o O N u e o o e e o o o e o N e
mb w m me a w o u
h
fi
w
fi
e
fi
fi
fi
w
fi
N
H
o
fi fi a fi
fi
fi
b w
fi fi fi ~ fl u

n n mmn c n o n n n n
e e e e e a e e e e e e
w w w w w m w m w w w w

A .

i u

s
m
q O a
w
o
e e
n n n
e O
N
fl
O
N
fl
O
“
O
N N
H
o e
e
fi
N
a
o e
e
a
m
O
N
H
O
N
H
O
N
fi
O O
N
a
N
fi
e
e
fl
o
o
fi
N m

, .

o O o e o o o c c c e G o
o O o e e e o o o o e e m
w O w e u
N N fi a fi
w N
H ~H w o
N N
mm
a a
e
a
n
a
N
H

—
M
o
o e

S
o
o
w
u
e
u
a
o

8 E8
o
8 a wz fi
S
we o w
N 3 e
w ws
m8 8
k

ma
fi
.

6 gm
8 w ww.
3 a
s z

wwww mw www
.

e e e e a e e e e
mmmm
ut uu
mmmmmma mae a a m
. .

a mN a e
. . .

EN
. .

w
s ws s e w s w
:m:: we we
s s s

s : e w:
s s
e
H.w A. A 8 8 w w e w m

H
w
w
s
e
.

H
mH
fi
.
w

o
—
e
w
e

m
u
a
8

s n
a a
H u n « c
h
W uz
a
d a a
3
q
s s fl -
o c fl
u
m u
w 3 & HH
‘
o o
2
.
o
s H s s 5 w

q
H H H
fi a a u s a
5
u
5 é

—
u u p s
m go m
- e e u
w s s w d
c 3
p
u
o o H o
w
o
w
p
o o H d
30 0
3
fl
m oo
w m
s
o
o
u
s a s u
2 8 e
o s
o 2 6 n c o c
s 6
qm
d
fia

—
u u
3
u
a
o
a 0 a w e e o o w
w mw w 2 Q Q m w2 u
s
5 8 s H
s
o
m
o o
w m w
.

o e HH N m m o O o
m m
o o
8 8 a a
o H H N
w

om
w o
w o
c c fi a
o o o o 0 0 0 0
a
o
fl q
o . 2 5 H a0 6 6 o .

6 0 o
o
2 m2 2 2 m
a
QQQQZ 2 2 2 fi QQfl E m
d
.
.

n
H
2 514 WORK ING S T RESSES F OR ST R U CTU RAL LU M BER

co nd u civ e t o d ecay Except f or t emp orary co nstructio n it

.
,

wo u ld seem t o be g enerall y p ref erabl e p ract ice t o u se p res erv a

tifve treat ed w ood or heartw ood of naturall y d urabl e sp ecies und er

-
-

su ch cond it ions ret aining the w ork ing stress esof T abl e 24 rath er
, ,

th an to Scal e d ow n w ork ing stresses arb itrarily to all ow f or th is

h az ard W here cond itions of d amp ness or high humid ity p rev ail
.

in serv ice p rop er d esig n and maint enance are essential to

,

el iminat e or minim iz e d et eriorat ion resu lt ing f rom d ecay .

A PPL I CA T I ON OF W ORK I N G S T RE S S ES I N D E S I G N

S tru ctural lum b er inv olv e the app l ication of w ork ing
u ses of

st ress es t o the d esign of b eam s col u mns t ension m em b ers and , , ,

memb ers s ubj ected to comb ined b end ing and ax ial l oad s T he .

f oll ow ing p aragraphs are int end ed as an introd uction to the

g éneral d esig n meth od s emp l oy ed .

Be a m s

F ib er t
s ress in
b end ing h oriz ont al sh earing stress and defl ec
,
-

tion are the three maj or consid erat ions inv olv ed in the d esign of
b eams .

F I BE R ST RE S S IN B E N DI N G
T heg eneral rel ationsh ip b etw een b end ing moment ind uced by
the l oad app l ied to a b eam and the extrem e fib er stress d ev el op ed
‘
is giv en by the fl exure f orinul a

(1 1)

in which M the m ax imum

b end ing m oment p ound inch es F ,
-

a f orm f act or d ep end ent on the sh ap e and s iz e of cro ss s ect ion ;

f w ork ing s tress in extrem e fib er in b end ing p ound s p er s qu are ,

in ch ; and c d ist ance from the neutral ax is t o the out ermost fib er

of the cross s ect ion inches ,
.

F orm f actors h av e b een d eriv ed ex p erim ent all y to account f or .

observ ed infl u ences o f shap e and siz e of cros s s ect ion o n the

st rength of b eam s
29
I nsof ar as b eams of rect ang u l ar cross
29 J . A N ew lin
. and G . WT
. ray er, The infl u ence f the f orm 0 a w ooden
o

be
am on its s ti
finess and s treng th, II , F orm f actors of beam s su bj ected
t d trans verse loading only, N at A dv is Comm A ero T ech Rep t 1 81 .
“

W hing t
. . . . . .

as on, 1 92 4 .
 FI B ER S T RESS I N BE N D I NG
'
2 55

s ec tion are concerned this infl uence is not p articul arl y signifi cant
, ,

in l ight l abov e and b el ow unity accord ing t o d ep h of

'

ary g s y _
t
b eam . F or examp le the f orm f act or f or a b eam 8 inches d eep is
”

and that f or a b eam 1 inch d eep is , S u ch v aria tion

has b een ex p l ained on th e b asis of a sup p orting act ion of l es ser

st res sed und erl y ing fi bers t o t hos e more highl y stressed fib ers
,

at the surf ace o f the m em b er I n p ract ice the f orm f act or f or

'
’
“

'

.
,

rect angu l ar s ect ions is in most cases consid ered as unit

y in
app l y ing the fi exure f ormul a .

F or rect angu l ar cross sect ions ch aract erist ic of stru ctural

l umb er the m oment of inertia ( I )
,
bd 3 / 1 2 in w h ich b actu al ,

w idth inches and d ,

actu al d ep th inch es
,
F or rect ang u l ar
.
,
.

sect ions c ap p earing in the fl ex ure f ormu l a is one ha lf ac

,
tu al ,
-

d ep th of b eam .

Cal cu l ation of max imum bending moment ( M ) ind u ced by a

l oad is d et ermined by the siz e of the l oad and its p osition on the
b eam I nlthe case of a simp l e b eam unif ormly l oad ed th rough
.
,

out it s l eng th m ax imum mom ent (M ) i

,
s ind uced at the mid p o int
of l ength as m ay be s een by insp ect ion of the m om ent d iagr
,
am

( F ig and M
. Wl/8 in w h ich W t ot al u nif orm l y dis
tribut ed l oad p ound s and l s p an inches
,
S u b stitu ting in t he
, ,
.

fl exure f ormu l a g iv es ,

Wl fI
’
(1 2)
8 c

Examp le 1 W hat m ax imum unif or l y d istrib u t ed net l oad

. m
can be sup p ort ed by a s u rf aced 3 by 8 inch b eam of S el ect - - -

Stru ctural D ou gl as fi r ( Coast reg ion) j oist and p l ank ov er a

2 0 f oot s pan w ithout ex ceed ing all ow abl e fib er stress in b end ing ?
-

f (f rom T abl e 24 ) -

1 90 0 p ou nd s p e
r q
s u are inch

Transp osing equation 12 g iv es

8 X 1 9 00 X I

(1 2 X 20 ) X c

2
I bd 3
in w hich inches
c 6 6

8 X 1 900 X
 ~

2 56 WORKI N G S T RESSES F OR ST RU CT URA L LU M BER

T he w eigh t of the b eam mu st be su btract ed f rom the cal cu l at ed

v al ue f or W to arriv e at the net distrib u t ed l oad ( Wn) carried

by the beam .

Consid erat ion of the m oment

d iagram ( F ig 1 2 ) f or a
ir coneen .
-

trated l oad at mid sp an of the s am e b eam comp aring the tw o ,

eq uiv al ent exp ressions f or m oment ( M ) s h ow s immed iat e ly that ,

a concentrat ed l oad ( P ) onl y one h alf as l arg e as the net uni

f orml y d istrib uted l oad ( Wn ) cou ld be app l ied

Pl Wnl W u
M ax imum m oment ( M ) 0r P
4 8 2

N et l oad ( Wu ) is u sed in t his ex p ression comp aring d if f erent

typ es of l oad d istribu tion inas mu ch as w eight of the b eam is
treat ed as a unif ormly d istrib uted l oad und er any typ e of l oad
ap p l ica t ion .

F or a b eam of g iv en d im ensions and k now n all ow abl e f the ,

net l oad th at can be carried u nd er any d esired com b inat ion of

concentrat ed or d ist rib u t ed load m ay be read il y d et ermined f rom

the b end ing m om ent ( M ) as cal cu l at ed f rom t he fi exure f ormu l a .

Conv ersel y the section modul us

,
and th u s the d im ens ions ,

of a b eam of g iv en s p an and all ow abl e f req u ired t o su p p ort a

know n l oad m ay be d etermined by transp os ing the equ at ion thu s ,

I M
t
c f
Using the Sam e v al u es em p lo
y ed in Ex a mp l e 1 ,
w e hav e

I WI 1 5 59 X 2 40
”
c 81 8 X 1 90 0

As show n p rev iou sl y , t his is the I /c v al ue corresp ondin g to

bd /6 f or
2
d ressed 3 by 8 inch b eam F or conv enience in
a - - -
.

d esig n t abl es show ing theI c v al u es f or al l st and ard siz es of sur

,

f aced and rou gh stru ctural l um b er are av ail abl e in a numb er of

p u bl icat ions 3 0 .

I t has b een d em onstrat ed ex p erim ent all y that a b eam of cir .

cu l ar cross sect ion can supp ort es s ent iall y the s ame l oa d as a

30 Wood s tru ctu ral desig n da ta, V ol I , N at Lbr M frs A ssn ,

. . . . . Washing ton,
1 941 .

A lso Tim ber eng ineers handbook, edit ed by H . J Hansen J ohn Wiley
.
,

S ons, N ew Y ork ,
1 9 48 .
258 W ORK I N G S T RESSE S
-

F OR S T R U CTU RAL LU

in Wh ich K is
v al u e d ep end ent on the ratio of i
a

com p ression fl ang e to d epth of the b eam t1 thicl ,

or tombined thick ne ss of tw o w eb s as in a bdx bea:

Neutra! axi
s

Comp arative Section -

modulus v al ues f or rectang ul a]

of eq u al area .

o er all w i
v -
dth of b eam . I n the e amp e ci e
x l t d K,

f rom equ ation 1 3

—)
,

(6 3
F 23 0
6

b end ing mom ent f or b oth b eams by

Cal cu l ation of
fl exure f ormu l a ( equ at ion 1 1 ) on the assump t ion the
of rupture v al u e of 7 5 0 0 p ound s p er s qu are inch
-

sh ow s

M 7 50 0 1 00 p oun d inche
-

f or the 6 by 1 0
- -
t
rec an u ar g l b eam ,
and

M X 7 5 00 X 1 78 p ound
 F I BE R ST RESS I N B E N D I NG 259
J

f or the I b ea m . Th is p articu l ar I b eam is th us seen to be .

s l ightl y l es s than times as strong as the rectang ul ar beam of '

q
e ua l w eight .

L aminated B eams dvantages of l aminat ed w ood

. One of the a -

'

b eams is the p ossib il ity of u til iz ing m at erial of higher g rade or ,

of a strong er sp ecies , in t hose p ortions of a b eam th at are sub

j ected to m aximum stress p ermitting w eak er m at erial to be ,

u t il iz ed in the remaind er of the mem b er M eth od s f or the .

d esig n of b eams comp osed of tw o typ es of material g ive consid era

tion to the resp ectiv e fi ber s tress and m od ul u s of el asticity v alues - - -

of the tw o mat erial s I n ord er t o assure th at the b end ing streng th

.

of a comp osit e b eam w ill be g ov erned by the s trength of the

strong er f ace m at erial us ed in the z one of h igher stress t he ,

rat io of core th ick nes s to t ot al d ep th of b eam shou ld not ex ceed

the l im is
t ind icat ed by t he f oll ow ing rel at ions hip :33

m w hich

do d ist ance from neu t ral p l ane t o ou t er fib er of core m at erial ,

inches
d; dist ance from neu tral p l ane t o ou t er fib er of face m at erial ,

inches
f .
, ll
a ow a bl e fib er Stress of core mat erial
.
, p ou nd s p er s qu are inch
fj all ow abl e fib er s tress of f ace m at erial , p ou nd s p er squ are inch
m odu lus of el asticity of core m at erial
'
E, , p ound s p er s qu are inch
Ef m odu l us of el asticity of f ace m at erial , p ound s p er s qu are inch

If theb eam is comp ose d of ‘

tw o grad es of the s ame sp ecies ,

d iff ering in fi ber stress v al u e but w ith the same v al u e f or modu lus
-

of el ast icity this equ at ion m ay be sim p l ifi ed t o

,

and, if the core is h eld to a d ep th w ithin the l imit ind icat ed , the

33 F F W ang N V P olet ika, L amina ted Connecticu t red oak,

aard and
—
. . . .

N ortheast ern W ood Utiliz Coun Bu l 22 , 1 948 , p p 2 1 36 . . . . .

A ls o A G H D ietz Two sp ecies laminated beams, A m erican S oc M ech

. . .
,
-
. .

Eng P ap er 48 WDI 6 , Oct 1948

.
- -
. .
2 60
‘

W O RK I NG S T RESSES F OR S T R U CTU RAL LUM B ER

t
s rength of the b eam m ay be ev al u at ed from the b end ing moment
as cal cu l at ed by a s p ecial f orm of the fl exu re f ormu l a ( see equ a

tion 1 1 )

A g l
rec an u ar b eam comp osed of tw o sp ecies d if f ering in
t
m od u l u s of —
el as ticity as w ell as in fi ber stress v al u e is anal og ou s
- -

to a n I b eam 3 4 T he f aces of h igher m od u l u s of el asticity are

.

Neutral axis

F IG . 60 . Cross -
sectional dim ensions of a tw o sp ecies laminated beam and
-

analog ous I section .

cons i ere d fl ang es of the I b eam and the core m at erial as

d as the
the w eb as ind icat ed in F ig
, 60 The rat io of fl ang e w idth
. .

( b) to w eb w idth ( w ) is d efi ned by the ratio F f /E c, and the

m oment of inert ia ( I ) of th e s ection m ay b e comp ut ed as f oll ow s

M 3
(b —w ) d1
" 3
E.
12 E,

in w h ich the gnifi cance of d imensions is ind icat ed in F ig 6 0

si . .

B end ing m oment is cal cu l at ed by sub stitut ing th is v al u e f or I in

the fl exure f ormu l a M f f I /c I t is not know n at p resent
, .

w h ether th is rel at ionship can be imp rov ed throu gh the introdu c

tion of a f orm f act or but exp eriment h as show n th at actu al
.
,

b end ing m om ents can be cl osel y app rox imat ed by the method
d escrib ed .

T he f oll ow ing ex amp l e ill u st rat es app l ication of th is equ ation .

H B M cK ean M echanical p rop erties and desig n p rocedure f or g lu ed

34 . .
,

lamina ted beams comp os ed of tw o w ood sp ecies Univ M ich S chool F or , . . .

and Cons Bu l 1 1 , 1 944

. . .

Als o s ee f ootnote 33 .
 '

262 woRK 1 N G STRESSES F OR STRUCTURAL LUM BER

HORI Z ON TA L S H EAR I N G STRES S

-

Horiz ont al sh earing stress ( H) in w ood b eams is or d inaril y cal

cul at ed by the e ua q tion

in w hich

V vertical shear ( end reaction) , p ou nd s

Q s t at ical m om ent of the area ab ov e or b el ow the neutral axis
_

3
ab ou t t hat axis inches ( S tatical m om ent is the p roduct of
,

the area as d efined and the v ertical d ist ance from the cent er
of g rav ity of t his area t o the neu t ral axis )
4
I m om ent of inertia of the section inches ,

t w idth of b eam at the n eu t ral ax is inch es ,

F or the u su a l t
rec an u ar g l b eam of w idth b and d ep th cl, this
q
e ua tion red uces to

I n the S el ect S tru ctural D ou gl as fi r gion) j oist p re ( Coast re

viou sly cit ed ( Ex amp l e 1 , p ag e 2 5 5 ) the unif orml y d istrib ut ed

l oad of 1 5 59 p ound s l imited by fib er stress must be ch eck ed to

d et ermine w h ether shearing stresses are w ithin all ow abl e l imits
f or the grad e 1 2 0 p ounds p er s qu are inch
,
Su b st ituting in equ a
j
.

tion 1 6 yield s

6 0 p ou nd s p er s qu are inch

T he shearing d evel op ed und er the all ow abl e l oad f or fib er

t
s ress

stress is in th is cas e Well w ith in all ow abl e l imits

, , .

Shearing stresses cal cu l at ed by the met hod j ust d es crib ed are

an app rox imat ion and act u al S hearing s tresses are l ess t han t hose
,

cal cu l at ed by th is method w h en check s are p resent near the

neutral p l ane at the end o f a b

~
eam 3 5 .

35 A N ew lin, G E Heck , and H W M arch , N ew method f or cal

J . . . . . .

cu lating horizontal shear in w ood en b eam s, E ng N ews R ecord, N ew Y ork ,

—
-
.

Vol 1 1 0 , 1 933 , pp 5 94 6
. . .
 HO R I Z ONT AL S HEAR I NG -
S T RESS 26 3

T he F orest P ro d uct s L ab orat ory 3 6 N at ional Lumb er M an and

u f a ctu rers A ssociat ion 3 7 recomm end that in cal cu l at ing the re

act ion ( V) f or u s e in the f ormu l a ( 1 ) consid erat ion be g iv en to

any rel ief t o the b eam resu lt ing f rom the d is trib ut ion of l oad to

a dj acent p arall el b eams by flooring or oth er mem b ers of the

constru ct ion ( 2 ) all l oad s w it hin a d ist ance eq u al t o the d ep th
,

of b eam from b oth sup p orts be negl ect ed and ( 3 ) m ov ing l oad s , ,

if p resent be p l aced s o th at the l arg est m ov ing l oad is situ at ed

“

at th ree t im es the d ep th of b eam f rom the supp ort If by this .

procedure w h ich und er cert ain cond itions is still conserv ativ e
, ,

a t im b er s t ill f ail s to m eet shear requ irem ents the reac tions sh ou ld ,

be cal cu l at ed by recomm end ed met hod s w h ich are b ey ond the

i i 38
s cop e of t hi s d s c u ss o n .

I B eams and B ox B eams Horiz ontal sh ear in I and box b eams .

is cal cu l at ed by d irect ap p l icat ion of eq u at ion 4 .

L amina ted B eams I n l amina t ed b eam s comp osed of tw o sp e

.

cies all ow abl e horiz ont al sh earing stress in the w eak er core m ay
,

l imit the streng th of the memb er I n comp ut ing sh earing stress .

in su ch a b eam the section is consid ered as anal og ous to th at

,

of an I b eam and v al ues f or statical moment ( Q

, ) , moment of
inertia ( I of the I section and actu al w idth ( b) of the b eam ,

at the neu tra l ax is are su b st itut ed in eq u at ion 4 .

A s an ill ustrat ion of the meth od the l am inat ed b eam d escrib ed ,

,

in Ex amp l e 2 ( p ag e 2 6 1 ) that w as f ound to su pp ort a t ot al of _

p o un d s h a s a n en d _
re ac ti o n ( V ) of 45 0 0 p oun d s T h e .

momen of iner a (
t t i I w as p re v io u s l y sh ow n t o b e i nch es
4

( althou gh sub sequ ent ly mod ifi ed f or d irect su b stitution in the

fl exure f ormu l a) and w idth ( b) of 5 inch es is t in the sh ear
,

equ at ion T he st at ical m oment ( Q

. ) is cal cul at ed from the di
mensions sh ow n in F ig 6 1 as f oll ow s .

d is t a nce dis t a nce f rom

A rea of I se c f rom cent er area of I cent er of s t a t ica l

t ion fl a ng e X of g raw t y t o
.

s ect i on w eb X g ram t y to m om e nt ( Q)
neu t ral ax is neu t ral a xis

36 W ood handbo ok, f ootnote 3 2 , p p 1 5 0 1 .

— .

37 Wood s tru ctu ral desig n data, footnote 3 0 , p 50 . .

3! ‘

N ational desig n sp ecifica tion f or s tress g rade lu m ber and its f as tening
' ‘
-
s,

rev .
,
footnote 7 , par 400 D 2 .
- -
.
26 4 W O RK I NG STRES SES F OR S T R U CTUR AL LU M BER

S u b st itut ing t hese v alues in the sh ear equ at ion 4.

giv es
4 50 0 X
1 3 0 p ou nd s p er s qu are inch
X 5
A ll ow abl e t
s ress in horiz ont al S h ear f or l aminated stru ctural
mem b ers sh ou ld not ex ceed
the limits sp ecifi ed in T abl e
LH
2 5 w hich are app l icabl e t o-

al l grad es of a sp ecies ( w it h

the ex cep tions f or d ensity as

not ed ) 3 9 .I n this ex amp l e ,

p ermissibl e w orking stress in

shear f or east ern h em l ock is

1 1 0 p ound s p er s qu are inch ,

and S hear th u s g ov erns the

m ax imu m l oad that m ay be

s af el y su pp ort ed T he 9 00 0 .

p ou nd load cal cu l at ed on the

F IG Critical d1m en5 1 0 ns reqmred
61
. .

b asis of fib er stress mu st
f or cal cul ation of horiz ontal shear i n a
tw o sp ecies l aminated b eam
-
.
be red u ced by the rat io
and 900 0 X
7 6 5 0 p ound s, the m ax imum s a e u ni orm
f f ly d ist rib ut ed l oad
f or this p articu l ar b eam .

D EF LE CTI ON
T he basic e uaq t ion g bv erning the d efl ection of a b eam is
6 31
2
M
E1
(1 7)

in w h ich d d eriv at iv e of d efl ection ( y )

is the secon

w ith resp ect t o d ist ance ( x) f rom su pp ort of a b eam, M

b end ing m om ent at the p oint x E modu lu s of el asticity, and
,

I mom ent of inert ia of the s ection .

F or a s imp l e b eam carry ing a concentrat ed cent er l oad this ,

equ at ion red uces t o

g
Pt
4 8EI

in w hich y m ax imum defl ect ion at mid sp an, inch es ; P . con

39 N ational desig n sp ecification f or s tress g -

rade lu m ber and its f as tening s,

rev .
,
f ootnot e 7, p ar 902 A 4
.
- -
.
266 W O R K I NG S T RESSES F OR S T R U CTURAL LU M BER

the b asis of fib er stress must be redu ced t o

, x 1 55 9 ,
or
2 74 p ou nd s, in ord er t o meet the d efl ection l imit at ions imp osed .

T AB LE 2 5 . VA LUE S U S E D I N D E S I GN or GLUE D -
LA M I NA TE D
STR U CT URA L M E M B E RS “

Horiz ont al
Sp ecies

B ee ch
Birch
Ch es tnu t
Cy p ress , s outhern
Cyp ress, tidew ater
D ou g las fir, all reg ions , dens e
D ou g las fir, coast reg ion, clos e g rained

D ou g las fir, coas t reg ion

D ou g l as fi r, inl and reg ion, cl os e g rained

D ou g l as fir, inl and reg ion

Elm , rock

Elm , so ft 1 60
Gum , black and red 1 60
Heml ock , east ern 110
Heml ock, w est coas t 1 20
225
Larch ,
dens e 1 85
L arch , cl os e g rained 1 60
L arch 1 60
M ap l e hard ,
2 00
Oak , red and w hite 200
P ecan 2 25
Pine, N orw ay 1 35
P ine, s ou th ern l ong l eaf 20 5
P ine, sou thern, dens e 20 5
Pine, sou th ern 1 75
P op lar, y ell ow 1 30
R edw ood, cl ose g rained 1 10
1 10
S p ru ce, eas tern 1 6 00 1 35
1 60 0 1 60

Valu es f or comp ression p arall el t o g rain cont ained in t abl e are not

w orking stress es and are us ed onl y as limiting v al u es as discussed in the text .

From N ationa l de sig n sp ecification f or stres s g rade lu mber and its f as tening
-
s,

rev . , T abl e 2 5 , N at Lbr M frs A s sn , W ashing ton, 1 9 48

. . . . .

I B eams and B ox B eams . I n cal cu l at ing the d efl ect ion of beam s

of I and box sec tion ,
or o ther v ariations f rom th e u su al rect angu l ar
 D E FLECTI ON 2 67

cross s ec ion, no
t f orm f act ors are inv olved and the moment of ,

inertia ( I ) f or the s ect ion is u sed in t he ap p l icabl e d efl ect ion

eq u at ion d ep end ent on the ty p e of b eam l oad ing .

L aminated B eams Cal cu l ation of the d efl ect ion of tw o sp ecies

.
-

l aminat ed b eams d ep end s on the d et ermination of an ap p arent

m odu l us of el asticity w hich is in tu rn d ep end ent on the mod u l u s
, ,

of el as t icit y v al u es f or the tw o m at erial s in com b inat ion .

T he b asic equ at o i n4 1 is

in w hich

m om ent of inert ia of th e en tire cross s ec tion b ou t

a the
4
neu tral axis, inch es
m odu l u s of l
e as ticity of the ith l amination , p ou nd s p er
squ are inch
m om ent of inertia of the ith l amination ab ou t the neu t ral
4
axis of the sect ion inches ,

app arent m odu l u s of el ast icity of the b eam p ound s p er

“

s qu are inch

F er a tw o sp ecies
-
com b ination this equ at ion b ecom es
'
Ef I f E Icc

in w hich the su b script s f a

nd 0
f ace and core resp ectiv el y f
re er to ,
.

Returning t o the b eam p reviou sl y cit ed as E x amp l e 2 w e fi nd ,

3
M 5 x 10
3
4
4 1 7 inches
m
in w hich I is the m om ent of inert ia of the ent ire sec tion; and
5 x fi 4
I nches
12

in w hich I c is the m om ent of inert ia of t he core l aminations . By

su btraction ,
th e m om ent of inert ia of the f ace l am inations is
If : F —L =
4N —
J Q7 =
2M 3 mm$ 4

41 F orest P rodu cts L ab oratory D esig n of w ood aircra ft s tru ctu res, ANC
Bul 1 8 , A rm y— —
,

. N avy Civ il Com m . on Aircraft D esig n Criteria , A ero . Board,

W ashing t on, 1 944 .
26 8 W OR KI N G S T RESSES F OR S T RU CT URA L LU M BER

If v alu es are su b stitu t ed in equ ation 2 1 ,

the ap p aren t m odu lu s of
el asticit y of th e ent ire b eam is

0 00 X X
41 7

p ou nd s p er s qu are inch

Consi erin
d g the 7 65 0 p ound l oad that m et b oth shear and fib er
-

s tres s requ irem ent s in p reviou s cal cu l at ions on this b eam ( Ex am p l e

2 p ag e 2 6 3 ) as a liv e l oad and cal cu l ating imm ediat e d efl ection

, ,

by su b stitu ting v al u es in equ ation 1 9 w e g et ,

3
5 X 7 6 50 X 1 44

3 84 X X 41 7

If ad efl ection limit ation of sp an w ere t o be m aint ained th e

m aximum d efl ection p erm

,

it t ed w ou l d b e inch ,

and th e m axi m um u nif orml y distrib u t ed liv e l oad p rodu cing an

all ow abl e d efl ect ion w ou l d be 7 6 5 0 X 5 880 p ou nd s
‘

W ood columns are cl assed as sh ort, intermediate or l ong ,

col u mns d ep endent on t he rat io ( L / d) of unsupp ort ed l ength t o

,

l east d imension T he L / d ratio d et ermines the rel ativ e im

p ression p arall el t o grain and m
.

p ort ance of strength in com odu lu s

of el as t icity on the l oad carry ing cap acity of a col umn

-
.

