SPE 50612
m
Emulsified Acid Enhances Well Production in High-Temperature Carbonate Formations
R. C. Navametej SPE, B.A. Helms, SPE, and S. B. McConnell, SPE, Dowell, and D. E. Linton, Spirit Energy 76
Copyright 1998, Socie~ of Petroleum Engineers Inc.
7fds paper was prepared for presentation at the 1998 SPE European Petroleum Conference
held in The Hague, The Netherlands, 20-22 October 1998,
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Abstract
EmuIsMed acids were traditionally used in acid fracturing,
and more recently on matrix treatments of carbonate
formations. The delayed nature of emulsfled acids is usefi,d
in generating longer etched fractures or deeper wormholes.
Emulstied acids also have higher viscosities than straight
aci~ which reduces fluid loss in acid fracturing applications
and helps distribute acid more tiormly in formations with
high-~rrneability contrast during matrix treatments. A new
emulsified acid system is presented in this paper that is stable
up to 3SOT, highly retarde~ and si~cantly more viscous
than straight acid. Laboratory data comparing emulsified acid
with straight acid are presented at temperatures ranging up to
350”F, including rheology and acid conductivity. Field case
histories in the Smackover formation in Alabama over two
years are presented. The field case histories show the
improvements in production of oil and gas resulting from
emulsified acid fracturing treatments in comparison with
prior similar treatments done with straight acid.
Introduction
Emdsified acids are widely used to stimulate carbonate
formations due to their retarded nature. Traditionally, they
are used as acid fracturing fluids. 1 However, recently they
have also been used in matrix acid treatments.z
Carbonate formations generally have a low permeability
and can be hi@y fissured. Long fractures in acid fmcturing
treatments or deep wormholes in matrix treatments are
necessary to maximize production. The retarded nature of
emtisified acids is u.sefi to generate longer etched fractures
or deeper wormholes.
391
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I Society of Petroleum Enfineers
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The production enhancement of a well afier an acid
fracturing treatment is determined by the length of the etched
fracture that remains open after the treatment and
conductivity of the fracture. The distance that reactive acid
moves along a fracture is controlled by the rate of acid
reaction with the formation rock acid fluid-loss
characteristics, and acid convection along the fmcture (flow
rate).
Acid must react with the walls of the fracture to form a
channel that remains open after the treatment. Flow channels
can be formed as a result of an uneven reaction with the reek
surface or preferential reaction with minerals heterogeneously
distributed in the formation. The conductivity of the fracture
is determined by the volume of rock dissolve~ roughness of
the etched rock sufice, rock strength, and closure stress.3>4
If the reaction rate is too high, then the acid will tend to
excessively spend at the wellbore, resulting in poor
conductivity closer to the tip of the fracture. This will lead to
shorter conductive fractures. High reaction rates can also
result in too much rock volume being dissolve~ which may
not necessarily lead to higher conductivities once the fracture
closes.5 On the other han~ if the reaction rate is too slow,
then the amount of rock dissolved may be instilcient to
prevent fracture closure.
Excessive fluid loss can also limit fracture growth.
Worrnholes formed by the preferential reaction of acid
through large pores of the rock are the main mechanism by
which excessive fluid loss occurs.6 Fluid loss can be reduced
by increasing the viscosity of the fluid or by pumping a pad of
linear or crosslinked guar-base fluid ahead of the acid.7
However, emulsified acid systems have viscosities several
times larger than straight aci~ thus making it unnecessary to
use pads in most cases.
In carbonate matrix acidizing treatments, the success of the
treatment depends on the formation of long wormholes from
the wellbore due to the reaction of the acid with the
formation. The structure of these wormholes depends on the
competition between the convective transport of acid
(injection rate) and the acid reaction rate with the formation
rock. Typical structures range from face dissolution at low
injection rates and/or high reaction rates (complete
dissolution of the rock starting radially from the wellbore) to
ramified wormhole structures at high injection rates and/or
 2 R. C. NAVARRETE,
lowreaction rates. Single dominant wormholes are formedat
intermediate injection rates. Face dissolution does not resdt
in sigtilcant skin reduction, instead single long wormholes
maximize skin reduction.
Several authors reported the existence of an optimum ratio
of reaction vs convection for which the longest wormholes
can be formed with the minimum volume of acid injected.
Therefore, for a given acid system there is an optimum
injection rate.8-13The use of a retarded acid system allows the
operator to pump at lower rates to meet the optimum ratio.
This is particularly important at high temperatures where the
reaction rate of straight acid is very high, requiring the
operator to pump at high injection rates to meet the optimum
ratio for single wormhole development.
The high viscosity of emuls~led acid is usefi in matrix
applications to improve the distribution of acid on ~erent
permeabili~ zones.
A new emdsified acid system for use in high-temperature
wells is presented in this paper. It is stable up to 350”F.
Laborato~ data including rheology and acid conductivity are
given that compare straight acid with the new emtisified acid
system High-temWrature (320T) field case histories in the
Smackover dolomite formation compare the improvements in
production of oil and gas resdting from emulsified acid
treatments vs prior similar treatments done with straight acid.
Retardation Mechanisms of Emulsified Acid
The chemical reaction of HCI with dolomite is a
heterogeneous reaction where liquid HC1 reacts with solid
dolomite at the surface of the rock according to the following
reaction:
Cdg(codl(s) +4F + c’# + MF + 2c02(aq)
+
2HZ0.......................................(1)
This reaction ean be viewed as occurring in three steps:
● mass transfer of ~ from the buk of the fluid to the
surface of the rock by ~sion
● reaction of ~ with dolomite at the rock surface
. mass transfer of the reaction products (C’~+ and Lfg’+)
to the buk of the fluid by diffusion.
These steps occur in a series. The slowest step controls the
overall reaction rate. Temperature determines which of these
steps is the more dominant. At low temperatures (below
150’’F), the chemical reaction becomes slower than the
diffusion of reactants and products to and from the stiace,
thereby controlling the overall reaction rate. Above 1500F,
the reaction is mostly controlled by the rate of ~sion of ~
to the rock surface.14 In high-temperature formations, the
effective ~sion coefficient of ~ determines the rate of the
reaction.
EmulsKled acid consists of an internal acid phase (typically
HCI of varying strengths) and an external oil phase. The
B.A. HOLMS, S. B. McCONNELL, AND D. E. LINTON SPE 50612
volume fraction of the internal phase can range between 50
and 80°4. A surfactant is necessary to generate an acid-in-oil
emulsion that will be stable long enough for acid ticturing
operations. The emdsion breaks on spending of the acid with
the rock without leaving a viscous emulsion behind in the
fracture during flowback. The acid droplet size distribution of
these emtisions was determined to vary between 1 and 77
~m,2”5 The size of these droplets is large compared to those
observed in microemdsions. ‘6>’ 7
The ~sion coefficients of emtisfled acids obtained from
rotating disk measurements were reported to be 10 to 100
times smaller than those of straight and gelled acid. 15 The
most accepted mechanism proposed to explain these low
diffusivities is the dense packing of the acid droplets, which
reduces the mobility of the acid in the emulsion. The ~
contained in the droplets faces an additional transport
resistance to molecular ~sion brought about by the
Brownian ~sion of the acid droplets, which are much
larger particles than hydrogen ions, therefore yielding much
lower effective ~sivities.] 5’18
Retardation Factors in Acid Fracturing. The retardation
factor RF is generally used to quant@ the degree of
retardation associated with retarded acid systems. The
retardation factor is defined as the ratio between the reaction
rate of straight acid over that of emdsified acid under the
same conditions. To determine the retar&tion factor of
emulsified acid under acid fracturing conditions, the reaetion
rate of both emdstiled acid and straight HC1 must be
evaluated at the same flowing conditions in the fmcture.
The reaction rate of emulstied acid (and straight HCI) with
dolomite is mass transfer controlled at high temperatures, and
can be expressed by means of a mass transfer Coefficient.
JH+= Km,([H+]b
-[H+]~) ....................,(2)
Under complete mass transfer control, [~], can be
assumed as zero and the reaction rate is proportional to ~~t
and [H’]~. The retardation factor RF is then given by
~=[s)[;;:;;l) ... ... ... ... ... ... ...(3)
The mass transfer coefficient under slot flow conditions
(idealized fracture geometry) can be estimated based on the
following dimensiodess correIation:5
Sh = CRea SC’[3 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .........(4)
The constants C and a depend on the flow regime (Table
1). In slot flow the Sherwood Reynolds, and Schmidt
numbers are expressed as
392
SPE S0612 EMULSIFIED ACID ENHANCES WELL PRODUCTION IN HIGH-TEMPERATURE CARBONATE FORMATIONS 3

wKmt
Sh=— >... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ......... ....... ... . (5)
D Off

pwu
R~. —
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (6)

[S~[f:;;,)
.........(.2
P

P ................................... (7)
..............—.—.—...–-–
sc=—
PDofl
Straight acids are generally characterized as Newtonian
fluids (viscosity independent of shear rate). However,
emtis~led acids are shear thinning fluids. The simplest and
most widely used theological model to characterize shear
thinning fluids is the power law model.
~Ewu,‘k’Yn’-’ ... ..------------------------------
The shear rate in slot flow depends on the width and is
given by
y.
2(1+ 2n’) - Q
n’ [) W2H
... ... ... ... ....... ... ... ... ....(9)
The mass transfer coefficient ean be calculated from Eq. 4.
Def
Kmt=~CRea SC’” ............ .............(10)
The retardation factor ean be determined by replacing the
mass transfer coefficients from Eq. 10 for straight acid and
emulsified acid in Eq. 3. The most general case at a given
temperature, flow rate, and fracture geometry is when the
Reynolds numbers of straight and emulsified acids fall in
&erent flow regimes. This happens if the viscosity of
straight acid is several orders of magnitude lower than that of
emulsified acid. The retardation factor is then given by
In most practical applications, the Reynolds numbers of
straight and emulsified acids do not fall in the same flow
regime under an identical flow rate, temperature, and fmcture
geometry. At high temperatures, straight acid falls in the
transitional or tubdent regime due to its very low viscosity,
whereas emdsified acid falls in the laminar regime due to its
much higher viscosity. However, this Particdar ease is use~
‘-”(s) to show the effect of flow rate, fmcture geometry (width and
height), and viscosity on the retardation factor.
The effect of injeetion rate and fracture geomet~ is
contained in the term (Q/#H) which is proportional to the
shear rate @q. 9). High shear rates due to high injection
rates, narrow fracture widths, or large heights will resdt in
low emtisified acid viscosities, which will in turn yield low
retardation factors. However, this effect is small bemuse the
exponent by which (Q/”H) is elevated to ((n-1)(a-1/3)) is
small. Assuming a value of 0.8 for n, this exponent will vary
between -0.033 and -0.163 depending on the flow regime.
This exponent kcomes smaller the closer the acid system is
to a Newtonian fluid. For the limiting case of a Newtonian
flui~ the retardation factor reduces to
13,
...........(13.
~=[g)(-)”-’’3[;;:;[:,(
The Sherwood number under laminar flow was also
correlated to a dimensiodess leakoff Peclet number. 19

‘=(%)(5)(;:::;::1)(s)”3
Sh = 8.2i-2.52Pe + 0.0535 Pe22..... .......... ... ...(14)
if Pe<10 and
Sh =4Pe ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ....(15)

[)
[1
[1H+ :

H’ ~
Emul ““” ””””””””””””””-””””””--”””””””””-

If the Reynolds numbers fall in the same flow regime, Eq.