T he strength of a Short col umn in w hich unsup p ort ed l ength

,

is l ess t han 1 1 t imes the l east cross sect ional d im ension d ep end s
-

ent irel y on the st reng t h of the w ood in com p res sion p arall el t o

grain T he l oad th at can be carried by a l ong col umn is entirely

.

d ep end ent on the stifl ness of the w ood B etw een these extremes .

is the int erm ed iat e col um n in w hich b oth comp ressiv e streng th
p arall el t o grain and st if fness are inv o lv ed .

S H ORT COLUM N S
W ork ing stresses in comp ression p arall el t o grain p re
s ent ed in T abl e 2 4 are d irectl y ap p l icabl e in com p u t ing s af e l oad s
,

f or rect angul ar s ol id col umns meeting the req u irem ents of short
col u mns t hat is w ith L/ d not ex ceed ing 1 1
, ,
.
2 70 WORK I NG ST RE S SES F OR S T RU CT URAL LU M BER

out by usin g the Forest P rod u ct s Lab orat ory p ara b ol ic f ormu l a 43

P
( 24 )
A

in w h ich K is the v al ue d eriv ed in equ at ion 2 3 I n the p arab ol ic .

f ormul a C is w ork ing stress in com p ress ion p arall el to grain from
,

T abl e 24 but it is ev id ent th at in ef f ect the all ow abl e stress p er

, , ,

u nit area is p rogressivel y s cal ed d ow n f rom C at L/ d of 1 1 t o a

v al ue of a col umn w ith L / d rat io eq u al to K .

Examp le 4 Cal cu l at e the s af e l oad of normal d uration that

.

can be carried by an 8 by 8 inch su rf aced 4 S id es N o 1 S tru e

- - -

, , .

tural l ongl eaf p ine col umn w ith a 1 2 f oot unsupp orted l ength -

( from Tabl e 24 )
'
C 1 1 50 p ou nd s p er .
“

s quare inch
E p ound s p er q
s u are inch ( from Tabl e 24 )
L 12 x 12
d 75

F or th is g r
ad e of l ongl eaf p ine ( from equ at ion

S ince L/d l ies b et w een 1 1 and this is an int ermed iat e column
By su b stitu tion of v alu es in equ ation 24,

1 1 50 1

1 1 50 1 1 1 50 1 0 40

P X 1 0 40 p ou nd s

LON G COLU M N S
Col umns w ith an L / d ratio great er th an K are d ep end ent f or
their l oad carry ing cap acity ent irel y on the stif fness of the w ood ,
'

and u lt im at e f ail ure occurs as a resu lt of l at eral b uckling S ince _

.

a const ant v al u e of m od u lu s of el ast icity is assig ned t o a sp ecies

N ew lin and J M Gahag an Tes ts of la rg e tim ber colu

A . . . mns and ,

p resentation of the F ores t P rodu cts Laboratory column f ormu la, U S D ep t . . .

A g r T ech Bul 1 6 7 W ashing ton 1 930

. . .
, ,
.
 LONG COLU M NS 27 1

g
re ar dl ess oi grad e the s ame stresses are p ermitted f or al l grad es
-

of a g iv en sp ecies

S af e l oad s f or l ong col umns are cal cu l at ed by a f orm of the

Eu l er eq u ation:

in w hich E ticity p ou nd s p er squ are inch from

modu l u s of e as
l ,

T abl e 24 and L/ d rat io Of l ength t o l east d im ens ion A re .

d uction f act or of s l ightl y l ess th an that formerl y adv ocat ed

-

has b een incl ud ed in t his equ at ion to account f or v ariab il ity and
fi4
rl
p os sibl e ove o a ding
f

Examp le 5 D et ermine the max imum s af e l oad of normal d ura

.

tion that can be carried by an 8 ; hy 8 inch surf aced 4 sid es N o 1 - -

, ,
.

S tru ctural l ongl eaf p ine col umn w ith a 2 0 f oot unsu p p ort ed -

l ength .

0 1 1 5 0 p ou nd s p er q
s u are inch ( from Tabl e 24 )
E p ound s p er s qu are inch ( from T abl e 24 )
L 20 x 1 2
d 7%

Since K , f rom Ex am p l e 4, this is a l ong column, and l oad

is cal cu l at ed by the Eu l er f ormu l a ( equ ation 2 5 )
“

P x

and P X 514 p ou nd s

T he m ax imu m L /d tio recomm end ed in the d esign of sol id

ra

co um ns
l is 50 . T he g eneral rel at ions hip b etw een all ow abl e stress

I t has b een m aintained that p rop ortional

“
44 since the fi ber stress at

lim it is never p assed in g oing to the m aximum load long colum ns the f ac of

tor of safety could be ab out one half that f or short columns -

The m odulus .

of elast icity of timber is its m ost v ariable p rop erty and the one m ost

diffi cult t o estimate v isu ally T ests of clear w ood and the laws of p rob
.

ability indicate that one t im ber m 1 0 0 w ill hav e less t han 5 6 p ercent of the

averag e s tif fness I t is b eliev ed, theref ore, that a f act or of safety of 3
”—
.

should be used f or l ong colu m ns R ecomm ended Building Code Require

.

mnt
e s,
‘

f ootnote l .
'
272 W OR KI N G ST RES S ES F OR S T R UCT URA L LU M B ER

p er uni area t ( P /A ) and L /d ra t io f or all three typ es of co umn is

l
ind icat ed in F ig . 62 .

T he streng th of a roun d c o u mn or
l p ost m ay be consi ere
d d the
same as th at of a s u are co u mn of
q tional area
l the s am e cross s ec
-
.

A l ong t ap ered round col umn m ay be assu m ed t o supp ort a l oad

id ent ical w ith t hat of a sq u are col u mn of the same l eng th and
cross s ect ional area
-
T he d iam et er of a t ap ered column f or th e
.
,

o of com u t ing cross s ect iona l area is t ak en as the sum of

u
p pr se p
-

the minimum d iam et er and the d if f erence b etw een m inimu m

20 K 30
Ratio of column leng th to least dimension ( L /d )

F IG . 62 . R elations hip of all ow abl e s tress p er unit area to L /d f or s olid w ood

col u m ns .

and m ax imum d iam et ers , as l ong as the resu lt ant d iam et er is not
great er than t imes the d iam et er at the sm all end I n any .

cas e, the indu ced comp res siv e stres s p eru nit area ( P /A ) at the

small end of a t ap ered col u mn mu st not ex ceed t hat all ow ed f or a

short col umn .

LA M I N A TED CON S TRU CTI ON

Gl u e l am inat ed
-
d esigned as l ong int ermed iat e or
co u m ns are
l , ,

short col umns on the g eneral b asis d es crib ed f or st ru ct ural

lum b er How ev er w orking stresses in comp ression p arall el t o

.
,

grain are increased w h en seas oned j oist and p l ank grad es or ,

seas oned b oard s g rad ed as j oist and p l ank , are u s ed in the

f ab rication of the l aminat ed m emb er In the N at ional D esign .

2 74 W ORK I N G S T RESS E S F OR S T R U CT URA L LU M BER
'

w orking t ension p arall el t o g rain p ounds p er

stress in ,

s qu are inch ( f in T abl e 2 4 )

w ork ing stress in ext rem e fib er in b ending p ound s p er ,

s q u are inch ( T abl e 2 4 ) if a fl exu ral l oa d onl y is assum ed

S ince t f ,
the l im it at ions of e u a
q t ion 2 6 are equiv al ent to k eep
~

ing the su m of t he stress in d irect t ension and fib er stress in

b end ing w ithin th e w ork ing Stress f .

S im il arl y a m em b er su bj ect ed to combined bending and axial

,

com pression l oad s is p rop ort ioned s o t hat

is not g reat er t h an 1

th is equ ation, P /A
In ax ial comp res sion l oad p er un it area
of cross section p ound s p er s qu are inch
, and c all ow abl e ,

st ress in comp ression p arall el to g rain p ound s p er s qu are inch , ,

f or the L /d rat io of the col umn, assuming a comp ression l oad onl y
'

( T abl e 2 4 v al ue f or 0 red u ced accord ing t o the ap p rop riat e

col um n f ormu l a) .

E xamp le A S h ort col umn surf aced 4 sid es , of nominal ,

6 by 1 0 d im ensions su bj ect ed to an ax ial compression l oad of

- -

7 000 p ound s and a l at eral l oad on the narr ow f ace ind ucing a

b end ing mom ent Of p ound inches w ith a w or k ing stress -

in comp ression p arall el to g rain of 1 600 p ound s p er s qu are inch

and w ork ing st ress in ext reme fib er in b end ing of 2 00 0 p ound s p er

s qu are inch w ou ld be ex am ined accord ing t o the rel at ionship :

,

T he memb er is s een to be l oad ed to p ercent of its cap acity in

comp ression a one, l to p ercent of it s cap acity in b end ing

l
a one, and to p ercent of it s cap acity In com b ined stress .

Co m p re s s ion at an An g le to Gr a in

A ll ow abl e t
s ress in compression ac ting gl e to the grain
at an an

int ermed iat e t o 0 and 90 d eg rees is comp uted by the Hank inson
 R E FE RE N CES 2 75

f ormu l a .
46

P Q
+ Qcos
2 2
P sin 0 0

w hich N a ll ow abl e stress indu ced by a comp ression l oad act

ing at an angl e 0 t o the g rain direct ion p ou nd s p er ,

s qu are inch

P all ow abl e s tress in com p ression p arall el t o g rain,

p ou nd s p er s qu are inch ( 0 in Tabl e 2 4 )

Q all ow abl e s tres s in comp ression p erpend icu l ar t o

g rain p ound s p er s qu are inch ( Tabl e 24 )

,

angl e b etw een d irect ion of l oad and d irect ion of

g rain

47
S h e arin g S t re s s in Jo in t D e t ail s

A ll ow abl e s ressest f or S hear 1 11 j omt d et ail s m ay be increased

50 p ercent o erv those p res ent ed f or horiz ont al shear in T abl e 2 4 .

RE F ERE N CE S

A M ERI CA N A S S OCIA TION OF S TATE HI GH W AY OFFI CIA LS : S tandard sp eci ca fi

tions f or hig hw ay bridg es, W ashing t on, 1 9 41 .

A M ERI CA N RAI L WAY E N GI N EERS A S S OCIATI ON : N otes on w orking stresses f or

st ru ctural g rades of A m erican Lu mb er S tandards M anu al A m Ry Eng
—
. . . .
‘

A ssn , Chicag o, E d
. . of 19 2 9 , p p 5 36 43 . .

A M ERI CA N S OCIETY T ES TI N G M ATERIA L S : S tandard fi

S p eci cations f or
'

F OR

stru ctural w ood j oist and p lank beams and string ers and p osts , , and

timbers S erial .
, D esig nation :D 2 45 3 7 1 93 7 B ook of S tandards A m
, S oc -
. .

T est M at , P hilad elp hia P t I I

. .
,
. .

D efinitions of term s relating t otim ber S erial D esig nation :D 9 30 , .

-

1 930 B ook of S tandards, A m S oc T est M at , P hiladelp hia, P t I I

'

BETTS , HAROLD S : Tim ber—its s treng th, seasoning , and g rading

. . . . . .

. M cGraw .

Hill Book Co N ew .
,
York ,
1919 .

B U REAU OF S TA N DARDS : L um ber S imp lified p ractice

. recommendation

121 6 3 9
-
. D ep t Comm
U . S . . .
, W ashing t on, 1 940 .

CLI N E, M C GARVEY and A L HEI M . . : Tes ts of s tru ctu ral tim bers . U . S . D ep t .

Ag r. F or S erv Bu l 1 0 8 ,
. . . W ashing ton , 1912 .

46 Wood handbook, f ootnot e 32 , p 56 A ls o I nves tig ation of crus hing

. .

s treng th of sp ru ce a t varying ang les of g rain, U S A ir S erv I nf orm Ciro . . . . .

2 5 9 , 1 92 1 .

N a tional desig g rade lum ber

47 n sp ecification f or s tress -
and its f as tening s,

rev footnote 7 .
 W ORK I N G S T RE S S E S F OR ST RU CT UR A L LUM BER
A

2 76 -

FORES T P RODUCT S LABORATORY : W ood handbook , rev . U . S . D ep t . Ag r.

Unnu mbered P ubl W ashing ton 1 940 .

, ,
.

D esig n o f w ood aircra ft s tru ctu res . A N C Bul . 18 . A rm y N avy -

Civil Comm on A ircraf t D esig n Crit eria, A ero B oard, W as hing t on, 1 9 44
. . .

F ORS AI TH , C C : The technolog y of N ew Y ork S tate tim bers

. . N Y S tate . . .

Coll F or T ech P ubl 1 8 , Sy racus e, 1 926

. . . . .

HAN S EN HOWARD JIE Tim ber eng ineers handbook J ohn Wiley
,
S ons , .

N ew Y ork , 1 9 48 .

M odern timber desig n . 2d . ed . J ohn Wiley S ons N ew , York ,

1 948
—p
.

HOLT M AN ,
DUDLE Y F : . Wood cons tru ction incip les, p ractice, details
r .

M cGraw Hill B ook Co -

.
,Y ork 1 929N ew , .

JA COBY HEN RY S and

,
desig n and cons tru ction
.
,
ROLA N D P DAVI S : Tim ber .

2 d ed J ohn W iley . S ons N ew Y ork 1 930 , , .

KOE HLER A RT H UR : The p rop erties and us es of w ood M cGraw Hill Book
,
.
-

Co N ew Y ork 1 924
.
, , .

M AR K WARDT L J Comp arative s treng th p rop erties of woods g rown in the

,
.

United S tates U S D ep t A g r T ech Bul 1 5 8 Washing ton 1 930 . . . . . . .

, ,
.

W ood as an eng ineering m at erial ( Eig ht eenth Edg M arburg lec

—
-

ar

ture) P roc A m S oc Tes t M ai , Philadelp hia, V ol 43 , 1 9 43 , p p 435 92

. . . . . . . . .

and T R C W I L S ON : S treng th and related p rop erties of w oods

. . .

g rown in the United S ta tes U S D ep t A g r T ech Bu l 479, W ashing ton, . . . . . . .

1 935 .

M CELH AN N EY , T A and AS S OCIATES :Canadian woods : their p rop erties and . .

u s es . Canada
Ott aw a, 1 93 5 D ep t . Int .
, .

NATION A L LU M BER M A N UF A CT U RE RS A S S OCIATI ON : Wood s tru ctural desig n

data, Vol I W ashing ton, 1 941 . . .

N ational desig n sp ecification f or s tress g rade lu m ber and its f as ten -

ing s, rev W ashing ton, 1 948 . .

N EW LI N , J A : Unit stresses in timb er P roc A m S oc Civil Eng , N ew

—
. . . . . . .

Y ork, V ol 52 , S ep t 1 926 , p pi 1 486 43

N ew Y ork
A ls o in Trans A m S oc Civil Eng
.

, Vol 9 1 D ec 1 92 7, p p 40 0 0 7
.
.

, . .
.

— .
. . .

and J . M GA H A GA N : Tes ts of larg e tim ber

. colu mns and p res enta tion
o f the F ores t P rodu cts L aboratory colu mn f ormu la . U . S ep t A g r
. D . .

T ech Bu l 1 6 7, . . W ashing t on, 1 930 .

j

R P A J OH N S ON : Basic g rading ru les and working s tresses

and . . .

f or s tru ctural tim bers U S D ep t A g r D ep t Circ 295 , W ashing ton, 1 923

—
. . . . . . . .

and S tru ctural timbers d ef ects and their infl u ence on

s treng th P roc A m S oc Tes t M a i , P hil adelp hia Vol 24 P t 2 1 924,
—
. . . . . . . .
, , ,

p p 9 75 8 7
. .

and T RAYER, G . W . : The infl u ence of the f orm of a w ooden beam on

its s ti ff ness and s treng th, II . F orm f actors o f beams su b ected j to trans
verse loading only . N at A dv Comm A ero T ech Rep t 1 8 1 ,
. . . . . . Washing ton,
1 92 4 .

and T . R . C . W I LS ON : M echanical p rop erties of w oods g rown in

the United S ta tes U S D ep t A g r Bu l 5 56 W ashing t on, 1 9 1 7 . . . . . .
, .

P ARKE R HARRY :S imp lified desig n of s tru ctural tim ber J ohn W iley
, . S ons ,
N ew Y ork 1 948 , .
 P A R T

T im ber T es tin g 1

W OR K I N G BL A N

B ef ore m ak ing a s eries of t imb er

giv en p roj ect it is test s on a

p ract icall y ess ential t o p rep are a w ork ing p l an as a g u id e t o

the inv est ig ation This shou ld inclu d e a d is cussion of : ( 1 ) the
.

p urp ose of the t est s to be m ad e ; ( 2 ) the k ind s iz e cond ition and , , ,

am ou nt of m at erial need ed ; the method of coll ect ion and dis .

p osition of m at erial incl u d ing a f u ll d es crip t ion of the sy st em of

,

m arking ; ( 4 ) the t est p roced ure w ith d et ail s of any sp ecial ap ,

p aratu s and m ethod s u s ed ; and ( 5 ) the p rop osed m et hod Of

anal y z ing the d at a obt ained and the nat ure of t he fi nal rep ort .

Great care S hou ld be t ak en in the p rep arat ion of t his p l an in ord er

that all p robl em s arising m ay be ant icip at ed as f ar as p ossibl e and
d el ay s and unnecess ary w ork av oid ed A comp rehensiv e stu d y Of .

p rev ious inv estig at ions al ong the s am e or rel at ed l ines shou ld
p ro v e v ery hel p f u l in ou t lin ing th e w ork an d p re p ar in g t he re

p o rt A .s am p l e w ork ing p l an is p res ent ed on p a g es 3 53

'

—67 .

F O RM S O F M A T E R IA L T E S T ED

Ingeneral f our f orm s of m at erial are test ed

,
-

,
namel y : ( 1 ) small
cl ear p ieces u su al ly 2 by 2 inches in cros s
,
s ec tion or sm a er, ll
1 The m ethods of t im b er t es ting des cribed in the f ollow ing p ag es are, f or
t he m ost p art , those u sed by the ores t P rodu cts ab orat ory , S orest F L U . . F
f
S ervice, and con orm t o the st andard m ethods adop t ed by the A m erican
S ociety f or T es ting M at erials .

S ee S tandard m ethods of t esting sm all clear sp ecim ens of tim ber, S erial
D esig nation : D 1 43 48, 1 9 48 B ook of S tandards, A m S oc T est M at ,
-
. . .
_
.

P hiladelp hia, P t II . .

A ls o S tandard m ethods of condu cting static t ests of tim bers in stru ctu ral
s iz es , S erial D esig nation : D 1 98—
27 ,
1 92 7 B ook of S tandards, A m S oc T est . . .

M at .
,
Philadelp hia P t II , . .

'

S tandard m ethods f or t esting p ly w ood , v eneer, and other w ood and w ood
base m at erials S erial D esig nation : D 8O5 47 1 947 B ook of S tandards, A m
,
-

, .

S OC T est M at , Philad elp hia, P t I I

. . . .
 SP E CI M EN S I ZE I N REL A TI ON T O T E S T P U RP OS E S 2 79

d ep end ing on kind of t est ; ( 2 ) tim b ers in structural siz es su ch ,

as b ridg e string ers j oist s car s ill s and col umns ; ( 3 ) b u ilt u p
, , ,
-

st ru ct u ral f orms and f ast ening s su ch as b u ilt up b eam s t ru ss es ,

-

, ,

and v ariou s k ind s of j oint s ;2 and ( 4 ) m anu f act ured art icl es or

p rod u ct s such as l add ers t ool handl es S haft s w ag on t ongu es

cros s arm
, , , ,

s insu l at or p ins p ol es cont ainers and v ariou s f orms of

, , , ,

p l yw o od or l aminat ed w ood const ru ct ion -

.

S I ZE OF S PE CI M EN S I N RELA T I ON T O P U RP OS E S OF T E S T

T he siz e of the t est sp ecim en mu st be g ov erned l arg el y by the

p urp ose f or w hich the t est is m ad e althou gh the siz e of the av ail ,

abl e mat erial the l im it at ions of t reat ment and other f act ors m u st
, ,

Oft en be t ak en int o consid erat ion I f the ef f ect of a s ingl e f act or

.
,

su ch as u nif orm l y d istrib u t ed m oistu re i s the obj ect of exp eri ,

ment it is necess ary to u se sm all p ieces of w ood in ord er t o el imi

,
/

nat e as f ar as p ossibl e all d isturb ing f act ors If the S p ecim ens are .

too l arg e it is imp ossibl e to secu re enou gh p erf ect p ieces from one
,

tree to f orm a series f or v ariou s t est s M oreov er the d ry ing p roc .

,

ess w it h l arg e t im b ers is v ery d iffi cu lt and irreg u l ar and req u ires

a l ong p eriod of t im e b esid es cau s ing check s and int ernal stresses
,

which m ay ob s cure the resu lt s obt ained .

On the other hand the small er the d imensions of the t est sp eci
,

men the great er b ecom es the rel ativ e ef f ect of the inh erent f act ors
,
-

a f f ect ing the m e chanical p rop ert ies F or ex amp l e the eff ect of a .
,

k not of g iv en Siz e is m ore seriou s in a small stick than in a l arg e

-

one . M oreov er the Sm all er the sp ecimen the f ew er grow th ring s

,

it cont ains ; hence there is g reat er opp ortu nity f or v ariat ion du e
,

to minor irregu l arit ies of grain .

S m al l cl ear sp ecim ens of tim b er are t est ed p rincip all y in st at ic

“

b end ing comp ression p arall el to the grain imp act b end ing com
, , ,

p r e s s io n p per e nd ic u l a r t o t h e g ra in h a rd n es s s h ea r p arall el t o t
,
h e ,

grain 3 t ension p erp end icu l ar to the grain cl eav ag e and t ension
, , ,

a r al l el t o t he gr a in S u ch t es t s ar e e s s en t ial in O bt aining :
p .

d t f m i g h m h i l t i f v riou s
( )
1 a a or co p a r n t e e c a n ca p ro p e r es o a

2 F or p rocedure in t es ting fabricated beam s and the like consu lt , ,

S tandard m ethods of condu cting st atic t ests of timbers in s tru ctu ral siz es .

f ootnote 1 .
4

3 T he test f or shearing streng th p erp endicu lar t o the g rain is not inclu ded
as one of the p rincip al t ests , since in s uch a t est the s treng th is lim ited by

the shearing resis tance p arallel t o the g rai

n.
280 T I M BER TEST IN G

sp ecies ; ( 2 ) d at a f or the est abl ishm ent of correct strengt h func

t ions w hich in conj unction w ith resu lt s of t est s of timb ers in
,

st ru ct ural siz es af f ord th e b asis f or fix ing all ow abl e stresses and

, ;
( 3 ) d at a on w hich to d et ermine the infl u ence on the m ech anical
p rop erties of su ch f act ors as d ensity l ocal ity of g row th p osit ion
, ,

in cross s ection of trunk heig ht of t imb er in the tree chang e Of

, ,

p rop erties w ith s easoning and chang e f rom s ap w ood t o heart

,

w ood .

T ests on t imb ers in stru ctural siz es are m ad e to af f ord : ( 1 ) d at a

on w h ich t o b as e the f ormu l ation of g rad ing rul es and sp ecifi ca

t ions ; ( 2 ) d at a on w h ich t o est abl ish the rel ation b etw een the
st rengt h p rop ert ies Of st ru ctural t imb ers and of sm all cl ear sp eci

m ens cut from th em and f oruSe in the est abl ishm ent of all ow abl e
,

stresses ; ( 3 ) d at a on the infl u ence of d ef ect s on the m echanical

p rop ert ies of timb ers ; ( 4 ) d at a on the streng th pr op ert ies of

d if f erent sp ecies in structural siz es ; ( 5 ) d at a f or us e in check ing

ex ist ing f ormu l as rel at ing t o st ru ctural t im b ers ; (6 ) d at a on the

influ ence of seasoning on th e m ech anical p rop ert ies ; ( 7 ) d at a on

the eff ect of f orm and sh ap e of sp ecim en on the p rop ert ies ; and
( 8 ) d at a on the infl uence of p reserv at iv es and method s of p re
serv ativ e t reatm ent on th e mech anical p rop er t ies T he t est s .

m ad e on su ch t imb ers are cl assifi ed as maj or and m inor t est s .

T he f orm er comp rise ( a ) st at ic b end ing t est s on the entire t imb ers
u nd er inv est ig at ion and ( b) t est s in comp ression p erp end icu l ar to
,

the grain and comp ression p arall el t o the grain on siz abl e p ieces
cut f rom the p rincip al m em b ers ; in al l cases the sp ecim ens cont ain

su ch d ef ect s as are norm a l t o th e m at erial u nd er t est The minor .

t ests are th ose in st at ic b end ing com p ression p arall el t o th e grain

, ,

com p ression p erp end icu l ar t o the g rain h ard ness and sh ear
, ,

p arall el t o the g rain w hich are m ad e on sm all cl ear sp ecim ens

,

cu t f rom the st ru ct u ral t im b ers .

M OI S T U RE D ETE RDI IN ATI ON

”

S ince the am ount of m oisture d in w ood has an imp or

con aine
t
t ant b earing on its streng th ( see M oisture Cont ent p age it ,

is essential th at the m oisture cont ent of al l sp ecim ens be d et er

mined at the t im e of t est ing and d efi nit el y st at ed w ith the d eriv ed -

st reng th v al u es . L ack of such d at a rend ers the resu lt s of any t est

p r act icall y v al u el ess f or compara t iv e p u rp oses .