““””-”- (11) ifPe 210.
The Peclet number represents the ratio of convective
transport of acid toward the wall due to leakoff over
11 reduces to mional acid transport toward the wall.
u~w
Pe=~ -
.......................................... –(16)
..............
efl
This approach accounts for the effeet of leakoff on the mass
transfer coefficient. However, a good estimate of the leakoff

393
 4 R. C. NAVARRETE,
veIocity is necessary to use Eqs. 14 to i6, and Ieakoff
velocities are ~dt to predict when wormholes occur.
Retardation Factors in Matrix Treatments. Emulstiled
acid was first considered a fluid for carbonate matrix
stimulation by Hoefner et al. 16 and Hoefner and Fogler. 17
Microemdsions have an average droplet size of about 10 mu,
which is much smaller than the average pore-throat size in
carbonates. Under these conditions, the retardation
meehanism of microemulsions is the same as that of coarse
emdsions in acid fracturing. However, microemdsions
require large concentrations of surfactant to stabilize them,
making their use in the field uneconomical.
On the other han~ coarse emulsions were shown to possess
retardation benefits in matrix applications as well, both in
laboratory experiments’s and in field applications.z The
average droplet size of coarse emtisions is much larger than
the average pore-throat size in a carbonate formation,
therefore the retardation mechanism is somewhat different
from that of microemdsions. Coarse emdsions initially
attack the formation at the wellbore surface where the
retardation mechanism is the same as that of coarse
emtisions in a fracture. As they dissolve reek at the surface,
they begin to form wormholes which have of macroscopic
diameters (O.1 to 1 mm). Once the emulsion enters the
wormhole, the retardation mechanism there is similar to that
in a ticture because the average droplet size (1 to 77 ~m) is
smaller than the wormhole diameter. Retardation results in
deeper wormkoles because the length of a wormhole depends
on the concentration of acid that reaches the tip of the
wormhole. The more retarded the acid system, the less acid
spent on the wormhole surface area as it flows to the tip and
the higher the concentration of acid that reaches the tip.
Levich20 solved approximately the convective diffusion
equation for Iaminar flow in a cylindrical tube. From this
solution, Fredd*3 obtained an average mass transfer
coefficient along the cylinder given by
1/3
Km, = 1.86D;
()
~ ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .... (17)
The retardation factor of emulsified acid under the same
injection rate and wormhole geometry can be obtained by
replacing the mass transfer coefficient from Eq. 17 for both
straight and emulsified acids into Eq. 3.
....................18.
~[-)2’3(;;:;;,)
Experimental
Fluids. The composition of all fluids used was similar to
those used in actual field applications. Therefore, the
B.A. HOLMS, S. B. McCONNELL, AND D. E. LINTON SPE ~12
properties that depend on the fluid composition, such as
effeetive mivity, kinematic viscosities, and mass transfer
coefficients, were the same as in the field applications.
Two acid systems were used in these tests: an inhibited
HC1 and an inhibited emdsified HCI. Three acid strengths
were used 15Y0,20Y0, and 2870. All fluids were batch mixed
and all acid systems contained a corrosion inhibitor. The
emdsitied acid contained a new high-temperature emtdsifier
surfactant mixture.
The emulsfied acid system consisted of an oil external
emdsion formed by a 70:30 HC1-to-oil ratio stabilized by the
new high-temperature emuls~ler. The emtision was prepared
by separately mixing the oil phase (diesel) and acid phase. In
one bucke~ the emdsifier was added to the diesel phase. In a
second bucket, the corrosion inhibitor was added to the acid
phase. The acid phase was added to the diesel phase 500 mL
at a time under intense agitation to form the emulsion. The
phase mixing process took about 1 hr. Emulsions prepared
this way were stable for 4 to 5 days at ambient temperature
and had a viscosity of 70 cp at 170 sec-~.
Rock. All tests were conducted with Phosphoric dolomite,
which is 98% by wt pure dolomite, with a grain density of
2.85 g/cm3, a porosity of 11.3Y0,and an air permeability of
0.43 md.
Theological Apparatus. The viscosity and stability of the
emulsions were measured using a closed loop pipe viscometer
heated in an oil bath. The inner diameter of the pipe was
0.125 in. The power law parameters were calculated by
measuring the pressure drops at incremental shear rates. The
nominal shear rates were varied between 800 to 3,500 SW-l.
Acid Conductivity Apparatus. The conductivity apparatus
was previously descrikd.5 It has the capabilities of evaluating
fluids up to 350”F and attaining a maximum closure stress of
10,000 psi. A diagram of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 1.
The apparatus consists of a 125,000-lbf load press with
automated hydraulic intensifiers where an API-modified
hastelloy cell with 12-in.2 flow paths can be mounted. Two
rock samples must be cut to the dimensions of the cells (7 in.
long, 2.5 in. high, and 1.74 in. wide). A gap of known width
can be left between the cores to simulate a fracture where acid
can flow through and etch the surface of the cores. At the
same time, the acid can be allowed to leak off under dynamic
conditions through the cores (Fig. 2). The cell can be rotated
to run tests in horizontal, vertical, or any other angle to
simulate inclined fractures.
The fluid is preconditioned before it enters the conductivity
cell to simulate the effect of shear in the tubing and rise in
temperature as it enters the fracture. The fluid is loaded in the
acid reservoir and pumped into the shear history loop coils
using a Teel self-priming centrifugal pump with a diaphragm
metering pump. The pump is capable of pumping at a
maximum rate of 1,500 mL/min against 3,000 psi of back-
394
 SpE al 2 EMULSIFIED ACID ENHANCES WELL PRODUCTION
pressure. Before the fluid enters the conductivity cell, it
passes through the reservoir simutator where the fluid is
heated to the test temperature. The conductivity equipment is
automated for closure stress ramp control, including data
reduetion with the caltiation of conductivity.
Testing Conditions and Procedure. The testing conditions
were chosen to match the acid fracturing case histories from
the Smackover formation. Tests were run at 230 and 320T.
At these temperatures, the reaction rate of HC1 with dolomite
is entirely mass transfer controlled.
The cores were drie~ saturated in 2% KCI, photographed
and loaded in the conductivity cell. A vertical fracture with an
initial gap of 1/8 in. was left between them. The cores were
etched by horizontally flowing acid through the fracture at a
rate of 1,000 ti/min for 24 min. A vertical fracture was used
to minimize natural convection effeets caused by changes in
the acid density which produced more etching on the bottom
surface as opposed to the top surface in horizontal fractures.z’
During dynamic Ieakoff, the fluid pressure was set at 1,100
psi. A backpressure behind the cores of 1,000 psi was used to
maintain the CQ in solution, yielding a pressure drop across
the cores of 100 psi. This is considered a iow-pressure
tierential for leakoff, and it was intended to delay acid
breakthrough due to worrnholes. If acid breakthrough
occurred due to worrnholes during dynamic leakoff, then the
Ieakoff ports were shut and the test continued for a total acid
expo- time of 24 min without Ieakoff. Mer acidizing, the
cores were dismounted from the cells and photographs were
taken of the etchti surfaces.
The cores were mounted back in the conductivity cells and
closure stress was appIied. The conductivity was measured at
increasing closure stresses by flowing 27. KC1 brine through
the etched fracture at 4 mL/min and recording the pressure
drop. The conductivity was calculated from
Cn=p
(10
QL
— —
BAP
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ....... .......(19)
Results
Weology and Stability of Emulsified Acid. The theological
behavior of the new emulstiled acid system was measured at
temperatures ranging from 250 to 350”F. The power law
parameters @q. 8) were determined for 15 and 2870
emtisified HC1 and interpolated for 20% HC1 (Figs. 3 and 4).
The viscosities at 900 see-] were calculated from the power
law parameters (Fig. 5). This shear rate is close to that
encountered in the Smackover case history. Viscosities varied
between 2.5 and 4.5 cp. The viscosity of HCI at the same
temperature range varies between 0.25 and 0.5 ep, which is
one order of magnitude lower than those of emulsfled acid
(Fig. 6).
The stability of emulsified acid was also tested at high
395
IN HIGH-TEMPERATURE CARBONATE FORMATIONS 5
temperatures under dynamic conditions. It was determined
that emtisified acid was stable for more than 2 hr at 255T,
and for more than 1 hr at 300”F.
Acid Conductivity. The retarded nature of the emtistied
acid can be Viwlized from the pictures taken of the surfaces
exposed to the acid in the conductivity roll. There was
considerable etching observed on the surface exposed to
straight 20°A HC1 (Figs. 7 to 10), whereas there was
drastically less etching noticeable from the surfaces exposed
to emtisified acid (Figs. 11 to 14). High temperatures caused
the straight acid to& consumed mostly at the entrance of the
cell, whereas emdsified acid etched the surface more
tiormly along the core.
As with limestones at lower temperatures,s wormholes were
observed in all cases and caused acid breakthrough in Iess
than 15 sec of exposure time. The smaller diameter
wormholes were obsexved with the less reactive systems (20°/0
emtisified acid), whereas the largest wormholes were
observed with the most reactive systems (straight 2070 HC1).
The density of wormholes was higher with the less reactive
system.
The cores were exposed to strai#t and emdsified acids for
the same amount of time and under the same flow and
tem~rature conditions. Therefore, the amount of reck
dissolved was oxdy a tiction of the reactivity of the fluids. A
rough estimate of the retardation factors can be obtained from
the weight loss experienced by the cores.
The weight losses experienced by the cores subjeeted to
etching with straight acid were 268 g at 250”F and 277 g at
320~. The weight losses experienced by the cores subjected
to etching with emtisified acid were 48.6 g at 250T and 32 g
at 3200F. This wodd give retardation factors of 5.5 at 250T
and 8.7 at 320T. However, these retardation factors cannot
be directly used in field applications because the flow regimes
of straight or emdsified acid ~er from those in the
conductivity cell (laminar flow).
After acidizing, the cores were mounted back in the
conductivity cell and closure stress was applied at increments
of 1,000 psi at a time. The conductivity of the reeks etched
with straight acid was very sensitive to closure stress. The
conductivity @opped drastically with closure stress above
2,000 psi for the rocks etched at 250”F (Fig. 15) and from
1,000 psi for the rocks etched at 320~ (Fig. 16). In this last
case, the conductivity mllapsed from high values at Iow
closure stress, evidencing no support against closure. The
rock support collapsed close to the entrance where there was a
large fracture volume created (Fig. 17). On the contrary, the
conductivity of the rocks etched with emulsified acid was
relatively insensitive to closure stress up to 9,000 psi,
evidencing good support at high closure stress.
In general, the conductivities of rocks etched with
emulsified acid were higher than those etched with straight
aci~ especially at high closure stresses. This contrasts with
 6- R. C. NAVARRETE, B.A. HOLMS, S. B. McCONNELL, AND D. E. LINTON
the drastic tierence in the reactivity of these systems..
Therefore, although the straight acid system created 5.5 to 8.7
times more fracture volume once closure stress was applied it
did not restit in higher conductivities. This suggests that it is
more efficient to have the acid spend more uniformly along
the fracture (emtisified acid) than mostly at the entrance
(straight acid), with the added benefit of preserving acid
strength to generate a longer fracture length.
Retardation Factors. Emtisified acid retardation factors
were estimated using Eqs. 3 through 10, where the proper
flow regime was taken into account for each fluid. An
injection rate of 8 bbl/min was used to match the field cases
presented. A typical average fracture width of 0.19 in. and
height of 22 ft were used. The results of this calculation are
presented in Tables 2 through 7 for temperatures between
250 through 350~. While emtisified acid is under Iaminar
flow inside the fracture due to its higher viscosities, the
straight acid system is either under transition or tnrbdent
flow regime.
The retardation factors for emulsified acid are shown as a
Ii.mction of temperature in Fig. 18 for 15%, 20%, and 28%
acid strength. Retardation factors varied between 14 and 19,
showing that mass transfer coefficients of straight acid are
more than an order of magnitude lower than those of
emulsified acid. Retardation factors also tend to increase tith
temperature. This trend is due to the higher sensitivity to
tem~rature of the mass transfer coefficients of straight acid
vs those of emtisified acid. The retardation factor does not
significantly vary with acid strength in the range between 15
and 28°/0.The retardation factor of the 28°/0emds~led acid is
1.5 to 2 units lower than that of 15 or 20% emtisified acid.
This difference can be attributed to the mass transfer
coefficient of the straight aci~ which significantly increases
in relation to the mass transfer coefficient of emuls~led acid
from 20 to 28Y0.
Fluid loss was not considered in these caldations. The
effect of leakoff can be evaluated for emdsified acid under
Iaminar flow (Eqs. 14 to 16) by assuming a leakoff velocity.
The Ieakoff velocity depends on several resistances to leakoff,
which form when a fracturing fluid penetrates the fracture
stiace, i.e., external filter cake, viscous invaded zone, and
formation compressibility. Gn the other han~ wormholes can
serve as bypasses to the external filter cake and the viscous
invaded zone, effectively eliminating those fluid loss
resistances. Hill et al.Gdeveloped an acid I&off model for
fracturing where the effect of wormholes was incorporated.
As shown on Figs. 11 and 13, emulsified acid in dolomite
forms wormholes at high temperatures. This leaves the
formation compressibility as the sole fluid-loss resistance.
Assuming a fluid-loss compressibility coefficient of 0.01
ft/min05 and a 24-rein pump time, this yields a leakoff
velocity of 0.001 crn/sec. As an example, the Peclet numbers,
Sherwood numkrs, mass transfer coefficients, and
retardation factors were caltiated for 28°A emtisified acid
396
SPE=12
btween 250 and 350T (Table 8). The Peclet numkrs are in
the range of 50 to 83, indimting that acid transport toward
the wall is dominated by leakoff as opposed to ~sion. The
resdt is a mass transfer coefficient which is independent of
the effective tisivity and determined by the Ieakoff
velocity. The resdting retardation factors were determined by
the leakoff velocity instead of the effective diffusivity of the
acid ~stem. For the example considered here, the retardation
factors were lower than those obtained using Eq. 4 with no
leakoff due to the high leakoff velocity used.
The retardation factor of emdsified acid in wormholes was
estimated using Eqs. 17 and 18. The retardation factor was
6.6 and it was insensitive to temperature and acid strength.
Therefore, emulsified acid when injected at optimal rates 6.6
times lower than HC1 will yield wormholes as long as those of
HC1.
Field Case Histories
Three stimulation treatments were pumped in the Smackover
dolomite in Alabama. Reservoir conditions are listed in
Table 9.
Case History 1. Well No. 1 was drilled and completed in
1977. Production rate history and stimtiation treatments are
detailed in Fig. 19.
By April 1997, production had declined to 800 mm
(thousand cubic feet per day) and 30 be/D (barrels condensate
per day). Production modeling indicated that in addition to
stimtiating the well, the removal of the 2.0625-in. chemical
injection string and increased perforation density wodd
reduee production friction presswe and aid in production
increases. ~ng workover operations, 1,659 ft of the
2.0625-in. string codd not be recovered and subsequent
fishing operations required the pumping of numerous calcium
carbonate pills to maintain circdation. Due to the
unrecovered fish no additional peflorations were added.
To remove the calcium carbonate and clean the tntiar
scale, a s~arhead of 9,500 gal of 20% HC1 preceded the main
stinndation treatment which consisted of 11,000 gal of
emdsified acid (30°A vol of 20°A HC1/70°A vol of diesel).
The treatment was pumped at 5 bbl/min.
Production up the 3.5-in. tubing immediately after
treatment was 4,500 mc~ and 145 be/D. In Nov. 1997, it
was felt that additional scale was forming in the tubulars and
a 2,000-gaI 1570 HCI treatment was pumped to remove scale
and restore communication with the reservoir. Production
increased to 4,100 mc~ and 110 be/D (Fig. 20). Natural Gas
Liquids (NGLs), which are not refleeted in the production
graph, incrased by 79 B/D as measured at the gas plant.
Case History 2. Well No. 2 was drilled and completed in
1986. Production rate history and stimdation treatments are
detailed in Fig. 21.
By Aug. 1997, production had declined to 3,400 mc~ and
150 be/D when a workover was performed. Again, in
 SPE~12 EMULSIFIED ACID ENHANCES WELL PRODUCTION IN HIGH-TEMPERATURE CARBONATE FORMATIONS 7