2 82 T I M BE R TESTI N G

la tion m ethod .
6 A w eig hed ls am p e of
w ood chip s or s aw d u st is
immersed in xy l ol in a fl ask p rovid ed w ith a refl ux cond ens er and
a connect ing t rap ( F ig . W hen the fl ask is heated moistu re ,

from the w ood x y l ol and oil s are v ol a

, ,

til iz ed t og ether and cond ensed in the

refl ux cond ens er Cond ensed w at er is.

coll ect ed ln the g rad u at ed t rap and its

v olu me measured d irectl y ( u su ally in

?
“

cu b ic cent im et ers ) w hil e t he x y l ol and

Oil y ext ra ct iv es are returned t o the fl ask .

D ist ill ation is cont inu ed u ntil no a dd i

tional w at er coll ect s in the trap M ois .

ture content is then cal cu l at ed as w eight

of w at er coll ect ed and ex p ressed as a ,

p ercent ag e of dry w eig ht that is orig inal , ,

w eight l ess the w eight of m ois ture re

m ov ed
“

I n d et ermining the m oistu re cont ent Of

w ood that has receiv ed an Oil p reserv a -

t iv e treatment ov en dry w eig ht of oil

,
-

free w ood is d etermined by extracting

the p reserv at iv e w ith a su it abl e s olv ent ,

f oll ow ing the d istill ation p rocess j ust de

'

s crib ed and ov en d ry ing the extract ed

,
-

s am
°
p l e to const ant w eig ht at 1 0 5 C .

M A CHI N E S F O R S T A T I C T ES T S

The t d univ ers al machines u sed

s an ar d
f or of other st ru ctural m at erial s
t est s
are al s o u s ed f or w o od
‘

T hese m ay be .

Fo res t P rodu cts L aborat ry o Photo Of the hy d rau l ic OI Of the S CI OW typ e

‘

F IG . 63 . A p p aratus f or By su it abl e control v alv es g ear rat ios , ,

determ ining m OiS tu re 0 0 11 or m ot or sp eed s eit her ty p e of m a chine

,
t ent by the distillation
m ay imp ose a uniform rat e Of strain on
method
a t es t sp ecim en
.

6S t andard m ethod of t est f or w ater in p etroleu m p rodu cts and other

bitu m inou s m at erials , S eria l D esig nation : D 95 46 1 9 46 B ook of S tand ards,
“
-

A m S oc T est M at , Philadelp hia, P t I I

. . . . . .

A ls o J ohn M M cM illen M ethods of determ ining the m ois ture content

.
,

of w ood, F or P rod L ab Rep t R I6 49 , M adis on, 1 9 47

. . . . .
 M A CHI NE S F OR S T A T I C T E S T S 283

T he t d d univ ersal machines f or st atic t est s can be u sed

s an ar

f or transv erse b end ing comp ression t ension shear hard ness and
, , , , ,

cl eav ag e . Sp ecial m achines are req u ired f or imp act b end ing and
t ou ghness t ests ( s ee F ig s 72 and !
A u niv ersal m achine f or
.

st at ic t est s consis t s Of tw o m ain p art s nam el y : ( 1 ) the st raining

,

m echanism and ( 2 ) the w eighing ap p aratus

, .

T h e straining m echanism its elf consist s of tw o p art s a cross ,

head and a p l atf orm one of w hich is d riv en m ech anical l y or

“

hy d rau l icall y .

I n one ty p e of mechanical m achine the m ov abl e crosshead

is op erat ed by a num b er of u p right s t eel straining screw s th at p as s
throu gh op ening s in the p l atf orm and b ear up w ard on the bed of
.

the m achine I n s om e m achines the l ow er ends Of these s crew s

‘

hav e g eared nu ts all rot at ed simu lt aneou s ly by a syst em Of g ears

which cau se the m ov abl e crosshead to rise and f all as d esired ;
in others the s crew s them selv es are m ad e t o rot at e .

T he w eighing p l atf orm of a mechanical typ e t est ing m achine -

res t s on k nif e edg es carried by p rim ary l ev ers of the w eighing

ap p aratu s the f u l cru m b eing on th e bed of the machine

,
In .

old erm od el s any p ressu re on this p l atf orm is d irectl y t rans m itt ed

throu gh a series of l ev ers to the w eighing b eam T his b eam is .

b al anced b ef ore t est by m eans of an adj ust abl e count erp oise I n .

Op erat ion the b eam is k ep t in b al ance by m eans Of another p ois e ,

m ov ed by a scr ew t hat is op erat ed m anu all y or au t om at icall y .

The l arg er u n— it s of l oad are read from the g rad u at ions al ong th e
'
'

s id e Of the b eam w h il e the int ermed iat e sm all er weight s are

“

ob s erv ed on the d ial at the end ot th e b eam M ore recentl y the

'

.
,

l oad on the w eighing p l atf orm is red u ced th rou gh a series of -

l ev ers and transmitt ed to a cal ibrat ed p end ul um T he l inear .

d isp l acem ent of the p end u l u m is transl at ed int o the rot ary
m ov em ent of a d ial p oint er a nd the l oad is read d irectl y on the
,

d ial s cal e .

Th e m ach ine is d riv en by p ow er f rom a sh aft or a m ot or and

is so g eared that v ariou s sp eed s are obt ainabl e I n m ak ing .

t est s the op erat ion of the straining s crew s is al w ay s d ow nward

s o as t o b ring p ressu re to b ear on the w eighing p l atf orm F or .

t ests in t ension and cl eav ag e the sp ecim en is att ached to the

m ov abl e crosshead and t o a st eel cag e ab ov e t his crosshead t hat , ,

rest s d irectl y on the w eighing p l atf orm A t ens ion l oad is thu s.

d ev el op ed throu gh the dow nw ard m ov em ent of the l ow er cross

284 T I M B ER TE S T I N G

h ead . b end ing compression hard ness and shear

F or tests in , , ,

the sp ecimen is p l aced b et ween the m ov abl e head and the p l at

f orm and a direct compressio
,
. n l oad ap p l ied .

I n a comm on typ e of hy d rau l ic t est ing m achine ( F ig

-
the .

p l atf orm or p l at en is m ount ed d irectl y on a hy d rau l ic ram and is

raised by fl u id p ump ed int o the cy l ind er at a controll ed rat e .

I n this ty p e of mach ine the crossh ead m ount ed on t ens ion ,

s crew s that p ass f r eel y t hrou g h the p l at en i s fix ed during th e ,

app l icat ion Of l oad Comp ression l oad s are app l ied t o sp ecimens
.

p l aced b etw een the m ov abl e p l at en and the crosshead W hen .

-

t ension l oad s are d esired the sp ecimen is m ount ed b etw een the
,

fix ed crosshead and an up p er crosshead att ached to the p l at en ,

by comp ression col u mns The t op crossh ead m ov es up w ard w hen

.

Oil is p u mp ed int o the cyl ind er th u s d ev el op ing a t ension l oad

,
.

I n t his ty p e of h y d rau l ic m ach ine the l oad on the sensit iv e,

( fix ed ) crosshead is al w ay s ex ert ed inan u p w ard d irect ion This .

l oad is transm itt ed by the t ension screw s on w hich the sensitiv e

crosshead is m ount ed t o a hy d rau l ic w eighing cap su l e T he .

p res su re on a small q u ant ity of oil in the cap su l e is transmitt ed

throu gh a hy d rau l ic connection t o a B ourd on tu b e typ e Of ~indi -

cat or and the l oad is read d irectl y from a g radu at ed d ial

,
.

F or t est ing l ong b eam s an ext end ed p l atf orm is u sed w ith
eith er m echanica l or hy d rau l ic m achines I n t esting w ood it is .

st and ard p ract ice to t ak e s imu lt aneou s read ing s of l oads and

d ef ormations on the fl y ! :
“
the m achine b eing op erat ed at a uni
f orm rat e of strain w ith out int errup tion f rom b eginning to end Of
t est Th is el iminat es the eff ect of a v ariabl e time f act or on the
.

strength of the w ood and f acil it at es the p rogress of the w ork .

T esting m achines are u su ally cal ib rat ed to a p ort ion of their

cap acity b ef ore l eav ing the f act ory T hey sh ou ld be further
.

cal ib rat ed at su ffi cientl y freq u ent int erv al s t o insure accuracy .

F or m ach ines in const ant u se su ch v erifi cat ion shou ld be m ad e at

,

int erv al s of 6 m onth s ; w hen their u se is int ermitt ent cal ib rat ion ,

7
shou ld be m ad e ev ery 2 or 3 y ea s r .

T he siz e of mach ine su it abl e f or t esting sm all sp ecimens de

“

p e n d s o n th e k in d of t est s inv o lv ed M achines of .

p ou nd s

ca a cit a re s om et im es recomm end ed f or g eneral t est i ng but

p y ,

S ee S tandard m ethods of v erifi cation of t esting m achines S erial D esig

7 ,

nation :E 4 47T 1 9 47 B ook of S tandards A m S oc T est M at P hiladelp hia ,

-

, ,
. . . .
,

P t II
. .
286 T I M BE R T E S T I N G

E xamp le . At w hat
d shou ld the crosshead mov e t o
sp ee

g iv e the req uired rat e of fi b er s train in t est ing a small b eam

2 inches x 2 inches x 3 0 inches ? ( S p an
"

2 8 inches ) S ub stitut .

ing t hese v al u es in eq u at ion2 ab ov e y ield s

x 28
2

n or app ro xim at el y inch p er m inu te

6x 2

D E S CR I P T I O N O F T E S T S

S t a t ic B e n d in —
g L a rg e Beam s
9

A p p ara tus t tic test ing m achine w ith a sp ecial crosshead

. A s a ,

f or third p oint l oad ing and a l ong p l atform b earing k nif e edg e
- -

F IG . 64 . S tatic bending -

tes t on a larg ebeam N ote a rrang ement of w ire

.

f or measu ring deflection ; method of ap p lying l oad at third

“
a nd s cal e al s o
”
p oints .

s u p p or s , t is d t og ether w ith a w ire and s cal e f or m easuring

re u ireq ,

d efl ection ,
and su it abl e b earing bl ock s b earing p l at es and roll ers
, ,

( s eeF ig .

P rep aring the M a terial . T he m at erial t est ed m ay be l t d

se ec e

9 S ee S tandard m ethods Of condu cting s tatic tests of t imb ers in Stru ctu ral
f ootnote 1 f or w orking p lan and fu rther details
-

s iz es , ,
of p rocedu re f or the
three m aj or t ests m ad e on m aterial of this class .
 S T A T I C BEND I N G LA RGE BEA M S 2 87

f rom st and ard siz es and t imb ers in common

grad es of b eam s and _

u se or it m ay be sp ecia ll
, y cut f or the p u rp os e from stand ing t rees .

T he siz e of t est sp ecim ens naturall y d ep end s on the av ail abl e siz es
u s ed f or the p art icu l ar p u rp os e u nd er cons id erat ion and on the
,

av ail abl e m at erial Timb ers 8 by 1 6 inches or 6 by 1 2 inches in

.

nominal cros s s ection and 1 6 f eet l ong hav e b een ext ensiv el y u s ed
“

as rep resent at iv e of b ridg e s tring er siz es The t imb ers are su r .

f aced On four sid es and s q u ared at the end s b ef ore b eing t est ed .

T hey are then w eighed and l ength and actu al d ep th and w idth at
,

the cent er are m easured W eig hts shou ld be to the nearest

.

p ou nd l engths t o the nearest

, inch and cross sect ional dim en ,
-

sions t o the neares t inch .

M arking P hotog rap hing and S ketching

, The b u tt end of the
,
.

b eam is mark ed A and the top end B W h il e l ook ing at the b utt .

end the u pp er f ace ( t o w hich the l oad is ap p l ied ) is m

, ark ed a t he ,

rig ht hand f a ce b the b ott om f ac

-

,
e 0 and the l eft hand f ace d ,
-
.

A ir d ried t imb ers are p h ot ograp hed on f ou r s id es b oth b ef ore

-

and af ter t est ; u nseas oned t im b ers a ft e r t es t onl y The m iddl e .

of the l engt h of the b eam the l oad and su pp ort p oint s and the
.

, ,

ord er of occurrence of the f ail u res are ind icat ed s o as t o show in

the p hot og raph ; if necess ary t o b ring th em ou t in the p hot ograp h

the f ail u res are p encil ed or p oint ed .

S k et ches are m ad e of each f ace and end show ing ( 1 ) siz e l oca , ,
'

tion and typ e of k not s check s sh ak es sp l its and cross g rain ;

, , , , ,

( 2 ) d istrib ut ion of heartw ood and s apw ood ; ( 3 ) occu rrence of

‘

crook bow cup tw ist and other irreg u l arit ies that m ay be
“

, , , ,

p re s en t ; and on th e en d s ( 4 ) t he arrang em e n t o,
f t he g row t h rings
and the l ocat ion of the p ith w h en p resent R ecord is al so m ad e
,
.

of the nu m b er of ring s p er inch and the p rop ort ion of sum merw ood
1 0
( l at e w ood ) at each e dn .

T he num b er of ring s p er inch and the p rop ort ion of l at e w ood

S hou ld be d et erm ined ov er a 3 inc h p ort ion of a rad ial l ine rep re -

sentativ e Of theav era g e grow th on the cros s s ect ion ( s ee B as ic

P rov isions f or Grad ing Ru l es f or S t ru ctural Lu mb er p ag e 22 3 , ,

f or l ocat ion of this rad ial l ine in D ou gl as fi r and s oil thern p ine) .

T he av erag e nu m b er of ring s p er inch is the t ot al nu m b er O f

ring s d iv id ed by th e l ength Of the l ine cros sing t hem T he .

S ee F ig 6 5 f or m ethod of recording location and typ e of def ects and

—
10
‘

other p ertinent d at a Cross section p ap er or q u adrill e ru l ed not eb ook p ap er

.
-

is recomm ended f or conv eniently m aking the sk et ch of t he b eam t o s cal e

'

.
 T I M B ER TE ST I N G

”
f ace
“
a

v
Ele enrp i . . .
“
6
”
f ace
and 35 %

summer wood-

measured on a
representati
ve

al
radi line o er v
“ ”
3 rd 4ih and
, 0 f ace
5 th inches .

”
d f ace
“

D iag ra m P rep ared by Fo

res t P roducts L abora tory

FI G . 65 . S k et ch of s tru ctural siz e

-

timber s how ing m ethod of recording l oca

t ion and t yp e o f d e fects and ot herp ertinent d at a Brok en lin es indicat e test
.

fail ures ,
and th e a ccomp anying num bers t h eir order of occurrence.

p rop ortion of l at e w ood is equ al t o the sum of the w idths of th e

l at e w ood crossed by the l ine, d iv id ed by the l eng th of the l ine .

Ring s p er inch shou ld be t ak en t o the neares t l at e w ood to

the nearest 1 p ercent .

S ince in l arg e b eam s great v ariation in rat e of growt h and

a

rel at iv e am ount of l at e w ood m ay occu r in d i f f erent p art s of the

s ect ion it is a dv is abl e t o consid er the cross s ect ion in t hree v ol
,

u m es nam el y the u p p er and l ow er qu art ers and the m iddl e half

, ,
.

The d et erm inat ion shou ld be m ad e on each v ol um e s ep arat el y

and the av era g e f or the ent ire cros s s ect ion Ob t ained f ro these m
resu lt s .

A t the concl u sion of the t es t the f ail ures as they app ear on ,

ea ch su rf a ce are t ra ced on the s k et ch es b eing nu m b ered in t he

, ,

ord er of t heir occurrence I f th e b eam is su b sequ entl y cut u p

. .

and u s ed f or other t est s an a dd it ional sk et ch m ay be d esir abl e t o

show the l ocation of each t es t p iece .

A dj u s ting S p ecim en in M a chine T he t imb er is p l aced in the .

m achine w ith th e f ace m ark ed a on the t op and w ith the end s

p ro j ect ing equ a ll y b ey ond th e k nif e edg e s w hich are u s ed as
29 0 T I M BE R T E S T I N G

b earing bl ock and the b eam M et al b earing p l at es and roll ers

.

shou ld be used b etw ee n each bearing bl ock and the corresp ond ing
‘

knif e edg e of the crosshead in ord er to all ow f or the short ening

,

du e to fl exu re ; if the supp ort ing k nif e edg es are of the fu ll rock er -

2 —
req uired

Hard maple
Laminated construction g lued -
and bolted

F IG . 67 . D etails of
b earing bl ock f or timbers 1 2 t o 1 6 inches in dep th, w hen
tested in third p oint loading ov er a 1 5 foot sp an
-
T w o su ch b earing blocks
-
.

are u s ed .

ty p e rather than the hal f ro ck er typ e recommend ed p revious ly

-

roll ers s hou ld be p l ace d u nd er one l oad ing knif e edg e only T he .

p l at es b et w een roll ers an d k nif e edg es s h ou ld be not l es s th an

1 14 inches in thick ness ( see F ig .

T he details g iven in this p arag rap h ap p ly sp ecifi cally to timbers in

11

s tru ctu ral s iz es , su ch as 6 by 1 2 inch and 8 by 1 6 inch b ridg e string ers , t ested
- - - - - -

ov er a 1 5 f oot sp an
-
F or inf orm ation reg arding m at erial of other siz es see
.

S tandard m ethods of condu cting static t ests of timb ers in stru ctu ral siz es,
f ootnote 1 .
 S T A T I C B E ND I N G LA R GE BE A M S 29 1

P arall el ism sh ou
ld be obt ained at the b earing p oints in ev ery
ins tance I n the case of w arp ed b eams w edg es or shims shou ld
.
,

be u s ed b etw een the p l at e and the l oad ing or supp orting k nif e
edg es or b oth as m ay be neces s ary to ob t ain an ev en b earing
, ,

b ef ore the l o ad is app l ied .

M easu ring the D efl ection The met hod of m eas uring the de .

fl ection of the b eam at the cent er of the sp an s hou ld be su ch that

any comp ress ion at the p oint s of supp ort or at the app l icat ion Of

the l oad w ill not aff ect the read ing T his m ay beaccomp l ished .

by d riving a sm all nail near each end of the beam the ex act l oca
'

tion b eing on the neutral p l ane and v erticall y ab ov e each knif e

edg e supp ort B etw een thes e nail s a fi ne w ire is stret ched free
.

of the b eam and k ep t t au t by m eans of a ru bb er b and or coil ed -

S p ring on on e end B ehind the w ire at a p oint on the b eam

.
,

m idw ay b etw een the supp orts a st eel cabl e gradu at ed t o hu n ,

dredths of an inch is f ast ened v e rt icall y by m eans 3oi t hu m b t ack s -

or sm all s crew s p ass ing t hrou gh h ol es in it A tt achment shou ld .

be m ad e on the neu tral p l ane ( see F ig s 1 0 and W here .

Sp ecial refi nement is d esired d efl ect ion read ing s m ay be tak en

"

simu l t aneou s l y on b ot h s id es of the b eam the w i res b eing s up

“

p ort ed ov er free ru nning p ull eys and held t au t w ith small

-

su sp end ed w eight s .

T he fi rs t read ing is m ad e w hen t he s cal e b eam is b al anced at

z ero l oad subseq uent rea d ings are m ad e at regu l ar increm ent s of
,
-

the l oad w hich is app l ied cont inu ou sl y w it h a unif orm m ot ion of
,

the m ov abl e hea d ( see S p eed of T est ing M achine, pag e If

d esired how ev er the l oad m ay be read at regu l arincrements of
, ,
"

d efl ection T he d efl ection read ing s shou ld be t o the nearest

.

inch T o av oid error du e t o p arall ax th e read ing s m ay be t ak en

‘

.
,

by m eans of a read ing t el es cop e ab ou t 1 0 f eet d is t ant and app roxi

m at el y on a l ev el w ith the w ire A mirror f ast ened to the s cal e .

w il l increase the accu racy of the rea d ing s if the t el es cop e is not
u sed . A s in al l t est s on t imb er the s train mu st be cont inu ou s t o ,

ru p tu re not int ermitt ent and read ing s mu s t be tak en

“
, ,
on the
”
fly . I n b eam ty p e m achines the w eighing b eam is k ep t b al anced
-

aft er the p rop ort ional l im it is reached T he m ax imu m l oad and .

at l eas t one p oint b ey ond it are not ed .

Log of the Tes t T he p rop er log sheet f or this t est consist s

.

of a p iece of cros s — sect ion p ap er w it h sp ace at the m arg in f or

not es ( see F ig T he l oad s in Some conv enient u nit ( 1 0 0 0 t o

.
2 92 TI M BER TESTI NG

p ound s , d ep end ing on the d im ensions of the sp ecim en) are

ent ered as ord inat es the corresp ond ing d efl ect ions as ab s
, ciss as .

T he increments of l oad shou ld be chos en so as to furnish at l eas t

1 0 p oints on the l oad—defl ection d iag ram b ef ore the p rop ortional -

l im t is reached ; ord inaril y increme

i —
n ts of 20 00 p ound s are s atis
f act ory w ith m aterial Of structural siz e .

A s read ing s of the w ire on the s cal e are m ad e, they are ent ered
d irectly in their p rop er p l ace on the cross section p ap er I n m any -
.

cas es a t es t shou ld be cont inu ed u nt il comp l et e f ail u re resu lt s .

L oad and d efl ection read ing s shou ld be t ak en at the p oint s w here

the v arious f ail ures or su dd en chang es occur and ref erence to
t em s o ld b
h h u e m ad e o n t h e r —
st ess strain d iag ram ev en thou gh ,

th ey m ay not occur at one of the regu l ar l oad or d efl ect ion

increm ent s . A b rief d es crip tion of the typ e and manner of
f ail ures is m ad e on the marg in of the l og s h eet , and their f orm and
p o s it io n a re t ra ce d on th e s k e t ch es w ith
,
not at ions as t o th e or d er

of th eir occurrence .

D isp osal of S p ecim en T w o one inch sections are cut f rom the
.
-

reg ion of f ail u re t o be u sed in d et erm ining the av erag e m oisture

cont ent and the d ist rib u t ion of moisture ( s ee M oisture D et er

minat ion, p ag e T he remaind er of the s ect ion of the b eam

cont aining the f ail u re is held f or ex aminat ion and ref erence u nt il

anal y s is of t he d at a has b een comp l et ed A 2 inc h section is

‘

-
.

al s o ret ained f or p urp oses of id ent ifi cat ion and fu tu re ref erence ,

and f or p oss ibl e micros copic s tu d y ; the num b er of ring s p er inch

and p rop ort ion of su mm erw ood s hou ld b e record ed f or this

s ect ion. The rem aind er of the b eam may be cut int o su it abl e
sp ecim ens f or m aj or comp ression t est s and int o small cl ear

s p ecim ens f or the m is cell aneo u s m inor t ests .

Calcu la ting the R esu l ts T he f ormu l as u sed in cal cu l at ing the

.

resu lt s of t est s on l arg e rect ang u l ar s imp l e b eam s l oad ed at th ird

p o in t s o f t h e sp an a re as f oll o w s

0 75P
. l (P 0 7 5 W)
.

0 75 W )
3
up , . P1l
(2 ) 7
2 (4 ) E 3
bd 4 7D bd
.

(5 ) S
294 T I M BE R T E S T I N G

m anner unt il need ed . I n any case tthe p eriod of

g ld be s ora e shou

as short as p oss ibl e Ju st p rior t o t est ing t he b eams are cu t t o

.
,

l ength and surf aced on all f o u r sid es care b eing t ak en that they
,

are not d am ag ed by the roll ers of the su rf a cing m achine .

S ketching and R ecording D a ta S k et ches are m ad e on the l og

.

s heet ( see F ig 6 9 ) of each end of the sp ecim en t o be t est ed to

.

F IG . St atic bending test on a sm all beam

68 .
-
N ote the u se of defl ectometer
.

w ith indicator and s cal e f or m easu ring the deflections ; als o roller bearing u nit
-

betw een the beam and supp orting k nife edg es .

s how the chara ct er ofg rowth ; after t esting the m anner of f ail ure
,

is show n on al l f our sid es T he sp ecimens are caref i

. I l ly Weig hed

in grams and the actu al d ep th and w idth at the cent er and the
,

l ength are measured t o the nearest inch D at a are al so.

record ed as t o the nu m b er of ring s p er inch and w hen p ossibl e , ,

the p ercent a g e of summ erwood ; these charact erist ics are d et er

m ined al ong a rad ial l ine rep resent at ive of the av erag e grow th
of the cross s ect ion Record is al so m ad e of the p rop ort ion of
.

s ap w ood T he av erag e m oisture cont ent is d et erm ined imm edi

.

at el y aft er t es t ing f rom a 1 inch s ect ion cu t near the f ail ure ( s ee
-

M oist u re D et erminat ion p ag e ,

 S T A T I C B E ND I N G S M A LL BEA M S 2 95

T I M BER T ES T LO G S HEET

T I M BER T ES T ING LA B O RA T O R Y YA LE S CHOO L OF F O RES T R Y

Ship N o. .
1 S tick N O Col lector s NO
’
36
.

Laboratory NO 71 2 M ark B 1 5 76 9
. Piece Yale No .

S cientific name X lop io S taudtii

S p an 28

Distance betw een collars

W idth of p late

M ach sp eed 0 1 0 5 in er min

.
p . .

Dep th Of sp ecimen 1 _

”
W idt h
“

1 96-

W eig ht ms .

Ring s p er inch
Sap wood QL _

M oisture content fi% _ _

Kind of failure S plinterin

g
tension

m q wg uo x
r
O O .

O O O O O O O
Def lection ( inches)

F IG . 69 . S am p le log sheet f or static bending

-
t est on small clear b eam .
29 6 T I M B ER T E STI N G

A dj us ting S p ecimen in M achine Cent er load ing and a sp an

.
‘

l ength of 2 8 inches are used ~ T he sp eCI m en is correctl y cent ered

.

v
o er the tw o ting k nif e edg es b eing p l aced s o t hat the
supp or ,

l oad w ill be app l ied to the t ang ent ial ( fl at s aw ed ) surf ace nearest
.
-

the B earing p l at es and roll ers hav ing a t ot al t hick ness of

,

No 8 rd head
. .

00 d screw .

Block to f it Opening
in movable head
testing machine u

F IG . 70 . D etails of bearing bl ock f or static bending t es ts

-

On sm all
clear sp ecim ens .

ap p ro x imat ely 1 14 inches are p l aced b etw een the b eam and each
,

su pp orting k nif e ed g e t hu s b ring ing the neu tral p l ane of the

,

t est sp ec men ab out 2 4 inches from the knif e edg es T he

i 1 . .

knif e edg es are adj ust abl e l at erally to p ermit adj ustment f or
s l ig ht tw ist or ot her f orm of w arp in the sp ecim en B etw een the .

‘
cross head of the m achine and th e s p ecim en is p l aced a b earing

bl ock of m ap l e or oth er hard w ood the l ow er surf ace of w hich is

,

curv ed in a d irect ion al ong the b eam ; t his curv ature shou ld be

s l ightl y l es s t han t hat of the b eam at rup ture in ord er to p rev ent ,
2 98 T I M BER TE ST I N G

d
re raw n as a p arall el l ine p assing throu gh the orig in of co

ord inat es T he adj u st ed curv e p ermits d irect read ing Of the t ru e

.

d efl ection associat ed w ith a p articul ar l oad and is u sed in

cal cu l at ing mod u l u s Of el ast icity and work t o p rop ort ional l im it .