150 be/D when a workover was petiormed. Again, in A = parameter from Eq. A-1
addition to stimdating the well, plans were made for the b = parameter from Eq. A-3
removal of the 2.0625-in. chemical injection string and B = conductivity cell height
increased perforation densi~. The success~ removal of the C = constant which depends on the flow regime
2.0625-in. chemical injection string allowed for an additional Cn = contictivity
4 spf (shots ~r foot) to be added to the original 1 spf. [Ca+z] = calcium ion molar concentration
To remove tuwar scale, a spearhead of 4,000 gal of 15°4 d= wormhole diameter
HC1 preceded the main treatment which consisted of 8,652 Deti= effective ~sion coefficient of ~ under flow
gal of emtisified acid (307. vol of 2070 HC1/70% vol of E = parameter from Eq. A-3
diesel). The treatment was pumped at 9 bbl/min. F= parameter from Eq. A-1
Production up the 3.5-in. tubing immediately after G = parameter from Eq. A-1
treatment was 9,000 mc~ and 149 be/D (Fig. 22). For the H= ticture height
next 60 days, condensate production continued to increase to [~] = gap-wise average hydrogen ion molar
a maximum of 215 be/D with gas production at 8,750 mm. concentration
The NGLs, which are not reflected in the production graph, 1= parameter from Eq. A-1
increased by 121 B/D as meamred at the gas plant. J= flux to the stiace of the rock
k‘ = power law model consistency index
Case History 3. Well No. 3 was drilled and completed in
1988. The production rate history and stimtiation treatments K~t = mass trantier coe~cient
are detailed in Fig. 23. 1= wormhole length
In Feb. 1998, production had declined to 900 mc~ and L = conductivity cell length
105 &/D when a workover was performed. Again, in addition M= parameter from Eq. A-1
to stimdating the well, plans were for the removal of the [Mg+2] = magnesium ion molar concentration
2.0625-in. chemical injection string and incr~sed petioration n‘ = power law index
density. The success~ removal of the 2.0625-in. chemical # = pressure drop in cxmductivity cell
injection string aI1owed for an additional 4 spf to be added to Pe = Peclet number
the original 3 spf. Q = flow rate
To remove tubtiar scale, 5,000 gal of 157. HCI was Re = Reynolds number
pumped down coiled tubing and jetted to the surface with RF= retardation factor
nitrogen the day before the treatment. The main treatment SC= Schmidt number
consisted of 10,000 gal of emdsitied acid (30°A vol of 20V0 Sh = Sherwood number
HC1/70Y0 VOI of diesel). The treatment was pumped at 9 t= time
bbl/min. T= temperature
Production up the 3.5-in. tubing immediately tier u = fluid veIocity in a fracture
treatment was 1,782 mm and 89 be/D (Fig. 24). The w = ticture width
NGLs, which are not reflected in the production graph,
increased by 28 B/day as measured at the gas plant. T= shear rate
#= porosity
Conclusions p= density
1. The new high-temperature emtisified acid system v= kinematic viscosity
provides adequate stability in the temperature range of p= viscosity
250 to 350~.
2. Emtisified acid produces higher conductivities than Subscripts
straight acid at high closure stresses, in spite of larger b=bti
etched widths, providing a more efficient use of the acid. Dsl= diesel
3. The new high-temperature emdstied acid system is 14 Emul = emulsified acid
to 19 times more retarded than straight acid at ~ = hydrogen ion
temperatures between 250 and 350T in fracturing HC1 = straight acid
applications and 6.6 times in matrix applications. 1= Ieakoff
4. Field case histories showed that emtisified acid improved s = surface
production two to four times in the Smackover dolomite w = wormhole
formation.
Superscripts
HC1 = straight acid
Nomenclature
Emul = emdsified acid
a = exponent which depends on the flow regime