A b rief d escrip tion of the f ail u re and the nature of any d ef ect s
is ent ered on the log sheet B end ing f ail u res are cl assifi ed accord
.

ing to the ap p earance of the f ractu red surf ace and accord ing to -

the m anner in w hich the f ail ure d ev el op s The fractured su r .

f aces m ay be rou ghly d iv id ed int o bras h and fi brou s the t erm ,

” ”
“
b rash ind icating an ab ru p t f ail ure and t erm fib rous ind icating “

a f racture show ing s p l int ers T he t est f ail u res are cl assifi ed and
.

des eribed as ( 1 ) simp l e t ension ( 2 ) cross grained t ension 1 3 ,

-

( 3 ) S p l int ering t ension ( 4 ) b rash t ension ( 5 ) comp ression and

, , ,

( 6 ) ho riz ont al shear ( f or d es crip t ions and ill u st rat ions Of th es e

t erms see p ag es 48— 52 a nd F ig If tw o or m ore k ind s of.

f ail ure d ev el op all shou ld be d es crib ed in the ord er of th eir

,

occurrence .

Calcu la ting the R esu l ts f ormu l as u sed in . T he l

ca cu a l ting the
resu lt s of t est s on sm all rect angu l ar simp l e b eam s are as f oll ow s

O 7 SP
.

(1 ) J (3 ) R z
bd bd
3
P1l
-

(2 ) r
z (4) E 3
bd 4D bd

P 1 1)
(5 ) S
2V
—
area u nd er l oa d defl ect ion cu rv e t o m ax im u m l oad ,
14

inch p ou nd s
-

(6 ) Si
V
—
t otal area u nd er l oad defl ection cu rve, inch p ou nds -

(7 ) 32
V

In a dd ition to the l eg end u se d on p ag e 2 9 3 ,

.

S1 w ork t o m axim u m l oad ,

inch p ou nd s p er
-

cu b ic inch
S2 t ot al w ork , inch p ou nd s p er cu b ic inch
-

The w eig ht Of the b eam itself -

is d isreg ard ed .

13 T he t est is cu lled if the s lop e of the g rain d ev iat es

cross m ore than 1
in 2 0 from t he l ong itu dinal edg es of the sp ecim en .

Us e of a p lanimeter is recomm ended f or the m easu rem ent

14 of areas in
volved in the determination of w ork v alu es .
 I M P A CT BE N D I N G 2 99

T he resu lts shou l d be t ab ul ated on a su i a t bl e com p u t ation d ata

car d ( s ee F ig .

I m p a ct B e n d in g

A p p aratu s l typ es of im p act t est ing m a

. There are se era v -

chi s
n e 1 5
One of the m ost simp l e and effi cient is the s o—
. call ed

Hatt T urner m achine u s ed by the U S F orest S ervice w hich is a

-

. .
,

m od ifi cat ion of the P u rdu e Univ ersity imp act m achine 1 6 ( see
F ig .

This m achine consist s ess entiall y of a hammer s l id ing be

tw een v ertical gu id e col um ns T he h am mer is raised by an .

el ectric m ag net w hich is p u ll ed Up or l ow ered as d esired by a

mechanism d riv en by a mot or m ou nt ed on the t op of the col u m ns .

Current f or the m agnet coil is f u rnish ed by a sm all dy nam o

d riv en by the s am e m ot or T he h ammer is l et d rop w hen the .

m agnetic circu it is b rok en w ith the throw ing of a sw it ch on the

m agnet by a trip p ing p m This tripp ing p in s l id es on a s cal e .

att ached t o one of the g u id e col um ns and is cap abl e of b eing set

at any d es ired p os it ion The s cal e it self is m ov abl e v erticall y .

f or adj u stm ent T he b as e Of the m achine consist s of a heav y

.

cast ing t o w hich th e gu id e col u mns are b olt ed and w hos e up p er

f ace is sl ott ed t o receiv e att achm ent s f or supp orting the sp ecim en .

M ount ed on the b as e of the m achine and near the gu id e col umns is “

a b ra ss d rum or holl ow cy l ind er This d ru m is f ree t o rot at e .

ab ou t a v ert ical ax is and is s o p osit ioned t hat a sty l u s carried by

“

the hamm er can be press ed ag ainst its su rf ace by a sp ring An

'

arrang em ent is p rov id ed f or m ou nt ing a tu ning fork in su ch a _

m anner that a sty l u s fix ed to one of its p rong s m ay be p ress ed '

ag ainst the d rum T he m achine is equ ipp ed w ith ham m ers

.

w eighing 2 5 50 1 0 0 and 2 00 p ou nd s A d et achabl e

, , ,
.
,

rou nd ed st rik ing bl ock m ay b e fix ed t o the l ow er end of each of

15 S ee T hom as R C . . W ils on ,
I m p act t es ts of . w ood, P roc A m . . S oc Tes t
. .

’
M a i P hilad elp hia V ol 22 P t 2
.
, ,
.
, , pp
55 70 , 1 922
. .
-
.

W K Hatt . . and W . P T urner, T h e P u rdu e Univ ersity

. im p act m achine ,

P roc A m S oc T es t M a t
. .
,
Ph il a
.d elp h ia
,
V ol
. 6 pp 462—75 , 1 906
. .
,
. .

T h e m achine f or t ou g hness t ests , des crib ed on p ag es 3 2 1 —39 is an ex

t rem ely s im p le f orm of im p act testing m achine of the s ing le drop ty p e , - -

es p ecially d esig ned f or a ccep t ance t es ts of w ood int end ed f or ex act ing us es ,

su ch as airp l ane and p rop ell er constru ct ion,

16 T he f ollow ing
des crip tion of th e H at t T u rner m achine — and the m eth od

of t est is t ak en l arg ely from W ils on, f ootnot e 1 5

u
.
30 2 T I M BER T ES TI N G

S k etching and R ecording D a ta . S k et ch es are m ad e and m eas

u rem ents ther d at a record ed on suit abl e log sheet s and
and o

com p ut at ion d at a card s

J “
1 7
.

A dj us tment in M achine The sp ecimen is cent ered ov er the

‘

su pp ort ing k nif e edg es w hich hav e a sp an of 2 8 inch es

,
I t is .

p l aced s o t hat the l oad w ill b e ap p l ied throu gh the st rik ing bl ock
t o the t angent ial ( fi at s aw ed ) s u rf ace nearest the p ith
’

M ethod A ft er th e sp ecim en is p l aced in p osit ion the hamm er

.
,

( w ithout the magnet ) is all ow ed t o rest on it w hil e the d ru m is -

rot at ed and the sty l u s att ach ed t o th e h am m er t races a d atu m

,

l ine on the record sheet mount ed on the d rum T he hamm er is .

then raised f or the fi rst d rop and as it f all s on the stick the , , ,

op erat or t u rns the d ru m s l ig htl y w hil e the hamm er is com ing t o

rest . This is d one in ord er to g et sep arate and d istinct sty l us .

traces Of ( 1 ) the height of d rop ( as l ong as this d oes not ex ceed

the height of the d rum ) ( 2 ) the d efl ect ion p rod u ced by the d rop
, ,

and ( 3 ) the s et or the p os it ion of the hamm er a ft er it has com e

,

to rest on the st ick Su ch a record is t ak en f or each d rop u nt il

.

fi rst f ail u re occurs and shou ld af f ord d at a from w hich the ex act
height of d rop can be s cal ed f or at l east the fi rst f our f all s ( see
F ig . A ft er fi rst f ail ure the record ing d rum is sw ung cl ear
,

of the sty l u s and l oad ing is cont inu ed T he fi rst d rop is 1 inch .
,

and the increase is by increm ent s of 1 inch Unt il a height of

-

1 0 inch es is reached aft er w hich increm ent s of 2 inches are u s ed

,

u nt il comp l et e f ail u re occu rs or 6 inch d efl ect ion is Obt ained

-
.

A 50 p ou nd hamm er is u sed w hen w ith d rop s up to the cap acity

-

of the m achine ( ab ou t 6 8 inches f or the sm all Hatt T u rner im p act

'

—
-

m achine) it is p racticall y ce t
,
r a in h
t ta com pl t f l
e e ai u re or 6 inch
d efl ection w ill resu lt f or all sp ecimens Of a sp ecies ; in all other
cases a 1 0 0 p ound h amm er is u sed
-
.

R esu l ts T he t racing on the g rap hic d rum record ( F ig

.
73 ) .

rep res ent s the act u al d efl ect ion of the st ick and the su b seq u ent

reb ou nd s f or each d rop u nt il fi rst f ail u re occu rred The d ist ance .

f rom th e l ow est p oint in each cas e to the d atum l ine is measu red ,

and its s q u are in t enth s O f a s q u are inch is ent ered as an ab s ciss a

on cross — sect ion pap er w ith the height of d rop in inches a s the
,

ord inat e T he p rop ort ional l im it is th at p oint of the d iagram

.

w here the sq u are of the d efl ect ion b eg inS t o increase m ore rap idly

17 S eeS tandard m ethods of t est ing s m al l e

cl ear sp ecim ns of timber, f oot
note 1 F ig s 3 4 and 3 5 of A p p endix
. .
.
 I M PA CT BE N D I N G 303

Comp l ete f ail ure by tens ion

F IG . 73 .
‘

D ru m record of imp act b ending

-

t est .

than the heig ht drop T he dif f erence b etw een the d atu m
Of the .

l ine and the fi n al resting p oint after each d rop rep resent s the s et
the m at erial h as receiv ed T he heig ht of d rop cau sing comp l et e
.

f ail ure or a 6 inch d efl ect ion is Ob s erv ed f or each sp ecim en T h e

,
-

,
.

f ail u re is s k et ched on the log sheet and d es crib ed as f or st at ic

”

b end ing .

T he f ormu l as Used in cal cu l ating the resu lt s of imp act t ests in

'

b end ing w hen the lo ad is app l ied at the cent er up t o the p rop or
,

tional l im it are as f oll ow s :

,

2 E 2 3
20 19 01
30 4 T I M BER T ES T I N G

H drop of hamm er inclu d ing d eflection,

height of ,
inches
S el astic resil ience inch—p ou nd s p er cu b ic inch
,

W w eight of hamm er p ou nd s ,

Rem aind er of l eg end as on p ag e 2 9 3 .

T he resu lts sh oul d be t ab u l at ed on su i a

t bl e comp u tation d at a
d
’

car s .

F IG . 74 . T es ting a sm all sp ecim en m com p ression p arallel t o the g rain.

N ote S p herical bearing bl ock and com p ress ometer u sed f or m easu ring
deform ation .

Com p r es s ion P a ra l l e l to G r a in

A p p ara tu s . t tic t esting m achine a sp herical

A v
u ni ers a l s a ,

b earing bl ock and a comp resso,

m et er are requ ired ( see F ig .

P rep aring the M aterial T ests in comp res sion p arall el t o the
.

grain are m ost f requ entl y m a d e on tw o cl asses of m at erial :

( 1 ) S mall sp ecim ens free f rom d ef ects and ( 2 ) 6 by 6 by 24 inch ,
- - - - -

sp ecimens cut f rom l arg e t im be rs aft er st at ic b end ing t est s and -

30 6 T I M BE R T E STI N G

T I M BER TES T L O G S HEET

T I M BER T ES T I N G LA B O RAT O R Y YA LE S CHO OL O F F O RES T R Y

SO

1
-

P roj ect N o . S hip N o. . St ick Coll ector s No

’
.
72

Laboratory N o . _
94
_ P iece N o .
“

M ark Yal e No . _ US O
Date 6 9 1 49
S cientifi c nam e M M
Comm on na m e L

Kind of t est M

Sp an
D istance betw een collars 6

M ach . in p er m in
. .

Leng th L o
p
1 84
"
X 1 88
” - 18
Cross section _
.
O
O
W eig ht fl gL

S ap w ood —
0L

Cond ition fl L

M ois tu re content L .

Kind of failu re fl i ng
ar .

m ( r LD (0 N
O 0 .
O O .
O.
o o o o o o o o o 0

Compression( inches)
S ketch

F IG . 76 . S amp le l og sheet f or comp ression -

p arallel
-
to the g
- -
rain test .
 COM P RE SS I ON PA RA LL E L T O GR AI N 30 7

d eterm ined as in b end ing t ests I n the l arg e

'

d is cernibl e) are , .

sp ecim ens all d ef ects s hou ld be d es crib ed A ft er t esting the .

,

m anner of f ail u re is s how n on sk et ches of all f our sid es of the

s p ecimen and th e v ariou s p art s of the f ail u re are nu m b ered in
,

the ord er of their occurrence T he m oisture cont ent is d et er

.

m ined from a s amp l e 1 inch l ong t ak en from near the f ail ure ,

as d escrib ed u nd er M ois t ure D et erm inat ion ( ag e A ll

p
d ata a re record ed on the l og sheets ( s ee F ig .

A dj us ting S p ecimen in M a chine T he com p ress om et er w hich .

,

is u sed on the sm all cl ear sp ecim ens onl y is adj u st ed t o the t est ,

sp ecim en w ith a 6 inch cent ral g ag e l eng th ( d is t ance b etw een

-

coll ars ) ( s ee F ig W hen the sp ecial f orm of sp ecim en show n

.

in F ig 7 5 is u s ed strain is m easured ov er th e central 4 inch

.
,
-

g ag e l ength A sp herical b earing bl ock is u s ed and s o adj u st ed

-

f or each t es t as to obt ain a u nif orm d istrib u tion of l oad ov er the

end s of the sp ecim en .

M eas uring the D ef orm a tion W ith the l arg e siz ed sp ecim ens .
-

onl y the m ax imu m l oa d is record ed W ith sm all cl ear sp ecim ens .

,

how ev er d ef orm ations a re read t o

, inch and l oad—com ,

p ression read ing s are con tinued u nt il the p rop ort ional l imit is w ell
p ass ed as ind icat ed by the cu rv e ( F ig .

L og of the Tes t T he l oad is app l ied continu ou sl y throu ghou t

.

the t est at a sp eed of . inch p er m inu t e f or sm all cl ear

sp ecim ens or inch p er m inut e f or th e l arg e s iz ed m aterial
,
-

W hen the comp ressom eter is u sed read ings a re m ad e at reg u l ar

_ ,
'

increm ent s of l oad ( u su all y 1 000 or 20 0 0 p ou nd s ) or the l oad ,

m ay be read at g iv en increm ents of comp ression I n al l inst ances .

the t est is cont inu ed u nt il the m ax imu m l oa d is att ained T he

m od u l u s l ine or straight—
.

,
l ine p ort ion of the l oad—d ef orm ation
cu rv e is rep l ott ed t o p ass throu gh t he orig in as d es crib ed p rev i
,

ou s ly in connection w ith t he st atic bending t est ( s ee F ig 7

'

-
.

A b rief d es crip tion of t he f ail u re is ent ered on the l og sheet ,

to gether w ith the sk et ch of it Comp res sion f ail ures are cl assifi ed
.

and d es crib ed accord ing t o t heir app ea rance as ( 1 ) cru shing

“

, ,

( 2 ) w edg e sp l it ( 3 ) shearing ( 4 ) sp l itting and ( 5 ) comp ression

, , ,

and sh earing p arall el t o the grain ( f or d es crip tion and illu s tra

tion of these typ es of f ail ure see p ag e 3 3 and F ig ,

T he .

l ast nam ed typ e of f ail ure u su all y o ccu rs in cross —

-
grained p ieces ,

an d su ch sp ecim ens s hou ld be cu ll ed T est s in w hich b room ing .

oc cu rs on the extrem e end s in a h oriz ont al p l ane sh ou l d al s o be

3 10 T I M BE R T E STI N G

A dj u s ting S p ecimen in M achine I n the l arg er sp ecimens the

.

l oad is app l ied to a f ace corresp ond ing to either the l oad ing or
su p p or t ing f ace of b end ing t est tim b ers from w hich they
the s at ic
t -

w ere cut ; the s m all er p ieces are so p l aced t hat the l oad is app l ied
to a rad ial ( q u art er—sa w ed ) surf ace T he t est sp ecim en is l aid
.

horiz ont all y on the p l at f orm of the machine and so cent ered th at

F ores t Produ cts L a boratory Photo Rep rodu d throu g h Cou rtesy A merican S ociety f or Tes ting
fi a terial 3

F IG . 78 . T est in comp ression

p erp endicu lar t o the g rain A s econd dial f or
.

measu ring d eformation is m ounted at the op p osit e side of the test sp ecimen .

the m et al b earing p l at e which is p l aced on its upp er surf ace at

-

eq u al d ist ances f rom the end s and at right angl es to its l ength is ,

imm ed iat el y b eneath the cent er of the m ov abl e head F or the .

l arg er sp ecimens this b earing p l at e is 6 inches w id e ; f or the

sm all er t es t p ieces 2 inches w id e I n al l cases the p l at e, p roj ect s
.

ov er the edg es of the t est p iece .

M easuring the D ef orma tion The comp ression is measu red by

“

.
 COM PRE S S I ON PER PE N D I CUL A R T O GRA I N
, 31 1

TI M BER TES T LOG S HEET

T I M B ER T ES T I N G L ABO RAT O R Y YA L E S CHO OL O F F O RES T R Y

P roj ect No .
04 S hip N o
. .
1 S tick N o .
4 Coll
’
ector s N0 .

Laboratory No .
29 1 P iece N o: M ark B Yale N o .

Family P inaceae

Reg ion S ou thern U S . . A .

S p an
D is tance betw een collars

M ach S p eed 0 0 1 2 in er m in
.
p . .

D ep th of s p eci m en L
W idth
n
u
o
p 0 s
0 a

W eig ht M 0
0

S ap w bod M

air
-
dried

M ois tu re cont ent fl

II A -

[or details of treat ment

F IG . 79 . S amp le log S heet f or com p ress ion —

p p
er endicu lar —
t o the g
- -
rain t es t .
312 T I M BE R T E S T I N G

means t bl e com p ress om eters one typ e of w hich is sh ow n

of su i a ,

in F ig 7 8 . D ef orm at ion read ing s are t ak en t o

. inch .

L og of the T es t T he l oad is app l ied cont inu ou s l y and at uni

.

f orm S p eed F or s m all cl ear p ieces the rat e of sp eed is

.

inch p er m inut e w hereas f or l arg e sp ecim ens it is b ased on the

,

d ep th of the sp ecimenl1 9 L oad ing is continu ed until a com p res

l

sion of inch is reached w it h the sm all sp ecimens or w ith the , ,

l arg er ones u n til the p rop ortional l im it is w ell p assed T he t est

, .

is then d is cont inu ed s ince the s trength of the w ood cont inu all y
,

increases as the fib ers are cru shed m ore comp actl y t og ether and
the max imum l oad is u natt ainabl e .

Calcu la ting the R esu l t T he fib er stress at the p rop ortional.

l imit ( 0 ) is the onl y strength v al u e comp ut ed I t is equ al to the .

l oad at p rop ortional l imit ( P 1 ) d ivid ed by the area u nd er the

p l at e ( B ) or c ,
P l /B .

T he resu lt s shou ld be t ab u l at ed on su it abl e comp ut at ion d at a

“

card s ( s ee F ig .

Ha rd n e s s
A p p ara tus l st atic t es ting machine and a sp ecial
. A u ni ers a
v
hard ness t ool are requ ired f or this t est T he t ool w hich is fitt ed .
,

int o the m ov abl e h ead of t he m achine consist s of a p unch w it h a ,

”
h ard ened st eel hemispherical end or b all hav ing a d iameter “
'

, ,

of inch and g iv ing a \ p roj ected area of 1 s qu are centim et er .

I t is fitt ed w ith a g u ard p l at e w hich w ork s l oosel y unt il the p ene ,

”
tration of the b all int o the w ood has p rogress ed t o a d ep th of
inch w h ereup on it t ig ht ens ( see F ig
,
T he ef f ect is .

that of S ink ing a b all t o one half its d iamet er int o the sp ecimen -
.

P rep aring the M a teria l T he w ood t o be t est ed is cu t s qu are

— —
.

t
w i h the g rain int o nom in a l 2 by 2 b y 6 inch sp ecimens w hich
- - -

are f ree f rom d ef ect s .

19 F or larg e S p ecim ens th e r

at e of m ot ion of the m ov able head is det er
m ined from the f ormula
N 0 0 1 7 5 0196
.

w h e1 e N = the rate m otion of the m ov ing

of head, inches p ei m inute
d = t he d ep th of S p ecim en inches
,

2 0 T his t es t is an ada t ation of th e J anka b all t est f or su rf ace hardness

p .

S ee Gab i iel J anka T esting the hardness of w ood by m eans of the ball t est ,
,

P roc I nt A ssn Tes t M a t , V ol 23 1 9 1 2

. . . . . .
, .
314 T I M B ER TES T I N G

S k etching
“

and R ecording l cross section D a ta . T he t

ac u a -

d imensions and l ength are m easured and record ed on suit abl e

d at a and comp ut ation card s ( s ee F ig t og ether w ith d at a as .

to w eight ring s p er inch p ercent of s ap w ood and of su mm er

, ,

w ood and m ois tu re cont ent

,
T he l ast named d eterm inat ion is
.
-

m ad e imm ed iat el y af t er t est A .

sk et ch is m ad e of one end of the

S p ecim en t o S how t he ch aract er of

grow th .

M ethod A t est sp ecim en is .

p l aced on the p l at f orm of the m a

chine, and the end of the p u nch is
f orced int o the w ood at a s p eed of

inch p er m inu t e . Th e op era

k eep s mov ing the

ll h andl e
tor -

sm a

of th e gu ard p l at e b a ck and f orth

'

u nt il it t ight ens at w hich inst ant ,

the l oad is read T w o p enetrations .

are m ad e on a t ang ent ial su rf ace ,

tw o on a rad ial su rf ace and two on ,

F IG 81 D iag ram m atic S ketch
ea ch end The choice b etw een the
. .

of t ool u sed in hardness t est

tw o rad ial and b etw
.

een the tw o

t ang ential f aces shou l d be s u ch as to g iv e a f air av erag e of the

“

p iece Th e p enetrat ions S hou ld be f ar e nou gh f rom the edg e t o

.

p rev ent sp l itt ing or chip p ing .

R esu l ts T h e l oad s in p ou nd s req u ired t o im b ed the

. inch -

”
b all t o one half its d iamet er on the sev eral surf aces of the
-

sp ecim en are t he onl y v al u es d et erm ined in this t est

,
.

S h e a r P ara ll el to G r a in

A pp aratu s .v l st atic t esting m achine and a S p ecial

A u ni ers a

tool d esig ned f or p rod u cing s in gl e shear are requ ired ( see F ig 8 3 ) .

T his shearing ap p aratu s cons ist s of a sol id st eel f ram e w ith a

cross b ar and s et s crew s f or cl am p ing the bl ock w ithin it fi rm l y

in a v ertical p os ition I n the cent er of t he fram e is a V ert ical

.

S l ot in w hich a s q u are edg ed st eel p l at e e -

quipp ed w it h a self ,

adj u sting b earing ins ert s l id es f reel y W hen the t es ting bl ock
,
.

is in p osit ion the adj u st abl e b earing p l at e im p ing es squ arel y

,

al ong the upp er su r f ace of the p roj ecting l ip ci the t est sp ecimen ,
 HA R D N ESS 315

u m
o a

m
o
m m d
a a
o
b d 2 m
S
o
m a
v
a w
m fi fl
316 T I M BE R T E S T I N G

w hich, v ertical p ressure is ap p l ied shears off T he t ool is so

‘

as
—
.
,

const ru ct ed that a 1A 3 inch of f set is p rov id ed b etw een the inner

ed g e of the su pp ort ing su rf ace and th e p l ane al ong w hich f ail u re

shou ld occur .

P rep aring the M a terial T he t est s are m ad e on cl ear straight .

,

grained 2 by — 2—by inch bl ock s not ched as ill u strated in

- -

—
, ,

F gi 86 3 to p d f il on 2 by 2 inch su rf ace. T hes e

‘

. ro u ce a,
u re a - -

S p ecim ens are ou t s o th at the l oad is app l ied and the b l ock s su p

p or t ed o n end—grain s u rf aces .

I t is imp ort ant that the u pp er

su rf a ce of th e p roj ect ing lip be

s aw ed ex actl y p arall el t o the

v

b ase of the bl ock P art oi the .

sp ecim ens are out s o t hat th e

S hearing su rf ace is t ang entia l ;

the ot hers s o t h at it is rad ial -

.

I n d es ig ning a shearing sp eci

m en it is neces s ary t o t ak e int o
cons id erat ion the p rop ortions

of the area of shear, since, if

the l ength of the p ortion to be
sh eared off is t oo g reat in the

d irect ion of the S hearing f ace

f ail u re w ou ld occur by com
p res sion b ef ore the p iece w ou ld
F IG . 83 . D iag ramm atic S k etch of
S h ear I nasmu ch as the end
—
.

t ool f or S h ear -

p arallel to the g -
rain
w ise com p res s iv e
-

t est .
-
t
s ren gth is
s om e t im es not m ore t han fi v e
tim es t he S hearin g t
s ren gth ,
th e shearing su rf ace shou ld ,

in g eneral be l ess t han fi ve t im es, t he su rf ace t o w hich the

l oad is ap p l ied T his cond it ion is . f u lfill ed in the sp ecifi ed
S p eci men .

S k etching and R ecording D a ta . A s k et ch is m ad e of the end

of the test sp ecim en g row th ring s

to s how the character of the ,

and af ter t est the f ail u re is ind icated f or s id e and end s u rf aces
, ,
.

The act u al d im ensions of the Shearing su rf ace are m easured and

record ed on s u it abl e d at a and com p u t at ion card s t og ether w ith ,

d at a on numb er of ring s p er inch p ercent of s ap w ood and p f sum ,

mer oow d and m i

os ut re,
co n t e nt 2 1
T he p ort ion of the t est p iece .

2 1 S ee S t andard m eth ods of t es tin sm al l clea r s ecim ens of t im b er f oot

g p ,

note 1 , F ig . 40 of A pp endix, f or s am p l e dat a card .

31 8 T I M BER T ES T I N G

. S ketching a nd R ecording D a ta . S k et ches and d at a simil ar t o

thos e sp ecifi ed f or s hear p arall el t o g rain are m ad e and entered on
d at a and comp u t at on card s
i 2 2 The actu al w idth and l ength at
’

the m inimu m sec t ion are m easured . The m oistu re t t is

con en

d et erm ined f rom one of the p ieces rem aining aft er f ail ure or
from a sect ion sp l it al ong the surf ace of f ail ure .

M ethod T he free end s of the grip s are fitt ed int o the not ch es
.

in the end s of the t est sp ecim en T he m ov abl e head of the .

m achine is then m ad e t o d escend ( or as cend ) at the rat e of

inch p er minu t e p u ll ing the sp ecim en in tw o at right angl es to
,

the g rain T he m ax imu m l oad onl y is ob serv ed

. .