397
8 R. C. NAVARRETE, B.A. I-IOLMS, S. B. McCONNELL, AND D. E. LINTON SPE5D612

Acknowledgments 13. Fredd, C. N.: “The Influence of Transport and Reaction on

We acknowledge Willie Quintero and Scott Weiss for running WormholeFormationin CarbonatePorous Media A Study of
the acid conductivi~ tests. We acknowledge Chris Fredd for AItemative Stirmdation Fluids; Ph.D. thesis, Michigan U.,
Ann Arbor, M (1998).
useti discussions. We are grateti to the managements of
14. Li, Y., Sullivan,R. B., de Rozieres,J., Gaz, G. L., and Hinkel,
Spirit Energy and Schhunberger Dowell for granting J. J.: “An Overview of Current Acid Fracturing Technology
permission to publish this paper. With Recent Implications for Emulsitid Acid7 paper SPE
26581presented at the 1993SPE Annual TechnicalConference
References and Exhibition Houstou ~, Oct. 3-6.
1. Au~ W. W., Sillivan, R. B., Codson, E. B., Poulson, T. D., 15. de Rozieres, J., Chang, F. F., and Sullivan, R. B.: “Measuring
and Warembourg,P. A.: “Acid RefracturingProgramIncreases Diffision Coefficients in Acid Fracturing Fluids and Their
Reserves, Cottonwood Greek Unit, Washakie CO~tY, Application to Gelled and Emtisified Acids,” paper SPE 28552
Wyoming.”JPT (Jan. 1992)91-97. presented at the 1994 SPE Technical Cofierence and
2. A1-Anazi,H. A., Nasr-El-Din, H. A., and Mohamed, S. K.: Exhibition, New Orleans, W Sept. 25-28.
“Stimulation of Tight Carbonate Reservoirs Using Acid-in- 16. HoetiIer, M. L., Fogler, H. S., Stenius, P., and Sjoblq J.:
Diesel Emdsions Field Applications,” paper SPE 39418 “Role of Acid Diffusion in Matrix Acidizing of Carbonates;
presented at the 1998 SPE International Symposium on JPT (Feb. 1987)203-208.
FormationDamageControl,Lafayette,LA, Feb. 18-19. 17. Hoeher, M. L. and Fogler, H. S.: “Effective Matrix Acidizing
3. Nierode, D.E. and Kink, K. F.: “An Evaluation of Acid Fluid- in Carbonates Using Microemulsions,” CEP (May 1985) 40-
Loss Additives, Retarded Acids, and Acidtied Fracture 44.
Conductivity: paper SPE 4549 presented at the 1973 SPE 18. Buijse, M. A. and van Domelen, M. S.: ‘Wovel Application of
Annual Technical Confmenceand Exhibition, Las Vegas, NV, Emulsified Acids to Matrix Stimulation of Heterogeneous
Sept. 30-Ott 3. Formations,” paper SPE 39583 presented at the 1998 SPE
4. Gong,M., Lacote, S., and Hill, A. D.: “A New Model of A;id International Symposium on Formation DamagE Control,
Fracture Conductivity Based on Deformation of Surface Lafayette, LA, Feb. 18-19.
Asperities: paper SPE 39431 presented at the 1998 SPE 19. Settari, A.: ‘Modeling of Acid Fracturing Treatments; SPEPF
International Symposium on Formation Damage Control, (Feb. 1993) 30-38.
Lafayette,LA, Feb. 18-19. 20. Levich, V. G.: Physiochemical Hydrodpamics, Prentice-
5. Navarrete, R. C., Miller, M. J., and Gordon,J. E.: “Laboratory Hall, Engelwood Cliffs,NJ(1962).
and Theoretical Studies for Acid Fracture Stimulation 21. Mumallah, N. A.: “Hydrochloric Acid Difiion Ctifflcients at
optimization; paper SPE 39776 presented at the 1998 SPE Acid Fracturing Conditions: J. Pet. Sci. ~ng. (1996) 15, 361-
Permian Basin Oil and Gas Recovery Conference, Midland, 374.
TX, March 23-26. 22. StimLab Acid Consortium Report, May 1997.
6. Hill, A. D., Zhu, D., and Wang, Y.: “The Effect of Wormholi.ng
on the Fluid-Loss Coefficient in Acid Fracturing,” SPEPF S1 Metric Conversion Factors
(NOV.1995) 257-263. Cpx I.0* E-03 = Pas
7. Coulter, A. W., Crowe, C. W., Barrett, N. D., and Miller, B. E-01 = m
ft X 3.048*
D.: “Alternate Stages of Pad Fluid and Acid Provide Improved
~ X (T-32)/l.8 = ‘c
Leakoff Control for Fracture Acidizing:’ paper SPE 6124
presented at the 1976 SPE Annual Technical Cofiaence and in. x 2.54 E+OO = cm
Exhibitio%New Orleans, W Oct. 3-6. lbm x 4.535924 E-01 = kg
8. Hoefier, M. L. and Fogler,H. S.: “Pore Evolutionand Channel md x 9.869233 E-04 = pmz
FormationDuringFlow and Reaction in Porous Media,”AJChE psi x6.894757 E+OO= kpa
J. (Jan. 1988)34, no. 1,45-54.
9. Daccord, G., Touboul, E., and Lenormaud, R.: “Carbonate ‘tinVersion factor is exact

Acidizing Toward a Quantitative Model of the Wormholing

Phenomenon; SPEPE (Feb. 1989)63-68. Appendix A-physical Properties of Acid Systems
10. Wang, Y., Hill, A. D., and Schechter, R. S.: “The optimum The effective diffusivities of HCl and emtis~led acid were
InjectionRate for Matrix Acidizing of Carbonate Formations,” estimated from the following correlation after a personal
paper SPE 26578 presented at the 1993 SPE Annual Technical
communication with M. W. Conway (June 26, 1998).22
Confaence and Exhibition,Houston,TX, Oct. 3-6.
11. Fric~ T. P., MostofiideL B., and Econotides, M. J.:
“Analysis of Radial Core Experiments for HydrochloricAcid
InteractionWith Limestones: paper SPE 27402 presented at
the 1994 SPE International Symposiumon FormationDamage
Control,Lafayette,LA, Feb. 7-10.
12. Mostofudeh, B. and Econornides,M. J.: “optimum Injection The value of constants A, F, G, 1, and A4 are shown in
Rate From Radial AcidizingExperiments,” paper SPE 28547 Table 10. T is in degrees Rankin and the concentration of ~
presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and is taken as the average between the bdk concentration and
Exhibition,New Orlas, L4 Sept. 25-28,
the surface concentration.

398
SPE ml 2 EMULSIFIED ACID ENHANCES WELL PRODUCTION IN HIGH-TEMPERATURE CARBONATE FORMATIONS 9

The density of 28% emulsified acid was measured at high

temperatures and determined to follow TABLE &20% HCI DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS
~Emul ‘0”3~Dsl ‘0”7~HC1 ““”””” ””-””” ””’””” ”””””” ””””-(A-2) AND PROPERTIES
~ 250°F 300”F 350”F
The densities of 20 and 15% were calctiated using Eq. A-
2. The densities of straight HC1 and emulsified acid are listed v, cm2/sec 3.97e-3 3.1 7e-3 2.63e-3
in Table 11. Defi cm2/sec 4.80e-5 6.29e-5 7.98e-5
The viscosity of HC1 at high temperatures was extrapolated Re 7962 9984 12002
using the following correlationzz after a private Flow Regime Turbulent Turbulent Turbulent
Sc 83 50 33
communication with M. Conway (June 26*, 1998).
Sh* 149 152 153

p~a = ex :-b ....................................... (A-3) I Kmf, cm/sec 1.49e-2 1.98e-2 2.53e-2

() *~e Sherweod numb was mlmlated using Eq. 4.

The parameters E and b are limed in TabIe 12 and T is in TABLE 5-20% EMULSIFIED ACID DIMENSIONLESS
degreesRatin. NUMBERS AND PROPERTiES
~ 250”F _ 350°F
TABLE l-PARAMETERS FOR EQ. 4 I
K see-’ 902 870 845
v, cm2/sec 4.20e-2 4.02e-2 3.64e-2
Doff, cm21sec 2.80e-6 3.71e-6 4.7oe-6
Re 752 787 868
Flow Regime Laminar Laminar Laminar
Sc 15008 10838 7752
Sh* 223 204 192
TABLE 2—15% HCI DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS K~f, cm/sec 1.29e-3 1.57-3 1.87e-3
* me Shwoed numb was ealculti using Eq. 4.
AND PROPERTIES
~ 250”F 300°F 350”F
TABLE 6--28% HCI DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS
v, cm2/sec 3.64e-3 2.91e-3 2.39e-3 AND PROPERTIES
Dw, cm2/sec 4.60e-5 6.10e-5 7.7oe-5 ~ 250”F 300°F 350”F
Re 8687 10867 13210
4.57e-3 3.69e-3 3.07e-3
v, cm2/sec
Flow Regime Turbulent Turbulent Turbulent
31 De% cm21sec 5.lle-5 6.69e-5 8.48e-5
Sc 79 48
Sh’ 158 160 162 Re 6910 8561 10309
Kmt,cm/sec 2.02e-2 2.58e-2 Flow Regime Transition Turbulent Turbulent
1.50e-2
Sc 90 55 36
*~e Shaoed numberwas calculated using Eq. 4.
Sh* 132 138 139
Kmf,cm/sec 1.39e-2 1.92e-2 2.45e-2
TABLE 3-15°A EMULSIFIED ACID
*me Shmood number was ealalated using Eq. 4.
DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS AND PROPERTIES
~ 250”F 300”F 350°F
TABLE 7—28% EMULSIFIED ACID DIMENSIONLESS
~ s=-’ 881 848 825 NUMBERS AND PROPERTIES
v, cm2/sec 3.68e-2 3.27e-2 2.61 e-2 ~ 250°F 300”F 350”F
D.ff, cm2/sec 2.70e-6 3.60e-6 4.5oe-6
K see-’ 942 911 884
Re 858 966 1141
4.47e-2 4.19e-2 3.78e-2
v, cm2/sec
Flow Regime Laminar Laminar Laminar
Deff, cm2/sec 3.ole-6 3.94e-6 5.ooti
Sc 13638 9090 6157
Sh* 230 213 204 Re 708 755 835
1.59e-3 1.90e-3 Flow Regime Laminar Laminar Laminar
K~f, cm/sec 1.29e-3
Sc 14849 10621 7571
*’l’he Sherwood number was ealmlated using Eq. 4.
Sh* 215 199 187
K.t cm/sec 1.34e-3 1.62e-3 1.93e-3
--- —

399
 10 R. C. NAVARRETE, B.A. HOLMS, S. B. McCONNELL, AND D. E. LINTON SPE50612

AdditivePump
Shaar
TABLE 8-28% EMULSIFIED ACID
DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS AND PROPERTIES
WITH LEAKOFF
~ 250°F 300°F 350°F
Pe 83 63 50