R esu l ts T he st rength in t ension p erp end icu l ar t o the g rain in

.
,

p ou nd s p er s q u are inch is f ound by d iv id ing the ob serv ed

,

m ax imu m l oad by t he act u al area of the m inimu m sect ion .

Cl e av a g e

A p p ara tu s . A St atic
t est ing m achine and a sp ecial cl eav age
.

t est ing d ev ice are requ ired T he l att er consist s essent ially of .

tw o g rip s or h ook s one of w hich is su sp end ed from the cent er

, _

of th e t op of the cag e and the ot her ext end ed ab ov e the l ow er

,

crosshea d ( s ee F ig
-

Preparing the M a teria l Cl ear straight grained sp ecimens are

.
-

cu t t o a nominal s iz e of 2 by 2 by 3 % inch es w ith the l ong est ,

d imension extend ing w ith the grain P rior t o cu tt ing to l ength

‘
.
,

a 1 inch h ol e is b ored at one end w ith it s cent er eq u id ist ant

-

,
-

f rom the tw o sid es and inch f rom the end m ak ing the sect ion ,

to be t est ed 2 by 3 inches ( see F ig S GD ) T he bl ock s are cut . .

s o that the sect ion of f ail u re w ill be t ang ent ial in p art of t hem

and rad ial in the ot hers .

S ketching and R ecording D a ta The s ame p roced ure is f ol .

l ow ed as f or t ension p erp end icu l ar to g rain t est s ( see St and ard

m ethod s of t est ing sm all cl ear sp ecim ens of t im b er F ig 42 of
1
,
.

A pp end ix f or d at a and com p u t at ion card )

,
.

M ethod T he f ree end s of the g rip s are fitt ed int o the not ch in
.

the end of the t est sp ecim en T he m ov abl e head of the m achine .

is t hen m ad e to d es cend ( or as cend ) at the rat e of inch p er

22 S ee S tandard m ethods of t es ting sm all clear sp eci m ens of tim b er,

f ootnote 1 , F ig . 41 of A p p endix f or ,
s am p le data card .
 T E NS I ON PA RA LLE L T O GRA I N 3 19

minut e, p u ll ing the grip s ap art and sp l itt ing the bl ock T he .

m ax imum l oad onl y is ob serv ed .

Resu l ts .Cl eav ag e strength , in p ound s p er inch of w idth , is

comp u t ed by d iv id ing the ob serv ed m ax imu m l oad by the a ctu al

w idth of the sec tion at the p oint of app l ication of stress .

No
te Two pieces included in ones et
-

One piece with s hank 8 long .

"
iec w i 5
One p e t s hank 5 5 long
h .

F I G 85
. . D etail of g rip s u s ed in cl eav ag e testing device .

T en s ion P a r a ll e l to Gra in

A p p ara tus . v A l t est ing machine an ext ensomet er and

u ni ers a , ,

a p air of sp ecial self al ig ning and self t ight ening g rip s are re
- -

q u ired One of the grip s is att ached t o the fix ed cros shead and
.

th e other to the m ov abl e head .

P rep aring the M a terial S ince the t ens il e s treng th of w ood

.

p arall el t o the g rain is g reater th an the comp ress iv e streng th and ,

mu ch in ex cess of the shearing strength it is v ery d iffi cu l t to ,

m ak e s atis f act ory t est s in t ens ion p arall el to the g rain I n ord er .

to p rov id e s atis f actory g ripp ing charact eristics the end s of the ,

t est sp ecim en ( w hich are subj ect ed to b oth com p ression and .

shear) mu st be s trong er t han the minimum p ort ion su bj ect ed t o

 T I M BER TE S T I N G
'

320

90 rad .

90 rad .

F I G 86
. . D etails of test sp ecimens A T ens ion p a
. rall el t o g
. ra m . B S hear
. .

C . T ens ion p erp endicular t o g rain D Cleavag . . e

.

t ensil e t S p ecim ens of the z

si e and S hap e show n
"

p ure s ress .

in F ig 8 6 A ,
. are recomm en e
d d A ll t est p ieces S hou l d be cl ear
.

and s traightgrain ed T he g row t h ring s are so orient ed t hat as

.
-

seen on the cross s ect ion t hey are p erp endicu l ar t o the w id e f ace
,

of the sp ecimen .
32 2 TI M BER T E S T I N G

Fores t P
rodu cts L abora tory Photo R p e rodu ced throu g h Courtesy A merican S ociety f or Tes ting
M ateria ls

F I G 87 T est t o determ ine s treng th of w ood in tension p arallel to the g rain.

‘

. .

N ote self -
alig ning g rip s u sed t o hold the sp ecim ens and u se of extens ometer t o

measure s train at the reduced section.

 T OU GHN E SS T ES T 3 23

end the F orest P rodu cts L ab orat ory has

‘
d esigned the t ou ghness
m achine and d ev ised the m ethod of t est d es crib ed in the f oll ow
“
ing p ara rap hs g .

v
S ou thw ark D i is ion , B a ldw in Lo omotiv
c e Works
'

, Photo
F IG . 88 . F ores t P rod u cts Lab oratory t oug hness t es ting -
m achine show ing

initial p osition of p endulum , dru m , and roll er chain throu g h w hich load is
ap p l ied t o th e sm all sp ecim en sh ow n at t he u pp er rig ht .

T he F orest P rod u ct s L ab orat oryt ou ghness t esting m achine -

one f orm of w hich is s how n in F ig 88 op erat es on t he p end u l u m .

,

2 4 F rom L J M arkw ardt N ew t ou hness m achine is aid in w ood s el ec

.
g
.
,

t ion Wood Working I ndus tries J am est own N Y V ol 2 Jan 1 926

—
. . . .
, , , , , ,

pp 31 4
. .

S ee also F ores t P rodu cts L aboratory

’
s t ou g hness -
tes ting machine, F or .

Prod L ab Rep t 1 308 , M adison, 1 94 1

. . . .
 3 24 T I M BE R T E S TI N G

p rincip l e but d if f ers radicall y f rom ot her ty p es in that the l oad

is ap p l ied t o the sp ecim en by m eans of a sm all y ok e w hich is
_

pu ll ed by a roll er typ e st eel chain f ast ened around a d ru m

-

m ount ed o n the ax is of the p end u l u m rather than by d irect ,

imp act of p end u l um or hammer p n the sp ecim en I f the p end u .

l um is rais ed t o som e init ial p osit ion and all ow ed to sw ing freel y ,

it w ill reach a l ik e height on the opp osit e sid e ex cep t f or a sm all

l oss du e to friction W hen a sp ecimen is in the machine the
.
,

p end u l um f ail s t o sw ing to a l ik e height on the op p osit e s id e by

an am ount rep resent ing the energy consu med in b reak ing the

p iece .F or any g iv en sett ing of the m achine t ou ghness is cal ,

cu lated from the fi nal ang l e of sw ing 2 5 T he F orest P rod u ct s-

L ab orat ory has p rep ared a t abl e f rom w hich the t ou ghness of
the S p ecim en can be rea d d i rectl y ( see T abl e

A rrang ement is m ad e f or hold ing the p end u l um in any One of

three init ial p os itions or 6 0
°
f rom the v ertical —f rom
w hich it is rel eased f or the t est by a conv enientl y p l aced t rip .

T he w eig ht on the p end u l um is in add it ion adj u st abl e t o f ou r , ,

p os itions s o that sp eci

,
m ens w ith a w id e rang e of t ou ghness m ay
be p rov id ed f or T he chain is s l ack w hen t he p end u l um is in the
.

initial p osit ion I ts l ength is so adj u st ed that the p end u l u m

.

ap p l ies the f orce w hen it sw ing s t o 1 5 d eg rees of the v ertical ,

t he obj ect b eing t o p rod u ce f ail ure by the tim e the d ow nw ard
sw ing is comp l et ed W ith v ery t ou gh m aterial earl ier cont act is
.

p rov id ed if neces sary t o insure f ail ure b ef ore the p endu l um

, ,

p ass es the v ert ical .

S t and ard t ou gh ness t est s are m ad e on sp ecimenS by by 1 0 -

inches in Siz e w hich are su bj ect ed to cent er l oad ing ov er an 8 inch -

—
,

sp an . d
L oa is ap p l ie d t hrou gh an al u m inu m t u p of 3
A inch
rad iu s t o the rad ial and t o the t ang ent ial su rf aces of alt ernat e

sp ecimens T he initia
.
-
l angl e of the p endu l u m and its p osition on
the p end u l um arm shou ld be s o sel ect ed in t est ing v ariou s w ood s
that the d if f erence b etw een initial and fi nal angl e is not l ess
°
than 1 0
T he t ou ghnes s t est ing m achine w as orig inall y d ev el op ed t o
-

25 In cal cu l at ing t ou g hness , the f ollowing eq u at ion is u sed :

wl ( cos A 2 cos A1 )

in w hich T t ou g hness , ( w ork p er sp ecim en)

inch p ounds ; w w eig ht of -

p endu lu m p ou n
,
ds ; I dist ance f rom su p p orting axi s t o cent er of p endu lu m ,

inches ; A 1 initial ang le from v ertical, deg rees ; A 2 fi nal ang le, deg rees .
3 26 T I M BER TES T I N G

T A BLE 2 6 CA LCULA TE D T O U GH NE S S VA LUE S F OR US E W I T H F ORE S T

—C ntin
.

P ROD U CT S LA B ORA TO RY T O U GH NE S S T E S TI N G
-
M A CHI N E *
o u ed

°
Initial Ang le 60 plus F i tion
rc

P osition of Weig ht Po ition of W ig ht

s e

2 3 4 2 3 4
Fin l
a
Ang le, wt wz wl wz wt Ang le. wz wz wz wl
deg rees 1 346 1 222 1 05 5 885 71 6 deg rees 1 346 1 222 1 0 55 8 85

In ]b
-
. . In l b
-
. .

645 6 586 0
645 1 585 5
644 7 585 2
644 1 584 7
643 6 5 84 2

643 2 583 8
642 7 583 3
642 1 582 9
641 7 582 5
64 1 2 582 0

From Fo t P oduct L
'

res r s aboratory s toug

’
hness testing machine, F or
-
. P od
r . Lab Rept 1 308, 1 941
. . .
 T OU GHN E SS TE S T 32 7

T A BLE 2 6 CA LCUL A T E D T OU GH N E S S VA LU E S F OR US E W I T H F OR E S T
—
.

P RO D UC T S LAB ORA TORY T O U GH N E S S T E S T I N G M A CHI N E

-
*
Continu ed

°
Initial Ang le 60 p lus F i tion
rc

Po ition of W ig ht
s e Po ition of W ig ht
s e

2 3 4 2 3 4
Fin l
a
Ang le. ml ml wz wt wl Ang le, wz ml at at
deg rees 1 346 1 222 1 055 885 71 6 deg rees 1 346 1 222 1 055 885

In l b
-
. . In lb.
.
-

F om Fo t P oduct L
r res r s
’
aboratory s toug hness testing machine, F O
- r . P od
r . Lab Rept 1 30 8, 1 941
. . .
3 28 TI M B ER T E S T I N G

T A BLE 2 6 CA LCULA T E D T O U GH N E S S VA LUES F OR US E W I T H F O RE S T

—Continu ed
.

P R OD UC T S L A B O R A T O RY T O U GH N E S S T E S TI N G
-
M A CH I N E * '

°
Initial Ang le 60 p lus F i ti n
rc o

Po iti n of W ig ht
s o e Po iti n
s o of Weig ht
2 3 4 2 3 4
Fin la Fin l
a

A ng le, at at wt at at Ang le, wl wl ml wt ml

deg rees 1 346 1 2 22 1 0 55 8 85 71 6 deg rees 1 346 1 222 1 055 885 71 6
_

In lb
.
-
. In lb
-
. .

F ro m F orest Products L ’
aboratory s toug hness testing machine, F or
-
. P od L b
r . a . Reptfi1 308 1 941 , .
330 T I M BE R T E ST I N G

T A BLE 2 6 CA LCUL A T E D T O U G H N E S S VA LUE S F OR US E WIT H FORE S T

— —C ntin
.

P RO D UCT S L A B O RA T ORY T OU GH NE S S T E S TIN G M A CHI NE *

o u ed

°
Initial Ang le 60 plus F iction
r

Po ition of W ig ht
s e Po ition of W ig ht
s e

2 3 4 2 3 4
Final Fin l
a
A ng le. wl wl wl wl wz Ang le, at at at at at
deg rees 1 346 1 222 1 0 55 8 85 71 6 deg rees 1 346 1 222 1 055 885 71 6

I n lb
.
-
. In l b
.
-
.

Fro m F orest P roducts L

aboratory s toug
’
hness testing machine, F or
-
. Prod. Lab Rep t 1 30 8 1 941
. .
, .
 T OUGHN ES S T EST 33 1

T A B LE 2 6 CA LCUL A TE D T O U GH N E S S VA LU E S F OR US E WI T H F ORE S T
—Contin
.

P RO D U CT S LA B O R A T OR Y T O U GHN E S S T E S T I N G M A CHI N E
-
*
u ed

°
Initial Ang le 45 plus F i tion
rc

Po ition of W ig ht
s e Po ition of W ig ht
s e

2 3 4 2 3 4
Fin l
a
Ang le. wl wl wl wl wl Ang le, wl wt wt ml
deg rees 1 3 46 1 222 1 055 885 71 6 deg rees 1 3 46 1 222 1 055 88 5

In lb.
.
-
In lb
-
. .

F om F
r orest Product L s
’
aboratory s toug hness testing inachine, F or
-
. P od
r . Lab Rept. 1 30 8, 1 941
. .
3 32 T I M BE R T E S T I N G

T A BLE 2 6 CA L cUL A TE D T OU GH N E S S VA LUE S F OR US E W I T H F ORE S T

— —
.

P R OD UC T S LAB ORA T ORY T O U GHN E S S T E S T I N G M A CHI N E Continu ed

*

°
Initial Ang le 45 plus F i tion
rc

Po ition of W ig ht
s e Po ition of W ig ht
s e

2 3 4 2 3 4
Fin la Fin l
a
Ang le, wl wl wl wl wl A ng le, wl wl wl wl
deg rees 1 3 46 1 222 1 055 885 71 6 deg rees 1 346 1 222 1 0 55 885

I n lb
-
. . In lb
-
. .

F ro m F
orest P roducts L ’
aboratory s toug hness testing machine, F or
-
. P
ro d Lab Rep t 1 30 8 1 941 :
. . .
,
 T I M B ER T EST I N G

T A BLE 2 6 CA L CUL A TE D T O U GHN E S S VA LUE S F OR US E WI T H F OR E S T

"—
.

P R OD UC T S LA B OR A TORY T OU GHN E S S T E S TI N G N A C RI NE Continu ed

-

°
Initial Ang l e 45 p lus F i tion
rc

Po ition of W ig ht
s e Po ition of W ig ht
s e

2 3 4 2 3 4

10 1 tel 10 1 ml ml 15 1 ml 10 1

1 346 1 222 1 055 8 85 1 3 46 1 222 1 055 885

From F ores t P od
r ucts L ’
aboratory s toug hness testing machine, F or Prod Lab Rep t 1 308, 1 941
-
. . . . .
 T OU GHNESS TES T 3 35

T A BLE 2 6 CA LCULA T E D T OU GH N E S S VA LUE S F OR US E WI T H F O RE S T

—Continu ed
.

PROD UC TS LA B ORA TORY T O U G H N E S S T E S T I N G M A CE I N E *

-

°
Initial Ang le 45 plus F iction
r

Po iti n of W ig ht
s o e Po ition bf W ig ht
s e

2 3 4 2 3 4
Fin l
a
Ang le. 10 ! ml 10 1 ml wl
deg rees 1 3 46 1 222 1 055 885 71 6

I n lb
.
— . In l b
-
. .

FromF o st P od
re r ucts L abor a ’
tory s toug hness testing machine
-
, F or
. Prod
. Lab Rep t 1 30 8 1 941
. . , .
33 6 T I M BER T ESTI N G

T A BLE 2 6 CA LCUL A TE D T O U GH N E S S VA LU E S F OR US E W IT H F ORE S T

—
.

P R OD UC T S LA B ORA T OR Y T O U GHN E S S T E S T I N G M A CH I N E Continu ed

*
-

°
Initial A ng le 30 p lus F iction
r

Po ition of W ig ht
'
s e Po ition of W ig ht
s e

2 3 4 .
2 3 4
Fin la
Ang le; wl wl ml wl wl Ang le, wl ml 10 1 10 1 ml
deg rees 1 346 1 222 1 055 8 85 71 6 deg rees 1 3 46 1 222 1 0 55 885 71 6

In 1b
.
-
. In lb
.
-
.

Fro m Fo t P od
res r ucts L '
aboratory s toug hness testing machine, F or
-
. P od
r . Lab Rept 1 308, 1 941
. . .
33 8 T I M BER T E STI N G
'

T A BLE 2 6 CA LCUL A T E D T O U GH N E S S VA LU E S F OR US E WI T H F O RE S T
—Continu ed
.

P R O DUC TS L A B OR A T OR Y T O U GH N E S S T E S TI N G
-
M A CHI N E *

Initial Ang le 30 plus

°
F i tion
rc

P osition of Weig ht Position of Weig ht

2 3 4 2 3 4
Fin l
a
Ang le. wz wl wl wl wl A ng ler ml ml wl ml wl
deg rees 1 3 46 1 222 1 0 55 885 716 deg rees 1 3 46 1 222 1 0 55 885 71 6

Ia lb
-
. . In lb
.
-
.

F m
ro F orest Products L o
ab ratory s
’
toug hness testing
-

machine , F or
. P od
r . Lab Rep t 1 308
. .
 OT HER TES T S 339

p rov id e t m eans of d etecting b rash m at erial of low

a con enien v
shock res is t ance W hen used f or this p urp ose one or more
.
,

sp ecimens ( p ref erabl y not l ess than f ou r) shou ld be t ak en f rom

each p iece Of w ood und er cons id erat ion TO be accep t abl e f or .

ex a ct ing u se the p iece m us t ( 1 ) either meet a minimum t ou gh

'
“

ness req u irement est abl ished f or the sp emes I n q u estion or if ,

w ithin a cert ain t ol erance b el ow the minimu m m u st p ass in , ,

add it ion a p res crib ed sp ecifi c g rav ity l imitat ion ; ( 2 )

,
-
s how a

l im it ed range in t ou ghnes s v al u es f or all sp ecimens from the s ame

p iece ; and ( 3 ) p ass caref u l v isu al insp ect ion T he Obj ect of .

l im iting the rang e in t ou ghness v al ues f or sp ecimens f rom any

one p iece Of st ock is to g u ard a g ains t p ieces t hat cont ain m inut e

comp res sion f ail ures or l ocal iz ed d ecay Caref u l v isu al insp ec.

t ion is necess ary to el im inat e comp ression w ood as w ell as cross

grain and other d ef ects 2 6 .

Ot h er T e s t s

M any other k ind s Of t est s mad e as occas ion d em and s

are One .

group consists of those m ad e on m anu f actured articl es—p ack ing

b ox es, crat es , and other cont ainers , v ehicl e and imp l em ent w ood s ,
c o sa
r s r m s, a n d the l ik e— Or m at erial s u s ed in the rou gh , su ch
s

as p ol es and m ine t im b ers S u ch p rodu ct s are su bj ect ed to

’

l oad ing stresses app rox im ating those t hat they w ou ld receiv e in
service .

A nother imp ort ant t y p e Of t est is that m ad e on b u ilt up stru e -

tures , su ch as b eam s comp osed o f sm all p ieces b olt ed t ogether,_

m ort ised j oint s , and t imb er tru sses T ests Of this k ind are .

work ed out accord ing t o the sp ecifi c req u irem ent s in each case .

T est s are al s o m ad e to d etermine the nail s crew and sp ik e

26 T he adv ant ag es Of this m eth od of t esting f or t ou g hness are enu m erated

by W ilson ( I m p act t ests Of w ood, Iootnot e as f ollow s :The ap p aratus is

rel ativ ely si mp l e com p ared t o that req u ired f or other t ests , su ch as static

bending ; it can be easily Op erat ed by ha nd and, hence, can be p laced w here

conv enient w ith out resp ect t o s ou rces Of p ow er ; sp ecim ens are sm all and can

b e so taken as t o rep resent v ery cl osely the beam , p rop eller lam ination, or
oth erp art t o b e p assed on ; S p eed of tes t is au t om atical ly reg u lat ed and need
f f
not ent er as a act or a f ecting results ; resu lts are less aff ect ed than t hose of
.

other t ests b y diff erences of m oistu re content Of the Wood ’

and , as long as

v ariations of m oistu re cont ent do not exceed reasona ble lim its, no j
ad ust

m ent of results is necessary .

3 40 T I M BER T ES TI N G

hold ing p ow ers Of v ariou s Wood s and the fi

e f ciency Of v ariou s
f orms of f ast ening s .

T he m ethod s of m ak ing m ost Of these sp ecial t es ts are de

s cri e b d in the ind icated ref erences in the f oll ow ing b ibl iograp hy
of st and ard and sp ecial t est s .

RE F EREN CES

T es t s on Sm a ll Cl e a r S p e cim en s

A M ERI CA N S OC IETY F OR T ES TI N G M ATERI A L S : S tandard m ethods of t esting

s m all cl ear sp ecim ens Of t imb er S erial D esig nation : D 1 43 48 1 948 .
-

B ook of S tandards A m S oc T est M at P hiladelp hia P t I I , . . . .

, , . .

S tandard m ethods O f t esting p ly w ood, v eneer and other w ood and ,

w ood base m at erials S erial D esig nation : D 805 47, 1 9 47 B ook of S tand -

m
-
.

ards A ,
S oc T est M at , P hilad elp hia P t II
. . . .
,
. .

BET H EL , J S , and HARRAR E S : A m et hod of determ ining the sp ecifi c

. .
,
. .

of sm all w ood s am p les Trop ical Woods N ew Hav en N O 93 ,

—
g ravity .
, ,
.

M ar 1 1 9 48 .
, , p p 53 6 . .

BU RGE S S H T ,
. .
,
KEN N ET H S COTT, and BERN I C E A LBRI GH T : M anu al o f m eth
ods and p rocedu re in comp u ting res u lts o f s treng th tes ts . F or P rod L ab
. . .
,

M adis on 1 920
—
.
,

C H APLI N , C M e chanica l and p h

.y J
sical p rop erties of tim bers tes ts of
s m all clear sp ecim ens F or P rod R es L ab P roj 1 , L ondon, 1 928 . . . . . . .

C H AP M A N , R S outh A u straliantimbers
W : Th e s treng th of A us tralian
F or Jour , S y dney , V ol 1 0 J u ne 1 92 7, p p 1 43—
. . .

. . 7 .
,
. .

FORES T P RODU CTS L AB ORA TORY : Wood handbook, rev . U S “

. . D ep t . Ag r.

Unnu mbered P ubl .

, Washing t on, 1 9 40 .

F ores t P rodu cts L abora tory

’
s t ou g hness tes ing -
t m achine . F or .

P rod L ab Rep t 1 3 08 , M adison, 1 941

—
. . . .
_

D esig n of w ood aircraf t s tru ctu res . A NC Bul . 1 8, A rmy N av y

Civil Comm on A ircraft D esig n Crit eria, A ero B oard, W ashing t on, 1 9 44
. . .

E las tic p rop erties of w ood F or P rod L ab Rep t 1 5 28 and S up

—
. . . . .

p l em en ts A H ,
M a dison,
1 9 45 —46 .

FORES T PRODUCTS RES EARCH LABORATORY ( Eng land ) : Handbook of emp ire
tim bers D ep t
. . S ci . a nd I nd Res . .
,
L ondon ,
1 945 .

FORE S T RE S EARCH I N S TI TUTE ( I ndia ) : M echanica l, p hysical, and stru ctural

p rop erties o f w ood g rown in I ndia— tes ts on s m all clear s p ecim ens .

S chem e Of Op eration 1 f or P roi 1 , D ebra D un, I ndia . .

HAN SEN HOWARD J : M odern tim ber desig

, . n . 2d ed . J ohn Wiley S ons ,

N ew Y ork , 1 9 48 .

JULI U S G A : The p hysical

, . . characteris tics o f the hardw oods of Wes tern
A us tralia, with sup p lem ent . 4th cd .
, rev . P erth, 1 9 1 8 .

K Y N OCH , W I LLI A M
N EW ELL A N ORTON M echanical p rop erties of cer
,
and .

tain trop ical w oods chiefl y f rom S ou th A m erica Univ M ich S chool , . . .

F or and Cons B ul 7 A nn A rb or 1 938

. . .
, ,
.
3 42 T I M BER T E ST I N G

HECK G E ,
. . : B u il t -
up s ou thern y ellow p ine tim bers tes ted f or s treng th;
S eries E 26 N at Lb r M frs -

,
. . . A ssn W ood Cons t I nf S erv , Chicag o, 1 92 1
. . . . .

M CEL H A N N EY , T A , and A S S OCIATES : Canadian w oods : their p rop erties and. .

u ses Canada D ep t I nt Ott aw a 1 935

. . .
, ,
.

M C F A RLA N D H B T ests Of D ou g las fi l b ridg e s tring ers P roc A m R y

—
. .
. . .
,

E ng A ss n , Chicag o V ol 1 7 , P t 2 1 9 1 6 p p 28 1 4 6 7
. .
,
. .
,
. .

T es ts Of l ong l eaf p ine bridg e tim bers I bid , V ol 1 4, P t 2 1 9 1 3 , -

. . . .
,

pp 3 1
.
—1 84 .

M A RK WA RDT L J W ood as an eng ineering m aterial ( E ig ht eenth Edg ar

,
.

M arbu rg l ectu re ) P roc A m S oc Tes t M at Philad elp hia V ol 43 1 943 . . . . .

, ,
.
, ,

—
.

pp . 435 9 2 .

N AT I ON A L LU M BER M A N UFACT U RERS A S S OCI ATI ON : N a tional desig n sp ecifica

tion f or s tress -

g rade lu m ber and its f as tening s, rev . W ashing t on, 1 9 48 .

N E W LI N ,
J . A .
,
and J . M . GA H A GA N : Tes ts o f larg e tim ber colu mns and

p resenta tion of the F ores t P rodu cts L a bora tory colu m n f orm u la . U . S .

D ep t A g r T e ch B u l 1 6 7, W as hing t on, 1 930

. . . . .

R P A
and . . . J O H N S ON :B asic g rading ru les and w orking s tresses f or
s t ru ctu ral tim bers U S D ep t A g r D ep t Ciro 295 W ashing ton, 1 923
S tru ctural t im bers—d ef ects and their infl u ence on
. . . . . . . .
,

and

s treng th . P roc . A m S oc T es t M at , P h iladelp hia V ol 2 4, P t 2 1 924

. . . .
,
. .
, ,

pp 9 7
. 5 —
87 .

S CH RADER O HA RRY , JR : T ests on creosot ed l am inated string ers E ng .

N ews R ecord, N ew Y ork V ol 1 35 N O 2 0 N OV 1 5 1 9 45 p p 8 0 —

. . .
,

-
3 ,
.
,
.
, .
, , . .

S EA M A N , L N : T es ts of I ndian tim bers in s tru ctu ra l siz es

. . S chem e of .

Op eration 1 f or P roj 2 F or R es I nst .

, . . .
,
D ehra D u n, I ndia 1 92 5 ,
.

T A LBOT , A RT H U R N T ests o f tim ber beam s . Univ . I ll . E ng . E xp t . S ta .

B u l 41Urbana 1 9 0 9
.
, , .

UN DERW RI TERS LABORAT ORI ES :F ire tes ts of building colu m ns Chicag o 1 92 1 .

,
.

W I L S ON T R C : Guide to the g rading of s tru ctural tim bers and the

, . . .

determ ina tion of w orking s tresses U S D ep t A g r M is c P ubl 1 8 5 . . . . . . .

,

W ashing A ls o S u p p lem ent 1 F or P rod L ab Rep t R I 22 5

t on, 1 934 .
, . . . .

( 1 9 40 ) and S up p lem ent 2 F or P rod L ab Rep t R 1 7 1 5 ( 1 9 48 ) , . . . .

and W S COTTI N GH A M : Tes ts of g lu ed lam ina ted w ood beam s and

. .

col u mns a nd develop m ent o f p rincip les of desig n . F or P rod L ab Rep t

. . . .

R1 6 8 7 M adison 1 947
, , .

T es t s on P ol e s and P il in g
“

A M ERI CA N
S TA N DA RDS A S S OCIA TI ON : A m erican s tandard sp ecifica tions and
dimensions f or w ood p oles 1 948 , N ew Y ork , 1 9 48
i

S t andard .
-
.

A m erican s tandard sp ecifications f or round tim ber p iles S tandard .

06 4 93 9 N ew , Y ork , 1 939 .

BET T S , N ORM A N DE W .
,
and A . L HEI M . : T es ts of R ocky M ou ntain w oods
f or telep hone p oles U S D ep t A g r
. . . . . Bu l 6 7 W ashing t on 1 9 1 4
.
, ,
.

BROW N E ,
W I LLI A M HA N D J R and JA M ES F ON TA I N E : T es ts of
,
.
, N orth Carolina
p oles f or e lect ric dis tribu tion lines . N . C . S t at e C oll Eng Ex p t S t a
. . . .

Bu l 3 R aleig h 1 9 2 9
.
, , .
 R EF E RE N CES 3 43

M CE LH AN N EY ,
T . A .
,
and A S S O IA TE S C : Canadian w oods : their p rop erties
and u ses . Canada D ep t I nt Ottaw a 1 935 . .
, ,
.

and R; S . P ERRY : R ep ort on t ests of t he relat iv e s treng th Of g reen

cu t and fi re k illed w es tern

-
cedar p ole t im b er Wes tern
. Lu m berm an,
V ancouv er B ,
. V ol 2 5 , S ep t 1 928 p p 8 86 ,
C .
,
. .
,
. 896 —7 .

M CFA RLA N D H ,
. B : T es ts of Oreg on fi r p iling
. . B u l A m R y E ng
. . . . A ssn , .

Chicag o V ol 1 6 A u g 1 9 1 4 ,
.
,
. .

P ERRY , R S and T A M CE L H A N N EY : Tes ts of g reen cu t w estern cedar

. .
,
. .
-

p oles Canad a D ep t I nt F or S erv Circ 2 1 , Ott aw a , 1 927

. . . . . . .

ROC H E S TER, G H : T he s treng th of telep hone p oles Canad a D ep t I nt

. . . . .

F or S erv Circ 3 1
. Ott aw a, 1 93 1 . .
,
.

W I L S ON T R C : R esu lts of s ome s treng th tes ts on wooden p oles F or

,
. . . . .

P rod L ab Rep t 763 , M adis on 1 923

. . .
, .

F iber s tress es f or w ood p oles F or P rod Lab Rep t 1 6 1 9 M adison,

‘

. . . . .
,

1 9 46 .

WIN CH ES TER L AU REN CE ,

S :A n . exp erim ent al det erm ination Of the s treng th
of full -
siz ed t elep hone p oles E lectrical World N ew Y ork V Ol 57,
—
. .
, ,

M ar . 16, 1 9 1 1 , p p 667 71 . .

T es t s o n Cr o s s a r m s

D I BBLE,
A M :S treng th . . o f cross arm s -
. N ew Z ealand S tate F or S erv Circ . . .

1 0 W elling t on, 1 926

, .

EGGLE S TON RICHARD C :S treng th tes ts of w ood

,
. cross arm s -
. B el l T elep h one
S y stem M ono B l 5 63 New Y ork , 1 9 48 .
-

, .

GRON DA L B L , . . : S treng th tes ts on s olid and lam ina ted cross arm s -
. Univ .

W ash . E ng . Exp t S ta Bu l 47 , S eattle, 1 92 8

. . . .

WI LS ON ,
T H OM A S R S treng th tes ts
. C . : o f cross arm s -
. U . S . D ep t . Ag r.

F or S erv Circ . . . 2 04 W ashing t on, 1 9 1 2

, .

T es t s on M in e T im b e r s

W U D ep t
'

BETT S , N ORM A N DE . : R ocky M ountain m ine tim bers . . S . Ag r.

Bu l 7 7, . W ashing t on, 1 9 1 4 .

J OH NS ON , R P . . A : The . s treng th of m ine tim bers . Am . M ining Cong .

S t andardiz B u l 4 1 924 . .
, .

RI CE GEORGE S ,
. : T es ts of s treng th of roo f su p p orts u sed in anthracite m ines
of P ennsy lvania . U S . . D ep t . Com m Bu r . . Mines Bu l 303 , . W ashing t on,
1 92 9 .

T est s on A ir cr a f t P a r t s

BOYD, JA M E S E :I nves tig

. ations o f the comp ressive s treng th o f sp ru ce s t ru ts

f rectang u lar cros s section and

o the deriv ation of f ormu las s u ita ble f or
u se in desig n U S
airp lane . . . D ep t . C om m . N at B u r S tandards T ech
. . .

P ap er 1 52 W ashing t on, 1 92 0
, .
 T I M BE R T E S T I N G

E L M EN DORF ,
A : T es ting
. streng th Of airp l ane w ing ribs 55 t o inches .

A u tom otive I nd ,
Chicag o , V ol . 41 , J uly 3 1 , 1 9 1 9, p p . 2 09—13 .

FORE S T P RODU CT S L ABORATORY : W ood in aircraf t cons tru ction U S N avy

—
. .
,

D ep t .
,
A ir f
cra t D es ig n D at a N ot e 1 2 W ashing t on 1 9 1 9 pp 9 6 139 , , ,
. .

W ood aircraf t insp ection and f abrica tion A N C Bul 1 9 A rmy . .

,

N av y—Civ il C om m on A ircraf t D es ig n Criteria A ero B oard W ashing t on .

,
.
, ,

1 9 43
—
.

D esig n of w ood aircra ft s tru ctu res . A N C B ul . 1 8 , A rm y N avy

Civ il Comm on A ircraf t D es ig n Crit eria, A ero B oard, W ashing t on 1 9 44
. .
,
.

M ethods f or tes ting and eva lu ating carg o fl ooring f or transp ort .

af F P d L b R t 1 550 n d S l m nt A —E M adison,
—
aircr t or ro a ep . a u pp e e s . . . .
,

1 9 47 48 .

HECH G E : Sp lint ering p rop erties of airp lane w oods ( u nd er rifl e fi re)
J une 5 1 9 1 9 p p 1 23 4—
-
. . .
,

A u tom otiv e I nd , Chicag o, V ol 40 , . . 5 , ,

. .

HEI M A L A C K N A U S S . .
,
. .
,
and LOU I S S EU TTER : I nternal s tresses in lam i
noted cons tru ction . N at . A d v is . Comm . A ero . Rep t . 1 45 , W ashing ton,
1 9 22 .

M ARK W A RDT ,
L J A ircraf t w oods— their p rop erties, selection, and
. charac

teris tics . N at A dvis Comm A ero Rep t 35 4 W ashing t on 1 930

. . . . .
, , .

NEL S ON ,
J OH N H . : T he s treng th of one p iece -
s olid, built -
up , and lamina ted
w ood airp lane wing beam s . N at A dv Com m A ero Rep t 35 , W ashing
. . . . .

t on, 1 9 1 9 .

N E W LI N ,
J . A .
,
and G . W . T RAY ER : The infl u ence o f the f orm o f a w ooden
beam on its s ti ff ness and s treng th : I . D efl ection f beam s
o with sp ecial

re erence t o s hear
f bj ected to def orm ation ; I I F orm f actors of beam s su
'

trans vers e loading only ; and I I I S tresses in w ood m em bers s u bj ected t o .

com bined colu m n and beam action N at A dvis Comm A ero Rep ts . . . . . .

1 80 1 8 1 and 1 88 W ashing ton, 1 9 2 4

, , , .

The desig n of airp lane wing ribs N at A dv Comm A ero Rep t

“

. . . . . .

345 W ashing t on 1 930

, , .

A m ethod of calcu la ting the u l tim ate s treng th of continu ou s beams .

N at A dv Comm A ero Rep t 3 47 , W ashing t on, 1 93 0

. . . . . .

T RAY ER, GEORGE W and H W M ARCH : T he torsion of m em bers having .

, . .

sections comm on in aircraf t cons tru ction N at A dv Comm A ero Rep t . . . . . .

33 4, W ashing t on 1 930 .

and E las tic ins tability o f m em bers having sections co mm on

in aircra ft cons tru ction . N at A dv Comm A ero Rep t 3 82 ,
. . . . . W ashing t on,
1 93 1 .

T es t s on S h ip p in g Co n t a in er s

CA RL S ON , T A : Corru g a ted board and its comp onent p arts as eng ineering
-

. .

m aterials A m M anag em ent A ssn P rod S er 1 28 , 1 9 41

. . . . . .

R esearch in the u se of w ood f or containers N at Farm Chemurg ic . .

C ounc P ap er 5 0 7, Colu mbus 1 946

.
, .

S ide lig hts on the revolving dru m tes t f or boxes

'

A m M anag em ent . .

A ssn P ackag ing S er 1 8 , N ew Y ork , 1 9 46

.
. .

FORES T P RODUCTS LABORATORY : Tes ts f or shipp ing containers in revolving

3 46 TI M B ER T E S T I N G

rep ea ted and revers ed bending s tres ses F or P rod L ab Rep t 1 32 7 and

—
. . . .

S u p p l em ent A , M adis on 1 943 44 ,

.

LI S KA J A :M ethods of calcu lating the s treng th and m odu lus of elasticity

, . .

of p ly w ood in comp ression F or P rod L ab Rep t 1 3 1 5 , rev , M adison, . . . . . .

1 946 .

M A RCH j H W :F la t p la tes of p ly w ood under u nif orm or concentrated loads

. . .

F or P rod Lab Rep t 1 3 1 2 , M adison, 1 9 42 .

S tress—
. . .

s train relations in w ood and p ly w ood considered as ortho

trop ic m a terials F or P rod L ab Rep t 1 503 , M adison, 1 9 44 . . . . . .

M ARK WA RDT L J and A D F REAS : A p p roximate m ethods of calcu lating

'

. . .
,

the s treng th of p ly wood F or P rod Lab Rep t R I63O, rev , M adison, . . . . . .

1 946 .

A E L M EN DORF : M echanical t ests m ade on p ly w ood Hardwood

and . .

R ecord, Chicag o, V ol 47 , J u ly 1 0 , 1 9 1 9 , pp 23 , 26 , 2 8 . . .

NORRI S , C B : The ap p lication of M ohr s s tress and s train circles to w ood

’
. .

and p ly w ood F or P rod L ab Rep t 1 3 1 7, M adison, 1 9 43 . . . . . .

and P F M CK I N N ON
Comp ression, tension, and shear tes ts on
"

. . :

y ellow p op lar p ly w ood p anels of sizes tha t d o not bu ckle with tes ts m ade
-

a t variou s ang les to the f ace g rain F or P rod Lab Rep t 1 328 and
S upp lem ents A — —
. . . . .

C, M adis on, 1 943 4 6 .

FRED WERBEN , and P F M CKI N N ON : The eff ect of veneer thickness . .

and g rain direction on the s hear s treng th of p ly w ood F or P rod Lab . . . .

Rep t 1 80 1 , M adison, 1 9 48
. .

P ERRY , T H OM AS D : M odern p ly w ood . . 2d ed ., P itm an P ubl Corp . .

, N ew
Y ork ,
1 948 .

T RAYER ,
G W : D esig n of p ly w ood webs f or airp lane wing
. . beams . N at .

Com m A ero Rep t 3 44 Washing t on 1 93 0

I

A dv . . . .
, , .

T est s on F a s t e n in g s

A N ON Y M OU S : T es ts of holding p ow er Of nails in D oug las fi r and w estern

hem l ock . Tim berman, P ortland, Oreg .
, V ol 1 8 , Oct . . 1 9 1 7, p p . 37 4 1— .

BEYER, A LBI N H .
,
and W I LLI A M J K REFELD : Tes ts . on the holding p ow er of
“

railroad sp ikes Colu mbia Univ D ep t Civ il Eng Bu l 1 , N ew Y . . . . . ork, 1 9 1 9 .

COC K RELL , ROBERT A : A s tu dy of the s crew holding p rop erties of wood .

-
.

N Y S t at e Coll F or T ech P ubl 44 S y racuse,

. . . . . .
,

D EWA LL H D : T ests Of s om e j oints us ed in heavy tim ber fram ing E ng

—
, . . . .

N ews, N ew Y ork V ol M ar 1 9 1 9 1 4 pp 5 93 8 , and M ar 26 1 9 1 4

—
. . . .
, , , , ,

pp . 6 66 9 .

FA I RC H I LD ,
I . J Holding p ow er of w ood s crews U S . . . D ep t . Comm N at . .

Bu r S tandards . T ech P ap er 3 1 9 , W ashing t on, 1 926

. .

FORES T P RODU CT S LABORATORY : B olt -

bearing s treng th of w ood and modified
w ood F or P rod L ab Rep t 1 5 23 and S up p lem ents A —
D , M adis on,
—
. . . . .

1 9 44 46 .

Wood handbook, rev . U . S . D ep t . Ag r . Unnum bered P ubl .

, W ash
ing ton 1 940 , .

HATT W , . KEN DRI CK : Holding f orce o f railroad sp ikes in w ooden ties .

U . S . D ep t . Ag r. F or S erv Circ 46 ,
. . . W ashing ton, 1 906 .
 RE FERE N CES 3 47

HECK G E : D escrip tion of the p endu lum m achine f or driving and p ulling
—
. .
,

nails . B arrel and B ox, Chicag o, V ol 3 0 , N ov 1 92 5 , p p 45 7 . . . .

M ARK W ARDT ,
L J
M GA H AGA N : N ail holding p ow er Of v ariou s
. and J . .
-

S p ecies Of w ood A m Lu m berm an Chicag o NO 2 826 J u ly 1 3 1 9 29 . .

—
.
, , , , ,

58 9 also in S ou thern L u m berman N ashv ille T enn V ol 1 36 J uly 1 5

—
pp . , ,
.
, .
, ,

1 929 p p 5 5 6 ; and in Tim berm an P ortland Oreg V ol 3 0 A u g 1 929

—
. . . .
, , , , , ,

pp . 1 42 3 .

M CF ARLAN D H B ,
.
( 1 ) Comp arativ e holding
. : p ow er of dif erent p ointed f
Goldie and cut sp ik es ; ( 2 ) Holding p ow er Of cut and s crew s p ikes P roc . .

A m R y E ng A ssn , Chicag
. V ol 1 5 , 1 9 1 4, p p 766—
. 97 . . o, . . .

NATI ON A L LU M BER M A N UFA CTU RERS A S S OC IATI ON :N a tional desig n sp ecifica

tion f or s tress g rade lu m ber and its f as tening s, rev , W ashing ton, 1 9 48
-
. .

N EW LI N , J A , and J M GA H A GA N : L ag screw j oints : their behavior and

. . . .
-

desig n . U . S . D ep t . Ag T ech Bu l 59 7 , W ashing t on 1 938

r. . .
, .

P ERK I N S , N S . .
,
P ETER LA N DS EN and G W T RA YER : M oder ,
n connectors . .
f or
tim ber cons tru ction. U S . . D ep t . Com m . N at . Com . on W ood Utiliz .
,

W ashing ton, 1 933 . A

S CH OLTON , J . A : Timber .
-
connect r
o j oints : their s treng th and desig n .

U S D ep t A g r T ech Bul 865

. . ? . . .
, W ashing ton 1 944 ,
.

T RAYER G W : The bearing s treng

,
. . th of w ood u nder bolts U S D ep t A g r . . . . .

T ech Bu l 3 32 , . . W ashing ton, 1 93 2 .

WI L S ON T R C :T ests m ade t o determ ine lateral resistance Of w ire nails

R ecord, N ew York , V ol; 75 , F eb 24, 1 91 7 , p p 303—
. . . .
,

Eng . 04 . . .

Z I M M ERM AN , C . W . : T ests Of the holding f orce Of com m on and s crew

in natural and treated D oug las fi r ties

s p ik es . Wes t Coas t L u m berm an,
S eattle, Vol 43 , N ov 1 5 , 1 922 , p p 3 2 , 3 4, 39 . . . .

M is cell a n e ou s T e s t s

CART W RI GH T , F P : T ests made by U S F orest P roducts L ab ora tory

. . . .

rev eal new facts ab out frame constru ction A m A rch N ew Y ork V ol
—
. . . .
, ,

1 3 7, F eb . 1 9 30 , p p . 30 3 .

E RI CK S ON , E . C . C : S treng th tes ts
. o f sp liced s tu ds . F or . P rod . L ab .

Rep t 1 275, M adison, 1 941

. .

M echanical p rop erties of lamina ted modified wood F or P rod . . .

Lab Rep t 1 6 39 , M adison, 1 9 47

. . .

FORES T P RODUCTS LABORATORY :Methods of tes t f or evalu ating the p rop erties
of building boards F or P rod Lab Rep t R 1 7 1 2 , M adison, 1 948 . . . . . .

GEI S LER, CA RL H : A n accelerat ed abrasion test Jou r A m Ceramic S oc , . . . . .

Columbus , Ohio, V ol 9 , M ar 1 926 . . .

HOLROYD, H B , and H S BETTS : Tes ts of vehicle and imp lement woods

. . . .

U S D ep t A g r F or S erv Circ 1 42, W ashing ton, 1 908

. . . . . . . .

KES S LER, D W T he dev el op m ent Of an app aratus f or w ear t ests on fl ooring

. .

m aterials P roc A m S oc T es t M at , P hiladelp hia, Vol 28 , P t 2 , 1 928 ,

—
. . . . . . . .

pp 855 6 7 . .

LEW I S , W C :Eff ect of siz e and s hap e of sp ecimen on the tensile s treng th
. .

of fiberboards F or P rod Lab Rep t R 1 7 1 6 M adison 1 9 48 . . . . .

, ,
.

LUXFORD, R F , and R H KRON E : L aminated oak f rames f or a 5 0 f oot

. . . .
-
3 48 T I M BE R T ES TI N G

N avy m otor launch comp ared to s tea m bent f ram es . F or P rod L ab . . .

Rep t 1 6 1 1 M adis on 1 946

.
, ,
.

M CD A N IE L A B : E ig ht inch hardw ood t ak e 1 2 t o 1 8 t ons p er

roll ers f oot
—
-
. . .
,

E ng N ews R ecord N ew Y
.
-

,
ork , V ol 80 , Jan 1 7 , 1 9 1 8 , pp 1 23 4
. . . .

PLATOW , R C , and A G H D IETz : S treng th p rop erties ( Of adh esiv es )

. . . . . .

S y m p osiu m on adh esiv es , Am S oc T est M at , Philadelp hia 1 945 . . . .

, ,

p p 25 35
.
-
.

T RAYE R GEORGE W : T ests Of fram e w all constru ction Eng N ews R ecord,
—
-

. . .
,

N ew Y ork , V ol 1 03 Oct 2 4, 1 92 9 p p 6 56 7 .
,
.
,
. .

The rig idity and s treng th of f ram e w alls F or P rod Lab Rep t 896 . . . . .
,

rev M adis on 1 947

.
, ,
.

T RUAX T R : The g lu ing of w ood

, . U S D ep t A g r D ep t Bul 1 500
. . . . . . . .
,

W ashing ton, 1 929

F L . . BROW N E, and D ON BROU S E : Th e sig nifi cance Of m echanical
w ood j oint t ests f or the s el ection Of w oodw orking g lues I nd and E ng
—
. . .

Chem W as hing t on, V ol 21 , Jan 1 929 , p p 74 9 . . . .

WAN GAARD F ,
. F : S u mmary of inf orm ation on the du rability of
. w ood
w orking F or P rod L ab R ep t 1 530 M adis on, 1 9 46
g lu es . . . . .
, .

W IL S ON , G S :A n inves tig ation of com p ressed sp ru ce p u lleys

. . . Univ W ash . .

Eng Exp t S ta , Bu l 1 0 , S eat tl e, 1 92 0

. . . . .

WIL S ON, T R C : S om e t ests Of end m atched lumb er S ou thern I/ um ber -

.

m an, N ashv ill e, T enn V ol 1 33 , D ec 22 , 1 928 , p p 1 97—

. . .

2 02 .
,
. . . .

YOU N GQUI S T W BERT P M U N TH E :The eff ect of a chang e in tes ting

,
. G, . and .

sp eed and sp an on the f lexu ra l s treng th of insu la ting and s tru ctu ra l fiber

boards and a p rop os ed new m ethod of tes t F or P rod Lab Rep t R 1 7 1 7, . . . . .

M adison, 1 948 .
3 50 APP EN D I X

T A BLE 2 7 . N OM E N CLA T URE OF A M E RI CA N WOODS —Continu ed

Hardwoods—continu ed
Comm on N am e S cientifi c N am e
E lm , A m erican ( Elm, w hite ) Ulmus a mericana
Elm , rock Ulmus thomasi
E lm, slip pery Ulmus f u lva
F ig g olden F icu s au rea

lo black )
,

Gu m , black ( T u p e ,
N yssa s ylvatica
Gum , blu e E u calyp tu s g lobu lu s
Gum , red ( Gu m , sw eet ) Liquidambar styracif lu a
'

Gum, tup el o ( T up elo, w ater) N yssa aquatica

Gu mbolimbo B u rs era simaru ba

Hack berry Celtis occidentalis

Haw , p ear Crataeg u s tomentosa

Hickory , big leaf shag bark Carya laciniosa
Hickory , bitternut Carya cordif ormis
Hickory , m ockernu t Carya tomentosa
Hickory, nutmeg Carya myristicaef ormis
Hickory , p ig nu t Carya g labra
Hickory , shag bark Carya ovata
Hickory, w ater Carya aqu atica

Holly .
I lex op aca
Honeyl ocust Gleditsia triacanthos
Hop hornbeam Os trya virg iniana
I nkw ood Exothea p anicu la ta
I ronw ood , black (Lead wd )
oo K ru g iodendron f erreu m
L au rel ,
California . Umbellu laria ca li ornica
f
L au rel ,
m ou ntain
Locust ,
black Robinia p seu doacacia
M adrono P acifi c , A rbu tu s menziesii
M ag nolia , cucu mber M ag nolia acu minata
M ag nolia, ev erg reen M ag nolia g randi orafl
M ag nolia, mountain M ag nolia f ras eri
M ang rov e Rhiz op hora mang le
M ap le big leaf , A cer ma crop hyl lu m
M ap le, black A cer nig ru m
M ap le red , A cer ru bru m
M ap le S ilver , A cer saccharinu m

M ap le, strip ed A cer p ennsylvanicu m

M ap le su g ar , A cer saccharu m or A
’

. s a ccharop horu m

M astic S ideroxylon f oetidis s imu m

Oak, bl ack Qu ercu s velu tina
Oak , bur Qu ercu s macrocarp a
Oak , California black Qu ercu s kellog g ii
Oak , cany on live Qu ercu s chrys olep is
Oak , chestnu t Qu ercus montana
Oak , l aurel Qu ercu s laurif olia
Oak , liv e Qu ercu s virg iniana
 A PPE N D I X 35 1

T A B LE 2 7 » N OM E N CLA T URE A M E RI C A N W OOD S —Continu ed

“

OF

Hardw oods— continu ed

Com mon N ame S cientific N ame
Oak , Oreg on w hite .
Qu ercu s g arryana
Oak , p in Qu ercus p alu stris
Oak , p os t Qu ercus s tella ta
Oak , north ern red Qu ercu s borealis
Oak , Rocky M ou ntain w hite ( Oak ,
Gambel ) Qu ercus g ambelii
Oak , scarl et Qu ercu s coccinea
Oak , s ou thern red Qu ercu s f alca ta
Oak , mp red
swa Qu ercu s f alcata p ag oda ef olia
Oak , sw amp chestnu t Qu ercus p rinu s
Oak , sw amp w hite Qu ercus bicolor
Oak , w ater Qu ercus nig ra
Oak , w hite Qu ercus alba
Oak , w illow Qu ercu s p hel los
Osag e orang e
-
M aclura p omif era
P al m etto, cabbag e S abal p almetto
P aradise tree S imarou ba g lau ca
P ecan Carya illinoensis
P ersimm on Diosp yros virg iniana
Pig p lum
eon Coccolobis la u rif olia
-

Poisonw ood M etop iu m toxif eru m

P op l ar, balsam P op u lu s taca mahacca
P op lar, yellow Liriodendron tu lip if era
Rhododendron, g re at Rhododendron maximu m
S assafras S assaf ras a lbidu m
S erviceberry A melanchier arborea

Silv erbell Halesia carolina

S ou rw ood Oxydendru m arboreu m

S top p er, red E u g enia con us af
S ug arberry Celtis la evig ata

S u m ach, s tag horn Rhus typ hina

Sy camore P latanu s occidenta lis

W alnu t, black Ju g lans nig ra

Walnut little , Ju g lans rup es tris
Willow black, S alix nig ra
Willow w estern bl ack
, S a lix lasiandra
Witch haz el
-
m
Ha ma elis virg iniana

S oftw oods

Cedar, A l aska Cha maecyp aris nootka tensis

Cedar, incense I/ ibocedru s decu rrens
Cedar; P ort Orford Cha maecyp aris laws oniana
Cedar, eas tern red Ju nip eru s virg iniana
Cedar, s ou thern red Ju nip eru s S p .
3 52 AP P E N D I X

T A BLE 2 7 . N OM E N CLA T UR E OF A M E RI CA N WOOD S -

Continu ed
S oftw oods~ —
continu ed

Common N am e S cientifi c N ame

‘

Cedar, w estern red . Thuj a p lica ta

Cedar, northern w hite Thuj a occidenta lis
Cedar, s ou thern white ( Cedar ,
Atlantic
w hite) Cha ma ecyp aris thyoides
Cyp ress, s ou th ern ( Cyp ress b ald )
,
Taxodiu m distichu m
D ou g las fi r ( coast typ e ) P s eu dotsu g a taxif olia
D oug las f ir ( intermediate typ e ) P s eu dotsu g a taxif olia
D oug las fir ( Rocky M ou ntain typ e ) P seu dotsu g a taxif olia
F ir, alp ine A bies lasiocarp a
F ir, balsam A bies bals a mea
F ir, corkbark A bies lasiocarp a ariz onica

F ir, low land w hite A bies g randis

F ir, noble A bies nobilis or A p rocera .

F ir, Cal ifornia red A bies mag nifi ca

F ir, s ilv er A bies a ma bilis

F ir, w hite A bies concolor

Heml ock eastern ,

Tsu g a canadensis

Heml ock , mountain Ts u g a mertensiana

Hemlock, w estern Tsu g a heterop hylla
Ju nip er allig ator
,
Ju nip eru s p achyp hloea
Larch w estern
,
Larix occidentalis
P ine j ack
,
P inu s banksiana
Pine J eff rey
,
P inu s j efi reyi
Pine, limber P inu s fi exilis
P ine, loblolly P inu s taeda
Pine, lodg ep ole P inu s contorta la ti olia f
P ine, l ong leaf P inu s p alu s tris
Pine, m ou ntain P inus p u ng ens
Pine, northern w hite ( eas tern w hite) P inu s strobu s

P ine, N orw ay (red ) P inu s resinosa

P ine, p itch P inu s rig ida

P ine, p ond P inu s rig ida s erotina

P ine, p onderosa P inu s p onderosa

P ine, sand P inu s clau sa
Pine, sh ortlea f P inu s n
echi ata

Pine, slash P inu s caribaea

P ine, su g ar P inu s lambe
rtiana

P ine, w est ern w hite P inu s monticola

Piny on
'

P inu s edu lis

Redw ood ( virg in) S equ oia s emp ervirens
'

Redw ood (second g row th , O enl

p y g row n ) S equ oia semp ervirens
R edw ood ( second g row th , cl osel y g row n ) S equ oia s emp ervirens

S p ru ce, bl ack P icea mariana

S p ruce, Eng el mann P icea eng el manni
S p ruce, red P icea ru bens
’
354 S AM P LE W ORK ING P LA N

3 . D ata on d et ermine the influence on the m ech anical

w hich to
o er t ies O f s u ch f a ct or s as d ensit y l ocal ity O f g row th p osit ion
p p
r , ,

in cross sect ion heig ht Of t im b er in the tree chang e Of prop ert ies
, ,

w ith s easoning and chang e f rom s ap w ood t o h eartw ood

,
.

K IND TE S T S
OF

T he p rincip al t ests used to d et ermine m echanical p rop ert ies are

as f oll ow s :

( a) S t at ic b end ing .

( b) C omp ress ion p arall el to grain .

( c) Comp ression p erp end icu l ar t o grain .

( d) S hear p arall el to grain .

( e) Tension p arall el to g rain .

(f ) T ension p erp end icu l ar to grain .

(g ) I mp act b end ing .

( h) T ou ghness .

( i) Cl eav ag e .

(j ) Hard ness .

In dd ition su ch p hy sical p rop erties as sp ecifi c grav ity

a , ,

rad ial t ang ent ial and v ol u metric S hrink ag e are d et ermined
, ,
.

M a t erial
COL LE CT I ON
S election . h all be from trees sel ect ed in the
T he m at erial s

f orest by One q u al ifi ed t o id ent ify the sp ecies F or each sp ecies .

to be t est ed from a g iv en l ocal ity at l east fi v e rep res ent ativ e trees ,

O f merchant abl e s iz e and O f ap p rox im at el

y av erag e ag e s hall be
s el ect ed if the trees are ov er 2 4 inches d b h A minimum Of ten . . .

rep resent at iv e t rees w ill b e requ ired if the t rees are24 inches or

l ess in d b h . . .

The m at erial f rom the t rees Of each sp ecies from a g iv en

“

l ocal ity sh all be sel ect ed as f oll ow s ‘

F rom one Of th ese trees ( tw o if 24 inch es or l ess in the

f oll ow ing 8 f oot sections each rep resenting tw o 4 f oot bolts 2
-
.

,
-
:

2 T his t ree is intended t o furnish t est m aterial f or stu dy ing ,

among other
thing s, the v ariation Of p rop erties w ith h eig ht in trees and p rovides f or
this p u rp os e an 8 -

f oot section from dif ferent h eig hts . B olts are desig nat ed
as a, b, 0 , etc .
,
to rep res ent su ccessiv e 4 -
f oot leng ths t ak en ab ov e the s tump .

B ol t a is the 4 -
foot section tak en im m ediately ab ove the s tum p . .
 COLLE CT ION 355

L eng th Of

M erchantable Bole, f t B olts to Be S elected

16 b, o
C.
.
d
20 b, 0
C) d
24 b a c. d !n
o
6,
, ,

28 b, 0
C.
.
d, a

32 b, C. d ,
o
a
l
.
”
o o
.

36 b ,
C: d )
h,
40 b a C d
o a z, J
, .
. , ”
44 b, o

C.
.
d G
u
o
t J, k
48 b, 0
C) d c
a G
M
k’ l
a
l

52 b ,
C.
.
d0 .

1
l, m
56 b, 0
C. d ,
a

0
M
m, n
o o
.

d
o

/ 60 b , ,
z, nQ 0
o o
:

b C: d
o

64 , )
z, 0 p
72 b, 0
C d
)
o ?
1 , q r
.

80 b, d7
a

Sy t
0 .
C.. 2’ 0 O
I p
.

96 b, 0

c. ,
d, o
z’ 0 p: w x
.
O
l

Over 9 6 b O
I
C d , k,
a
8
h
b’ and

l ast tw o 4 f t bol ts at t op -
.

Of merchantable l eng th

F rom the m aining trees , the 8 f oot sec ion t ( b olts and d)
“

re -
0

next ab ov e the 8 f oot b utt l og

- -

I n cases w here the l og s or b olt s are Over 60 inches in d iam et er ,

a singl e fl it ch 6 inches in t hick ness t ak en th rou gh the pith in a

.

north and s ou th d irect ion and rep res ent ing the f u ll d iamet er of
the l og m ay be Su b st itu t ed in the s ame l ength f or the fu ll log
, , ,

or b olt sp ecifi ed in the p reced ing p aragrap hs .

F ield M arking E ach tree shall be g iv en an arab ic numb er

.
,

the numb ering in any g iv en ship ment t o b e consecu t iv e f or trees

Of a g iv en sp ecies E ach 4 f eet Of l ength Of a tree or l og shall
.

B olts shall be d esignat ed by sm all l ett ers

“
be consid ered a b olt .
,

b eginning w ith a f or the 4 f oot section next ab ov e the stu mp

“
-

'
.

B olt l ett ers theref ore ind icat e p osition w ith resp ect to h eight in
, , .

tree.

T he tree num b er and b olt d es ignat ion shall be p l ainl y m ark ed

'

on ea ch l og sel ect ed by th e coll ect or T hus the 1 6 f oot b utt l og

-
-
.

Of T ree 2 w ou ld be d es ignat ed 2 a bcd S t eel d ies are recom .

mend ed f or m arking the b utt end Of the l og s .

T he north s id e Of each l og sh all be ind icat ed in some conv enient

.

manner .
 SA M PLE WORK IN G P LA N

A ll m at erial ll t d from
g iv en l ocal ity and ship p ed at one
co ec e a

time sh all be g iven a ship m ent numb er or other d esignation .

F ield D es crip tions Comp l et e fi eld not es d escrib ing the m at e

.

rial s hall be f u ll y and carefu ll y m ad e by the coll ect or T hese .

notes Sh all in g eneral s upp l y d at a as ou tl ined in T abl e 2 8

, ,
.

P hot og rap h s Of the st and ing trees sel ect ed shall be t ak en .

T AB LE 28 . S H I PM E N T D E S CRI PTI ON—FI E LD ”

N OTE S

D at e

S t ate Cou nty .

L ocal cont act : N at ional F orest P riv at e ow ner

General ecol og ical d es crip tion of l ocal ity

1 . Climat ic factors
( a) P recip itation in inches : av erag e annu al am ou nt seas onal
d is tribu t ion : sp ring s u m m er au tu m n
w int er

( b) T em p erature d eg , rees F ahrenh eit : m ean annu al m ean

sum m er m ean w int er m axim u m s u mm er

m inim u m w inter
S eas on betw een kil ling frosts :
( 0 ) R el ative humid ity : hig h m ediu m , , or l ow in
au t u m n

( d) P rev ailing w ind d irect ion : s u m m er w int er

2 . T op og rap hic f a ct ors

( a) Charact er of t Op og rap hy : l ev el , ll ing
ro , m ou nt ainou s , t o p recip itou s

( b) E l ev ation : abs ol u t e
( 0 ) P resence of s tream s , l akes , sw am p s : nu m erou s , f ew , p erm anent ,
int erm itt ent
( d) G eol og ical hist ory : orig inal rock form a t ions : ( 1 ) ig neou s , (2) s ed i
m ent ary : sh al es , sands t ones , l im est ones

S econd ary form ations : l ocal , g l acial , all u v ial , l oes sal

P rep are p ag e 1 of t his orm f or each ship m entf Und erline d es crip t iv e w ord s .

and fill in al l bl ank sp aces t h at a U se rev erse of t his f orm f or addit ional
p p ly . .

not es .

F rom S tandard methods of testing s mall cl ear s p ecim ens o f timber . S erial desig
nation D 1 43 48 , A m -

. S oc T es t M at
. . .
, P hil ad elp hia 1 948 , .
3 58 S A M P LE W ORKI N G P LA N

T A BL E 28 . S HI PM E N T D E S CRI PT I ON —FI E LD N OT E S —C ontinu ed

NO

T ree des crip tion zi T ree N O

1 . D at e s aw ed re m ov ed f rom w ood s D at e

2 . T ree cl ass : Op en, d om inant , cod om inant , int erm ed iat e, su p p ressed .

3 . Orig in : seedling , sp rou t . 4 . Ag e at st u m p y ears .

5 . D E H. . . O .b T ot al h t ft . M erch ht . .

T op d i b . . .

6 . S t u mp h t . in . R oot sw ell ing ht in . A vg . diam . stu m p

7 . Crow n : l eng t h w id th ft . , p roj ect ion, f t . E

8 . F oliag e d ensity : t h ick m ediu m t hin , , .

9 . L ean : d irection . 2 , 4, 6 d eg rees . Crook : f orm .

1 0 L ocate . p osition and siz e of adj a cent t rees and s t u m p s on diag ra m of con

centric circl es , a ss u m ing t h e t ree t o st and a t t h e cent er and th e int erv al s

t o be 5 ( or 1 0 ) ft . I ndicat e d b b . . . and sp ecies by ap p rop riat e abbrev iations .

11 . Giv e ap p roxim at e tim e of cu tting any ad acentj trees

12 . P h ot og rap hs of s t and ing t ree .

S p ecim ens ship p ed

1 . Herbariu m m aterial : l eav es

2 . S ize of p ieces and l ocation in t ree

Heig ht

ab ov e G rou nd of D iam et ers i b . .

, in
.

M ark L ow er E nd f t “

, . L eng th , f t . B ott om T op

3 . D efect s : K ind . E x tent

4 . Ph ot og rap h s of sections

1 Prep are 3 of t h is f orm f or Underlin e d es crip t iv e w ord s and

'

p ag e each t ree .

fil l in all bl ank sp aces t h at ap p l y . U se rev erse of t his form f or ad d i ional not es .

t

P rep ara tion f or S hip ment T he bark w ill be l eft on each l og ,

.
”

and care shall be t ak en to k eep the b ark int act T he end s Of .

 D I SP OS ITI ON 3 59

the l ogs shall be Caref ull y p aint ed to ret ard or p rev ent end d ry ing
and end check ing .

Record shall be m ad e of the s hip ment rou ting b ill Of l ad ing , ,

k ind Of ship ment d at e Of ship m ent and cond ition Of m aterial

-

, ,

w hen ship p ed R ecord shall al so be m ad e Of d at e Of receip t of

.

ship m ent at d est inat ion it s cond it ion and m et hod of st ora g e
, , .

F I G 89
. . M ethod of cu tting up bol t and marking tes t sticks .

D I S POS I T I ON
S torag e o f L og s at D es tina tion . M at erial shall
k ep t in not be
the b olt or l og f orm long enou g h to p erm it d am ag e by check s ,

d ecay st ains or insect att ack T he l ogs shall be p il ed on sk id s

, ,
.
,

free from cont act w ith the S oil and Shall not be s t ored w here
su bj ect ed t o artifi cial heat I n add it ion they sh ou ld p ref erabl y
.

be p rot ect ed f rom the sun .

P hotog ,
a
rap hing
S w ing , and F ina l M a rkin g T h e t op end o f .

each d or c d b olt s h all be p h ot ograp hed

-
I t is su gg est ed that a .

ru l e be S O p l aced on the l og as t o ind icat e the s cal e O f the p hot o

grap h and that the card inal p oints be ind icat ed on the cross
sec tion .

A ll b olt s shall be m ark ed on the t op end int o by - -

in .

s q u ares as sh ow n in F ig 8 9 and saw ed int o nominal

.
-
by
 3 60 SA M P LE WOR K I N G P LA N

-
intick s The l etters N E S and W ind icat e the card inal
. s .
, , ,

p oints W hen fl itches are sub stitut ed f or b olts this same g eneral
.
,

m ark ing and numb ering schem e shall be f oll ow ed ins of ar as it is

“

ap p l icabl e .

A ll t est st ick s shall b ear the ship m ent num b er the tree numb er , ,

st ick nu mb er and b olt d esig nat ion t o be k now n resp ect iv el y as

, , , ,

Ship ment N O P iece N O Stick N O and M ark

.
,
.
,
Thus 40 0 1 N 4d .
, .
- -

rep resent s S t ick N 4 Of B olt d T ree 1 S hip ment 400 , , .

M a tching f or A ir D ry Tes ts I n the t est s m ade t o d et ermine

-
.

the ef f ect Of air d ry ing on strength the stick s f rom the u p p er ,

b olt Of each 8 f oot sect ion shall be int erchang ed w ith those O f
-

the l ow er b olt Of that s ect ion from the s am e tree t o f orm tw o

comp osit e b olt s each comp osit e b olt b eing comp l et e and b eing
,

mad e of eq u al p ortions of up p er and l ow er b olt s T he s t ick s .

f rom one Of these comp osit e b olts S hall be t ested uns easoned and ,

those f rom the other shall be t est ed aft er air d rying The sticks .

t est ed either u nseasoned or air dry shall be reg ard ed as if they -

w ere f rom the s am e b olt .

T he d iv ision Of u nseasoned and air dry stick s Shall be m ad e -

a ccord ing t o the f oll ow ing s ch ed u l e in w hich the nu mb ers ref er t o

st ick numb ers :

S ELE C T I ON OF S T I CK S F R OM c A ND d BOLTS

Comp osite B olt to B e T ested Unseasoned

Low er bol t c a
. 1 4, 5 8, 9
Up p er bolt d 6, 7 1 0, etc.

Comp osite Bol t t o be A ir -

D ried and T ested
L ow er bolt 0 2, 3
-
-
6, 7 1 0, etc.

Upp er bol t d 1 4, 5 8, 9

T he l tion Of stick s f rom other 8 f oot sections of the tree to

se ec .
-

f orm comp osite b olts f or green and air dry t esting w ill be m ad e -

in accord ance w ith this p att ern .

D isp osition of S ticks Uns eas oned ma terial . The stick s .

'
by inches by 4 f eet ) to be t est ed unseasoned sh all be
k ep t in an unseasoned cond ition w hil e aw aiting p rep aration f or ,

test by b eing sto

,
red in a f ramed p it or oth e r suit abl e cont ainer ,

w h ere they sh all be cl ose p il ed and cov ered w ith d amp s aw d u st or

in some other suit abl e m anner A s m at erial is requ ired f or t est
.
,
 SA M P LE W ORK I N G P LA N

and honey com b ing w ill be a v oid ed . K il n record s Will b e k ep t Of

op era t ing cond it ions d uring the entire period Of d ry ing M ax i .

°
mum k il n t emp erature w ill not ex ceed 1 SO F .

A ft er d ry ing stick s seas oned by either m eth od w ill be s t ored

,

p ref erabl y in a temp erature an d hu mid ity controll ed room at -

7 5 F and 6 4 p ercent rel at iv e hu m id ity p rior to t es t ing

°
. This .

p roced u re is int end ed to el im inat e any moisture gr ad ient rem ain

ing in the m at erial and to achiev e as nearl y as p ossibl e a 1 2

-

p ercent m oisture cont ent .

T es t in g
ORDER , SE LE CTI ON , AND NU M BER
Order . T he d
t ests in all cases sh all be su ch as to
or er Of

el im inat e as f ar as p ossibl e f rom the comp arisons the ef f ect of

chang es in the sp ecim en du e t o su ch f act ors as s t orag e and

w eather cond itions .

S election I n cas e the m at erial f rom a g iv en b olt shou ld be

.

insu ffi cient to furnish all the t es t sp ecimens hereinaft er req u ired ,

the p ref erent ial ord er Of m echanical t est s t o be u sed in s el ect ing
S p ecimens shall be as f oll ow s : S t at ic b end ing comp res sion p aral ,

l el to g rain imp act b end ing t ou ghness comp ression p erp end icu l ar
, , ,

to grain hard ness shear p arall el t o g rain t ension p erp end icu l ar
, , ,

to grain cl eavag e and t ens ion p arall el t o grain

, , W here a .

sh ort ag e of m at erial ex ist s cert ain t es t sp ecim ens m ay b e t ak en

,

f rom the uninj ured p ortion Of the st atic and imp act b end ing -

sp ecim ens rem aining aft er t est p rov id ing p rop er care is u s ed in,

the sel ection .

Onl y cl ear straig ht grained m at erial free f rom d ecay and other
-

d ef ects shall be u sed f or the t est s How ev er small k nots and

, .
,

other s im il ar d ef ect s m ay be ad m itt ed in such sp ecim ens as s t at ic '

b end ing w hen their l ocation is su ch that it is cert ain they w ill not
,
_

in any w ay infl u ence the f ail ure or otherw ise af f ect the s trength Of
the sp ecim en .

N u m ber f Tes ts f or E ach B ol t S ta tic bending

o One sp eci . .

men shall be t ak en from each p air Of s tick s I n each composit e .

b olt a p air consist s Of tw o adj acent stick s equid ist ant from
the p ith as W 3 and W 4 F ig 8 9
, Thu s W 3 d and W 4c constitut e
,
. .

\
one p air Of s tick s t o be t es t ed u nseasoned and W 3 c and W 4d the ,

corresp ond ing p air t o be t es t ed air dr

y
-
.
 ORD E R, S E LE CT ION , A N D N U M BE R 3

Comp ression p aral lel to g rain One s p ecimen shall be t ak en .

f rom each stick L oad comp ression curv es shall p ref erabl y be
.
-

t ak en on all Of t he s p eci mens .

I mp act bending mens shall be t a

. E ig ht k en f rom each
sp eci

b ol t, sel ection b eing m ad e f rom the s t ick s rem aining aft er the
s t atic b end ing m at eria l is Ob t ained
-
T W O sp ecim ens shall be .

sel ect ed f rom near the p ith , tw o f rom near t he p erip hery , and

f our rep res en a t tiv e Of the cros s sec ion t .

T ou g hnes s mens shall be t ak en from

F ou r tou g hness sp eci

the und am ag ed p ortion or end Of ea ch im p act —

.

b end ing s p ecim en

or its m at ching s t at ic b end ing s p ecim en Thus a t ot al Of 3 2
-
.

t ou ghness sp ecimens w ill be s el ect ed f rom each b olt F rom each .

group Of f our sp ecimens t ak en f rom a singl e stick , tw o w ill be

t est ed with the l oad app lied to a rad ial f ace and tw o w ith the
“
'

l oad ap p l ied t o a t ang ential f ace

Comp ression p erp endicu lar tO g rain One sp ecim en shall be .

t ak en from each O f 5 0 p ercent Of the stick s selected f or istatic

'
r

b end ing .

Hardness One sp ecimen shall be t ak en from each Of the other

.

50 p ercent Of the s t at ic b end ing s tick s -

.

S hear p arallel to g rain Tw elv e s p ecimens shall be s el ected

.

from the unu sed p ortion or end s Of S ix stick s f rom w hich b end ing
s p ecim ens ha v e b een s el ected T W O s p ecimens shall be t ak en .

from near the p ith tw o from near the p erip hery and eight that
, ,

are r ep res ent at iv e of th e av erag e g row t h Of the cros s section Of

the b olt O ne Of each p air of sp ecim ens f rom the same s t ick
.
"

sh all b e t es t ed in rad ial s hear ( su rf ace O f f ail ure rad ial ) and the
other in t ang ent ial shear ( su rf ace Of f ail u re t ang ent ial ) .

Tension p erp endicu lar to g rain Tw elv e sp ecim ens S hall be .

'

sel ect ed f rom s ix st ick s in a m anner s im il ar t o that f or s hear .

One Of each p air Of sp ecimens f rom the s am e st ick shall be

t est ed in rad ial t ension ( surf ace O f f ail ure rad ial ) and the oth er
in t ang ential t ension ( surf ace Of f ail ure t ang ent ial )
Cleava g e Tw elv e sp ecim ens shall be sel ect ed f rom six stick s
.

in a m anner s im il ar to t hat f or shear One Of each p air of .

_

sp ecimens f rom the s am e st ick shall be t est ed in rad ial cl eav ag e

( su rf ace Of f ailu re rad ial ) and the other in t ang ent ial cl eav ag e
“

( surf ace Of f ailu re t angential ) .

T ension p arall el to g rain S ix sp ecim ens shall be chosen Of

'
‘

,
.
364 SA M P L E W ORK I N G P LA N

w hich one S ha ll be se ecte l d f rom near the p it h, one f rom near

the p erip hery , and f our rep res ent at i e Of v the cross s ect ion .

S p eci c fi g ravity and s hrink ag e in v olu m e . S ix sp ecimens shall -

be Obt ained f rom the u nu sed p ortion of b end ing or t ension

p arall el t o grain st ick s s el ected s o as t o g iv e one f rom near the
'

- -

p ith one f rom near the p erip hery and f our rep resen t ativ e Of t he
“

, ,

av erag e g row th Of the cross section Of the b olt T hese sp ecimens .

shall be sel ect ed onl y from t he s tick s t o be t es t ed in an uns eas oned

cond it ion .

R adial s hrinka g e F our sp ecim ens shall be Obt ained from each
.

d b olt and if p ossibl e from the u pp er b olt Of each 8 f oot sect ion -

s el ect ed at other height s in the t ree They shall be cut from the .

” ”
“
s ectors or qu ad rants rem aining aft er s aw ing ( F ig 89 ) or .

f rom d isk s cut f rom near the end Of the b olt W hen a d isk is .

u s ed care mu st b e t ak en t o see that it is u ns eas oned and has not

,

b een af f ect ed by shrink ing and check ing w hich is comm on near
the end Of the b olt T he sp ecim ens s hall not be su rf aced
. .

Rad ial shrink ag e sp ecim ens shall be cu t w it h their great est

-

d imension in the rad ial d irection T W O sh all be t ak en f rom the .

heartw ood and the other tw o f rom near the p erip hery
,
W hen .

p ossibl e the second p air sh all consis t ent irel y of s apw ood
,

Tang ential s hrinka g e F ou r sp ecim ens shall be Obtained from

'

each d b olt and if p oss ibl e f rom other b olt s a s d es crib ed in t he ,

p reced ing p aragrap h They shall b e s el ect ed at the s am e t im e

.

and in a m anner s im il ar t o radial shrink ag e sp ecim ens ex cep t

“

that the g reatest d im ension sh all be in a t ang ential d irection .

T he sp ecim ens shall not be su rf aced T W O sh all be t ak en from .

the heartw ood the other tw o f rom near the p erip hery and w hen
, ,

p ossibl e they shall consist ent irel y Of s ap w ood T he heartw ood .

and the s ap w ood sp ecim ens sh all be t ak en adj acent t o the resp ec

tiv e sp ecim ens sel ect ed f or rad ial shrink ag e .

GE N E RA L I N S T RU CT I ON S

P hotog f S ticks F ou r of the b end ing stick s from each

rap hs o .

s p ecies Shall be s el ect ed f or p hot ograp hing as f oll ow s :tw o av er , _

ag e g row th one f ast grow th and one s l ow grow th

,
T hese st ick s
,
.

shall be p hotograp hed in cross sect ion and On the rad ial and -

tang ential su rf aces .

Control of M ois ture Content A s p rev iou s l y Sp ecifi ed ( D is .

p o sit ion O f S t ick s— A ir D ry M at erial ) stick s f or t est in the air

-

,
3 66 SA M P LE WORK I N G P LA N

be mad e on b ack Of the d ata card ; in l ik e manner, a carbon

the
imp ress ion of the s am e end shall be mad e aft er the bl ock has
“

b een ov en d ried
-

E ach sp ecimen S hall be w eighed w h en unseasoned , and the

v ol ume shall be determined g by the immers ion m ethod fi A ft er .

immersion all sp ecim ens S hall be Op en p il ed and all ow ed to air

s eas on u nd er room cond it ions u nt il ap p rox im at el y cons t ant

w eight is att ained They shall then be op en p il ed in an ov en

.

and d rie d at 1 00 C until const ant w eight is reach ed E ach bl ock

°
. .

S hall then be w eig hed and w h il e st ill w arm imm er

,
.
sed in a hot ,

p araff in b ath, care b eing t ak en to rem ov e it quickl y to insure a

thin coating T he v olume Of each p araffin coat ed sp ecimen shall
.
-

then be d et ermined by immersion as bef ore .

A ll d at a on w eights and v ol um es Of each t est sp ecimen shall

be ent ered on the p rop er d at a card , t og eth er w ith cal cu l at ed v al u es
f or sp ecifi c grav ity , w eight p er cu b icf oot moisture content and
“

, ,

shrink ag e in v ol um e ( b ased on unseasoned v ol ume) .

R adial and Tang ential S hrinkag e T he rad ial ? and t ang ent ial ?.

s hrink ag e d et erminations s h all be m ad e on uns easoned sp ecimens ,

1 inch thick , 4 inches w id e and 1 inch l ong ,

The s amp l es f or .

u se in d et ermining rad ial shrink ag e S h all be cut w ith the w idth _

in the rad ial d irect ion ; those f or t ang ential s h rink ag e w ith the
w idth in the t an g ent ial d irection Sp ecimens shall not be sur
.

f aced .

E ach sp ecimen shall be measured across the d imension ( 4

inches ) in w hich the shrink ag e is t o be d et ermined and w eighed
-

b oth w h en unseasoned and aft er sub sequent ov en d rying A .

m icrom et er Of req u ired accuracy inch ) is su it abl e f or ,

mak ing m easurem ents A l l m easurements and w eig hts S hall be

. _

record ed on a suit abl e d at a card t og ether w ith inf ormation on

,

num b er Of ring s p er inch p ercent of s ap w ood and w hen p oss ibl e

, , , ,

p er cen t Of s u m m er w oo d 5 .

I n d ry ing the sp ecim ens th ey sh all fi rst be Op en p il ed and

,
.

4I n the imm ersion m ethod , v olu m e is conv eniently det ermmed using
m etric units by w eig hing the q u antity Of w ater disp laced by the sp ecim en .

T he nu m erical v alue f or w eig ht in g rams Of the w ater disp laced ( the

diff erence b etw een w eig ht of a container of w ater bef ore and af ter imm er
sion of the sp ecim en) is eq uiv al ent t o the v olum e of the sp ecim en i
n cubic
centim eters.

5S ee S tandard methods of testing sm all clear s p ecim ens of timber, foot

note 1 , F ig 46 Of A p p endix
. .
 CA LI BR A T I ON 367

a ll ow ed to air season und er room cond itions until app rox im at el y

f

const ant w eight is att ained Th ey sh all then b e op en p il ed in an

.

°
ov en and dried at 1 00 C unt il const ant w eight is reached
. .

T he moisture cont ent Of each unseas oned sp ecim en and its

p ercent Of shrink ag e in the rad ial or t ang ent ial d irection ( b ased
on uns eas oned w idth ) S hall be comp u t ed and ent ered on the d at a

card .

M ois ture D etermination T he st and ard p roced ure f or m ak ing

.
,

m oisture d et erminat ions is d is cu ssed in d et ail und er T imb er T est

ing ( s ee p ag es 2 80—
2)

TOLERA N CE S
Weig hts .t est sp ecimens a nd of moisture s amp l es
T he w eight of

s h all be d et ermined to an accuracy Of not l ess th an p ercent .

M easurements M easurement s Of t est sp ecimens sh all be m ad e

.

to the nearest inch ex cep t in the cross sectional d im ensions

,
-

Of t ension p arall el t o grain and t ou gh ness s p ecimens and the

rad ial and t ang ent ial d imensions Of l inear s hrink ag e sp ecim ens -

f or w h ich m easurement s sh all be t ak en to the nearest inch .

T es ting M achine S p eed

-
I n no case shall the t est ing m achine
.

sp eed u sed v ary m ore th an 2 5 p ercent f rom th at S p ecifi ed f or a

giv en t est T he l oad s h all be ap p l ied continu ously w ith ou t in

.
,

terrup tiOn at th e requ ired sp eed throu gh ou t the t est Crossh ead
'

.
,

sp eed is d efi ned as the n O l oad ( f ree running ) S p eed f or t est ing

- -

mach ines Of the m ech anical driv e typ e and as l oad ed cross h ead
-

sp eed f or m ach ines of the h y d rau l ic l oad ing ty p e .

CA LI BRATI ON
A ll t
ap p ara u s us e d in obt aining d at a s h all be ca l ib rated at

su fficiently frequent int erv al s to insure accuracy “ .

S ee Standard methods of v erifi cation of t esting m achines S erial D esig

- 6
,

nation :E 4 47T 1 9 47 B ook of S tandards, A m S oc T est M at , P hiladelp hia,

-

,
. . . .

Pt I I . .
3 70 I N DEX

Colum ns short , failures in, 30 4 50 — Crushing streng th, see a ls o M axi

—
, ,

s treng th Of , 2 6 8 72 m um cru shing streng th

tap ered, 2 72 Cup p ing Of lum b er 1 3 1 2 —
—
,

w orking s tress es f or, 2 48 53

Combined b ending and axial l oads, D ead timber streng th Of 2 00
— D ecay 1 09—
, ,

2 73 4 15 1 17 19
, ,
-

,
1 99
Com p ression, endw ise, see p arallel b earing on w orking stresses , 2 47 ,

—
t o g rain 25 4
f ailures eff ect on streng — th , 1 1 7 1 9
78—
48 , 5 1 , 1 2 0 2
33 2 35 —
1 52 223—
,

effe ct on s treng th, I 22 D efects 46

—
, , ,

p arallel to g rain, 2 7 34 bearing on w orking s tresses, 23 5

t est, 3 04 0 9 , 363 — 46
w orking stresses f or, 2 48 53 — eff ect on streng —
th , 78 1 5 2 , 235 46 —
p erp endicu lar to g rain, 27 p ow d er p ost , 1 36 7 —
t est, 309 1 2 , 363 — p rev alence in heartw ood, 1 98 9 —
w orking stress es f or, 2 48 53 relation to s tiff nes s , 2 46
—
-

sid ew ise, see p erp endicular to s eas oning —

83 6 , 93 131 4
3—
,

rain D efinitions 7
— — —
g
—
,

w ood, 85 , 1 22 5 , 233 4 D eflection Of b eam s , 6 7 8 , 264 6

s treng th of , 1 22 4 — D efi ect om eter, 2 93 4 , 29 7 —
Com p ressiv e streng th 2 7— 34 D ensity , 1 52 6 6 —
ef f ect , Of d ef ects 82 3 , 98 , 1 0 7— —
,

08 , ff ect Of row ing conditions , 1 63

—
e g
—
, ,

1 1 9 , 1 22 4 , 1 30 6 , 1 70 8
Of extractiv es , 1 30 , 1 9 7—8 Of m oistu re content , 1 5 9 , 1 80 2 —
Of incising 1 95 Of p osition in tree, 1 6 7—70
m oisture 1 83— —
,

Of 5 217 on S hrinkag e, 94 5
—
, ,

Of s team i ng 1 95 m ethods Of es ti m ating 1 58 6 6

—
, ,

O f t em p eratu re 1 89 1 9 1 of heartw ood and sap w ood , 1 98 9

“

, ,

relation Of density t o, 1 5 3—7 of w ood substance, 1 53

v alu es f or, 1 0 —
25 ru l e, 1 6 1 2 , 1 6 4, 2 1 0 , 233 5
- —
Comp ressom eter, 30 4 30 7 , 309—1 0, sp eci cations , fi 233 5 -

D ensity— —
,

3 12 s treng th relations 1 53 8
density — D iag onal g rain 1 03—
,

Conif ers , rat e of row th 04

—
g ,

rel ations , 1 64 6 see a ls o Cross g rai

n
estim ation Of density In, —
1 6 1 2, D if fus e p orous hardw oods , 1 6 1 , 1 63 ,
—
-

1 64 1 65 6
stru cture Of , 1 60 D ip g rain, 99 , 1 28
Continu ou s beam s 39 D ip lodia sp p , 1 1 5
—
, .

Creosot e effect on s treng th, 1 92 4

, D ote 1 09 ,

Crook as a d ef ect , 1 3 1 D oug las fi r cl ose g rained , 1 6 4, 23 5

—
-

dense, 1 6 1 2 , 1 6 4, 233—
,

Cross arm s , ref erences to t ests , 5

3 43 D oz e 1 0 9
,

Cross breaks, 1 22 D ry ing m ethods f

ef ect on s treng th,
Cross g rain 98 1 0 8 — —
93 6 , 1 8 7 8 —
,

det ection Of , 1 0 1 —
,

04 D ry rot , 1 13, 1 1 5
eff ect on streng th, 1 0 5 08 , 2 40 — D urability Of w ood ( D ecay resist
m easu rem ent Of , — — —
—
1 04 05 ance ) ,
1 1 1 1 2 , 1 99 200
Crus hing s treng th, 1 0 25 , 2 7—
34 bearing on w orking stresses, 25 4
 I ND EX 37 1

Field
—
D u ration of t eff ect of , 2 03 , selection f or m echanical t est
—
s ress,

210 1 1 ing , 35 4 9
F ire killed timber streng th of 200
-

, ,

E arly w ood see S p ring w ood F lexibility 5 69

—
, , ,

Elasticity , 5 6 F lexure f ormu la 41 46 65 25 4 26 0 , , , , ,

m odu lus Of , s ee M odu lu s Of elas F loccosoids , 1 48

t icity F om es laricis, 1 1 7
E las tic p rop erties of w ood, —
1 0 25, F omes p ini 1 1 7—1 8 , 1 48
— F orm fact or 254—5 2 5 7—
,

6 6—
8 73 5 8 26 0
— —
, , , ,

E las tic resilence, 6 , 5 7 6 4, 6 9 70 F ormu las bending stress 41 46 65,

f or, 292— 3 03— — — —
, , , ,

f ormulas 3 29 8 , 04 25 4 5 , 292 3 , 298 , 303 0 4

I beams, 257—
,

E ndoconidiop hora sp p , 1 1 5 . 8
Endurance lim it , 2 0 4 l aminated beam s, 259—61
Eu ler, f ormula 271 colu mn, 26 8 7 1 —
defl ection in beams , 6 7— —
,

load, 28 8 , 26 4 5
Exp osu re, bearing on w orking I b eams , 26 6 7 —
s tress es , 247 5 4 — laminat ed beams , 26 7 8 —
Extractiv es , e ff ect on du rability ; elastic resil ence, —
2 92 3 , 2 98 , 3 03 0 4 —
—
_
,

1 1 1 1 2 , 1 99 Eu ler, 27 1
on m oisture -
cont ent det erm ina fiber stressp rop ortional lim it ,
at

tion, 1 79 , 2 8 1 2 — 292 3 , 298 , 303 0 4, 3 0 9 , 3 1 2

- —
on s treng th, 1 3 0, 1 97 8 — fl exu re, see Bending stress

on w eig ht of w ood, 1 58 9 -

f ou rth -

p ow er p arab olic, 2 6 9 70—

Extrem e fiber in b ending w orking horiz ontal shear, 46—
7 , 2 62
—
,

stresses f or, 2 48 53 I beams , 2 63

lam inat ed beam s, 263 4 —
Factor Of sa ety , seef Redu ction f ac m aximu m crus hing streng th, 309
t or m odu lus of elasticity , 7 6 7 , 292—
3,
—
,

actu al , 21 6 29 8, 3 03 04, 3 09
—
“

Failures bending , 48 53 — m odu lus Of rup tu re, 65 , 292 3 , 298

—
,

eff ect of t em p eratu re, 1 9 1 shearing streng th, 3 7 , 2 92 3 , 2 98 ,

com p ression p arall el t o g rain, 3 0 317
'

4 t esting m achine sp eed 285 ,

p erp endicular t o g rain, 27 Frost , cracks , 1 45

shearing , 33—6 , 38 ring s , 1 45
t ension, p arallel t o g rain, 26 sp lits , 1 45
False ring s, 1 3 7 f
ef ect on streng th, 1 45 6 —
F ast ening s, re erences f t o t ests , 3 46 Fung i, dry rot , 1 1 3 , 1 1 5
—
-

7 w ood d estroy ing , 1 08 1 5 , 1 1 7 1 9

—
- -

Fatig ue 2 04 w ood inhabiting

-
1 07 1 9
—
, ,

Fib er satu ration p oint, w ood staini 1 1 5 1 7, 1 1 9

—
-
85 , 9 3 , 1 83 , -
ng ,

1 85 6
Fiber stress at p rop ortional lim it , 5 , Grades, stru ctural, s ee S tr u ctural

2 7, 29 , 66 , 6 9 lumb er, g rades

f ormulas ,
—
6 6 , 2 9 2 3 , 2 98 , 3 0 3 , 3 0 9 , Grading ru les, b asic p rovisions, 223
312 35
Fibrils orient ation of , —
8 4 5 , 93 , 1 24, beam s and s tri
ng ers , 222 , 2 2 7 9 , —
— —
,

1 78 9 23 1 2
3 72 I N DE X

Grading ru les , defect lim itations , I ndented ring s , 1 48—

9
223—
33 23 6—
46 I nsect inj uries 1 3 4—
9
—
, ,

density s p eci cat ions , fi 2 33 5 Int erl ock ed g rain, 99

factors inv olved in est abl ishing ,
I s otrop ic m at erial , 8

heartw ood and s ap wood p rovi J Oists , w orking s tresses f or, 248 53
-

sions , 233
j oist and p l ank 2 2 1 2 25—7 , 23 1 2 —
, ,

— — K iln drying cfl ect on streng th, 1 87

m oisture eff ects , 2 41 5 , 247 5 4
,

23 1 —
8
p osts and timb ers , 222 , 229 , 2
— —
Knots 7 8 83 2 2 3 9
rate o f g rowt h sp ecifi cations, 23 5
eff ect , on streng th , 8 1 —
,

—
,

3 , 23 5—
'

9
Grain v ariat ion in, 98 1 00
w eig ht of w ood, 1 59
,
on
s ee a ls o D iag onal, Cross , and
enc sed , a 80
S p iral g rain
interg rown, 80
Grap hiu m sp p , 1 1 5 —
m easurem ent
.

Of 223 9
Growt h, conditions, eff ect of , 1 70 9
,

—
-

" ov al, 79
rat e, eff ect on density , 1 63 6
round , 79
ring s, 1 60
fals e 1 37
spike 79 ,

—
,

rel ation to failures ,

26 , 33 4, 3 7
secondary , 1 37 Lab oratory tests, adv ant ag es Of ,
1
L am inat ed 259—
Grub holes, 1 35 cons tru ct on,
i 61 ,
—
2 63 4, 2 6 7—8 , 2 72 3 —
Hankinson form u la 2 74—
5 L at e w ood see S umm erw ood
Hardness 1 0 25 7 1 — Lig htning ring s 1 46—
, ,

2 ,
-

,
7 ,

t est, 3 1 2 , 3 1 4, 363 Lim it Of p rOp ortionality 5 ,

Hardw oods dif fuse porou s ,

-

,
161 Limnoria, 1 42 3 -

f
ef ect Of rat e Of
“

g rowt h, 1 63 6 Liv e v ersus dead timb er, 2 00

—
-

ring p orous , 161 L oad deform ation curv e 4

-

, ,
70 1
s tructu re Of 161 L oading center 40 5 2 2 89
—
, , , , ,

Heart center 1 5 1 im p act , 56 7 , 64

“

—
,

Heartw ood and sap w ood , 1 96 200 l ong tim e effect , 2 03 , 2 1 1

-

durability , 1 1 2, 1 99 norm al condit ions Of , 22 0

m oisture cont ent , 1 80 , 1 99 s tatic, 55
rel ativ e streng th, 1 98—
9 s u dd en, 55 6 —
Heat eff ect on b ending 48 1 9 1
, , , third p oint , 40 , 2 89
Heig ht of drop in im p act b ending u nif orm , 40 , 5 2

58— — —
,

6 3 , 6 9 , 302 03 L oads ,
app lication Of , 55 7, 6 4
eff ect of cross g rain, 1 0 7—08 concentrat ed , 52
Honey combing 8 4 1 3 2— 3 , , d ead, 53 4 —
Hook e s l aw 3
’
imm ediat e, 5 3
—
,

Horiz ontal S hear see S hear horiz on , , liv e, 53 4

t al m oving 53 ,

p erm anent 53—4

— —
,

I beam s, 25 7 9 , 2 63 , 2 66 7 rolling 53
I mp act , 5 6 6 4 — f
s a e, 54 5
,

—
bending t est, 2 99—3 0 4, 363 f
u ni orm , 52
I ncising , f
ef ect on w ood, 1 93 , 1 95 6 — Ly ctu s beetl es , 1 36 —
7
3 74 I N DEX

P oles and p iling re erences f t o t ests , S ap w ood, du rability Of , 1 12

—
,

3 42 3 relation to g row ing conditions ,

P olyp orus s chweinitz n,

’

1 17 18 — I

1 97
P osition in tree, ef f ect on p rop erties, S easoning defects, 8 3—
98 , 1 3 1 4 , 230 —
— 2
—
1 6 7 70
P ow der p ost damag e, 1 36 7 S eason Of cu tting f
ef ect Of , 2 0 1 02—
— S econd g row th, 1 70 1 72 , 1 76—
,

P reserv at iv e t reatm ent 1 9 1 6 7

—
, ,

P rop ortional lim it 4 5 S et , 5 6 , 2 65

fiber st ress at , 1 0 25 , 27, 29 , 66 , 6 9
,

— ,

Shak e, 83 4 , 96 8 — —
w ork t o, 6 , 69 70 — cu p , 84
P unky .
w ood, 1 09 f
ef ect on streng —
th, 9 7 8 , 242 4 —
heart, 83 9 7 ,

Rate Of g rowth , eff ect on streng th, m eas u rem ent Of , 23 0 —

1
—
—
1 63 6 ring ,
84, 96
ru l e, 1 6 4, 2 10 , 234 5 star, 83 , 9 7
R az ou m of s ky a sp p , 1 44 w ind, 96
—
.

Red radial streak , 1 49 S hear, 4, 3 5 8

Redu ction factor 54 5 , — 20 7 , 2 09 , horiz ont al , 3 6 , 3 9 40 , 46 8 , 5 1 —
2, — —
—
,

2 1 1—1 2, 2 1 5 1 8 2 18
— — —
7 26 2 2 92—
Redw ood cl ose g in d ra e 1 6 4, 235 cal cu lation Of , 46 8 , 2 6 2 4
6 2 04—
75— — 46—
, ,

Ref erences ,
05
, ,
2 75 7 , 3 40 f orm u las f or, ,3 , ,

8 2 98
Relaxation, 2 03 w orking stresses f or, 2 48 53 —
Resilience 6 , 5 7 , 293 30 4 Obliq u e, 3 5, 38
—
, ,

elastic s ee El astic res ilience p arallel to g rain, 35 8

Resin 1 25—
,

31 ,
see als o Shear, horiz ontal
ef f ect , on s treng th , 1 3 0 f ormula f or, 3 7, 3 1 7
on w eig ht Of w ood , 1 30 1 , 1 58 9 — — t es t , 3 1 4, 3 16 1 7 , 3 63 —
Rind g all 9 7 , p erp endicu lar to g rain, —
35 7
Ring count ru le 1 6 4 2 1 0
-

, , ,
rolling , 35
Ring distortions 1 3 7 v ertical, 46
— —
,

Ring p orou s hardw oods 1 6 1 6

-

,
Shearing streng th, 1 0 35 8
f d ef ects , 3 7 , 82 , 9 8, 1 05 ,
—
Rot 1 09 1 5 ef ect , Of
—
-

brown 1 1 1 1 07, 1 28 , 13 3 , 1 38 , 1 45 6 , 242 4

incising , 1 95—
,

dry , 1 1 3 , 1 1 5 of 6
w hite 1 1 1 , O f m oistu re, 1 85

R ound t imb ers streng th Of —

256 7 , S hip p ing containers , f
re erences to
—
, ,

2 72 t ests , 3 44 5
Rup ture m odu lu s Of , M odu lu s S hip w orm s , 1 41 4 —
—
, s ee

Of rup tu re S hock, 5 6 6 4
S hock resisting
-
ability , —
1 0 25 , 5 8 6 3 , —
—
.

S af e l oad, 5 4 68 7 1
S afety , factor of , see Redu ction f ac see als o T ou g hness
t or
'
S hrinkag e, 84—
96 ,
2 00
S ap st ain, 1 1 5 1 7, 1 1 9 eq u ations f or estim ation O f 95
—
-

ef fect on s treng th , 1 1 9 m ethod Of det ermination, 3 6 4 7

Sap w ood , 1 12 , 1 80 , 1 9 6 2 00 , 233 — S ide -
cut tim b ers , 1 5 1
 I N DE X 3 75

Sim p le beam ,39, 42 5 — S treng th, eff ect, Of m oisture, 1 83—7

S lip p lane, 3 0 , 1 20 Of p osition Of t ree, 1 6 7—
70
S lop e of g rain, 1 04 08 — of p reserv ativ e treatm ent, 1 9 1 6 —
S p an, 6 5—
8 of rate Of g row th, —
1 63 6
S p ecifi c g rav ity , 1 0 2 5 , 1 52— — moisture 1 88
—
8 , 1 67 8 , Of reabs orbed

—
-

1 70 1 of s eas on Of cu tting 20 1 02
—
,

see als o D ensity Of ming 1 90 3

s tea

— of summ erw ood, 1 5 9—

,

bases f or co mp u tation 1 5 7 8 63
—
,

ffect Of decay and stain, 1 18 19 O f tem p erature 1 8 8—91

—
e , ,

Of t em p eratu re, 1 9 1 Of turp entining 1 30 1

— mp ression w ood 1 23—
,

m ethod Of determ ination, 36 4 6 Of co 4 ,

S p ecifi c g rav ity —streng th rel at ions , Of heartw ood and s ap w ood,

1 53 7 —
1 97 9
—
-

S peed of t esting m achine 2 85 6 Of liv e and d ead t imber, 20 0

—
,

eq uations f or det ermination of , rat ios , 2 35 46

285 v alu es , j
ad u stm ent f or m oisture,
S p haerom a, 1 42 —
1 85 7
S p iral g ra —
in, 1 0 0 0 3 , 1 05 0 7 — S tress , basic, see B asic stress -
v alu es

s ee als o Cross g rain com p ou nd , 4

arti cial , fi 1 04 com p ressiv e, 4, 39
Sp lits, 84, 2 30 1 — ext ernal ,3
S p ring w ood, 8 im p act , 5 6 7, 6 4 —
S tatic bending tests , 286 99 — in beams , 39—48
—
-

larg beam s, 28 6 93 internal, 3

—
e

sm al l beams , 293—
9 shearing 4, 35 8
—
,

S teaming ,
e ffect on w ood, 6 , 48, 1 90 s p litting ,
26 , 72 3
3 tensile, 4
S tiff ne
-

ss 5 , 66 8 — w orking s ee W orking s tress es

S tress—
, , .

bearing on colu m n streng th , 2 6 8 s train diag ram , 4, 70

71 S tructu ral axes Of w ood, 8 9 — '

f
ef ect , of density 1 53—
7 S tructural g radin g m il es 2 2 3—35
.

—
, ,

Of dim ensions Of b eam s , 6 7 8 s ee a ls o Grading ru les

knots, 8 1 — S tru ctu ral lu mb er, g rades , 2 06 0 7 , —

—
Of 2 , 246
m oistu re 1 83—
Of 5 —
22 0 2 , 2 3 6 46 , 248 53 —
Of com pression w ood 1 23— 3 4 1—
,

4 , f
re erences t o t ests , 2
S train, 3 st andard dim ensions , 222
S treng th, 2 u se cl assi cation, fi —
22 1 2
f 8—
—
ef ect , Of ag e of tree, 1 70 S tru cture Of w ood, 9 1 60 1
—
-

Of conditions Of g rowt h , 1 70 8 f nkag e,

ef ect on shri 8 5 6 93 , 9 5
defects 78— —
.

Of 1 52 S u mm erw ood, 1 59 6 5
density , 1 52—
,

Of 7
of duration of s t ress , 203 T emp erature, eff ect , on w ood , 1 88
of extra ctives , —
1 29 30 , 1 9 7 8 — 93
Of incising 1 93 , 1 95—
6 On w ood destroy ing
-
fung i, 1 1 4
—
,

Of m ethod of dry ing , 1 87 8 15

Of microstructure T ensile streng th, 9, 26
—
Of w ood,
‘

1 78 9 T ens ion, 9
3 76 I NDE X

T ens ion, ef ect f of defects , 9 81 2,— T est Sp eci m ens m arking 3 5 9 60 —

—
, ,

—
,

9 7 8, 1 05 , 1 22 3 m atching f or air dry tests 360

— —
-

failu res ,
48 50 , 1 23 selection f or t ests 36 2 4 ,

s iz e in rel ation t o p u rp ose of t es ts,

p arallel t o g rain, 9 , 26
t es t , 3 1 9 2 1 , 3 63 4 — — 2 79—80

p erp endicu lar to g rain, —

1 0 27 st orag e of 35 9 6 2 —
—
,

t est, 3 1 7 1 8 , 363 T im b er siz es , beams and s tring ers , 2 22

Tered o, 1 42— 3 j oist and p lank , 22 1
1 35—
-

T erm ites, 6 p osts and tim b ers, 222

T esting m achine calibrat ion, 36 7 T imber t esting 278 3 40 —

—
, ,

cap a city , 284 5 f

re erences t o, 3 40 8
—
-

im p act, 2 99 , 3 0 1 T orsion, 70 1
sp eed Of —
2 8 5 6 , 36 7 T ou g hness, 6 8 7 1 —
— —
,

s tat ic, 2 82 5 f
ef e ct , Of decay and stain, 1 17 19
t oug hness , 32 1 4 , 33 9 — Of extractiv es, 1 3 0 , 1 97 8 —
T est p rocedure, cleav ag e, 3 1 8 1 9 — Of m ethod Of dry ing ,
1 88
com p ression, p arallel t o g rain, O f m oistu re, 1 83—5
304 09 of s lop e Of rain, 1 0 7 08 —
—
g
-

p erp endicu lar to g rain, —

309 1 2 of t em p eratu re, 1 90 1
hardness , 3 1 2 1 4 — Of comp ression w ood, 1 2 4
im p act bending 2 99 3 0 4 — relation t o dens ity , 1 54 7 —
—
,

m oistu re cont ent , 28 1 —2 t est , 3 21 4 , 339

shear p arallel to g rain, 314 17 — T urp entining ef ect f on streng th ,
—
,

shrinkag e, 36 5 7 1 30—
1
S pecifi c g ravity , 365 6 -
T w ist as a defect , 1 3 1
static bending larg e beam s , 286
m achine, 282—
,

93 Universal testing 5
s m al l b eam s, 293
t ens ion, p arallel t o g rain, —
319 21 Variability Of
'

w ood , 2—
3, 77 , 1 55 ,
— — —
.
_

p erp endicu lar to g rain, 317 18 1 7 1 8 , 2 08 1 0

t oug hness, 3 2 1 4 , 339 — Virg in g rowt h, 1 66 , 1 72
T ests, descrip tion Of ,
286—
3 24, 3 39
40 Wane 233
W arp ing Of w ood 1 3 1 —
,

see als o T est p rocedure 2 ,

im p act , increm ent drop , 69 , 2 99 W avy g rain 99 ,

304 W earing ability 72

—
,

sing le d rop , 6 9 70 , 3 2 1 4, 339 -

W eig ht p er cubic f oot 1 5 2

f or, 8 7—
, ,

v alu e Of , 3 2 1 , 3 24, 33 9 v alu es 92

l ist Of , 354 relation to streng th , 1 5 8—9
m iscellaneous ,
f
re erences , 3 47—
8 White ants 1 3 5 6 ,
” —
on s mall sp ecim ens, f
re erences , W inter cut tim ber advantag es, 20 1
—
-

3 40 1 02
on s tru ctu ral timb ers , f
re erences , Wood p reserv ativ es , ffect on
—
e

—
,

341 2 streng th, 1 9 1 2

p urp os es Of , 2 79 80 — subs tance, density Of , 1 53

T est S p ecim ens , col lection, —
35 4 9 W ood -
destroy ing fung i, 1 09—
1 5, 1 1 7
f orm ,
2 78 19