I .
Sh *
K~f. cm/sec
333
2.07e-3
254
2.07e-3
200
2.07s-3 I
I RF 9.6 13.2
*The Shmood numb= was =Imlated using Eq. 15.
16.9 I

TABLE 9-RESERVOIR CONDITIONS

B Press Frarne~ Cell “

Depth 18,500 ft
BHST 320”F Chromstogtaph
BHSP 2,500 to 4,000 psi Pump
Permeability 1 to 5 md u 1 m F
Reservoir Tv~e Retrograde Condensate LeakoffEffluent (’ I I

w Frac Exit Effluent&

TABLE IO-CONSTANTS FOR EQ. A-1 Fig. I-Diagram of conductivity apparatus.
Constant Straiaht HCI Emulsified Acid
A -2918.54 -2918.54
F -0.589 -0.589
G -0.789 -0.789
I 0.0452 0.0452
M -4.995 -7.99

TABLE II-DENSITY OF ACID SYSTEMS

Acid Straight Acid Emulsified Acid
Strength (gicm’) (g/cm’)
250”F 300”F 350”F 250°F 300”F 350°F
15% 1.05 1.04 1.03 0.96 0.95 0.94
20% 1.06 1.04 1.03 0.97 0.95 0.94
28% 1.08 1.07 1.05 0.99 0.97 0.96

Fig. 2-Conductivity cell.

I 28% 2467.2 4.1775 I

-...-.—...
—....-—. —— - .
1.0 ~ 15% Emu!sifW HCI
-- * - -20% Emu!siti HCI
~28% Emuisii@ HCI I
0.9
-..
.- 1

-s 0.8 ---
I

■“--
0.7 }

0.6 !
200 250 300 350 400

Temperature (°F)

Fig. Wower law exponent for emulsified acid.

400
 11
SPEm12 EMULSIFIED ACID ENHANCES WELL PRODUCTION IN HIGH-TEMPERATURE CARBONATE FORMATIONS

9.E-04 –------—--- --–-–-—

~15% Emuls~W HCI
A
8.E-04 . . * - -2o% EmulsTled HCI
7.E-04 ~28% Emulsifii HCI
,
‘~ 6.E-04 ~=
\ ,
\ 1. .
c~ 5.E44 .
■
..
:- 4.E-04 - ‘.::—”
1
~ 3.E-04 - .—. — ,=
-. ■
---
2.E-04 - -- ...=
I,E-04 - ., \

O.E+OO ~ Fig. 7—Top view ofdoiomite sa-rnpies etched with 20% HCi acid at
200 250 300 350 400
250”F.
Temperature~F)

Fig. Consistency index for emulsified acid.

——— —.. — ..-.-—- .

4.5 — .---. — f-

!
■-..
4.0 - .—.
- -,--
---a.. -
----
= .-
A
2 3.5
%
=
W
0
~ 3.0
.-
>
..—- .---> - . .
2.5-
..* - -200A Emulsified HCI Fig. Mide view of doi’wite samples etched with 2040 HClac~ at
~28% Emulsfid HCI 250_°F.
,. ,.. .. --— -
2.0
200 250 3W 350 400

Temperature(“F)

Fig. Mgh-temperature viscosity of emulsified acid at 900 see-l.

0.50 ---------
-–----.
=--”-”’”-’ ---–’ –-----–’—”-’
/ 28% HCI
0.45, \ / --/20Yo HCI ‘:
//15% HCI
E 0.40 1 \ w /

Fig. 3--Top view of dolomite sampies etched with 20% HCi acid at
320”F.

0.20 !
225 275 325 375

Temperature(“F)

Fig. O-Viscosity of HCi at high temperatures.

401
 SPE -12
12 R. C. NAVARRETE, B.A. HOLMS, S. B. McCONNELL, AND D. E. LINTON

Fig. 10-Side view of dolomite samples etched with 20Y. HCI acid at
320”F.

Fig. I=ide view of dolomfte samples etched with 20% emulsified

Fig. n--Top view of dolomite samples etched with 20% emulsified
acid at 320”F.
acid at 250°F.

.- . .....-..-. - —---------
-.—. --.—
.--—--—-
—.--—,-,-_-_-——.:

M
I \

I
0.14
o lwm3cco4ccu3womo 7WOOOOW0

Cmsum -s (psi)
Fig. 12-Side view of dolomite samples etched with 20% emulsified
acid at 2S0°F.
Fig. l!i--Acid conductivity at 250”F.

402
 EMULSIFIED ACID ENHANCES WELL PRODUCTION IN HIGH-TEMPERATURE CARBONATE FORMATIONS 13
SPE=12

20-
100oil

❑✍
~ 28%
19.
– , –20?.
_- ,
~15%
i8

I
17-,

16-

15.

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 100oil 74~=

Closure Stress (psi) 252

Temperature(“F)
Fig. 16-Acid conductivity at 320”F.
Fig. 116-Retardation factors for emulsified acid at high
ttiperatures.

Fig. 17-Side view of dolomite samples etched with 20”AHCI acid at

320”F after applying 6,000 psi of closure stress.

403
14 R. C. NAVARRETE, B.A. HOLMS, S. B. McCONNELL, AND D. E. LINTON SPE50612

1,250 I
I

,, —Oil— —Gas A Reservoir Pr=s. ● Acid Treatments , 11,000

r, I II I 1 I I 1 1 I 1 I 1 I I 1 I I

_;o Io,ooo _; _; _; _; — _; ; ; ; ;
1,000 I 1- F– u- l–l–l–l I I I I I

—
.
h
I
L
250 :[’ s ‘\

I I I I
I m n,
O+-’, ’-i pi 1

Fig. 19-Long-term production history of Weli No. 1.

5,000 200

I —-——
———.
—————
——— Emulsified Acid Treatment i
HCI Treatment
\, 180
160
4,000

~
3,000 1::----:--
t
‘ ———
————-———.-— ————
—
■ Gas (mc~) ❑ Oil (130PD)
———
140
120
100 g
ti
2,000 1-U1 ––l. –––––––– –-– –——––– 80
m

60

1,000 40
20

0 0

Fig. 29-Short-term production history of Weii No. 1.

404
SPE=12 EMULSIFIED ACID ENHANCES WELL PRODUCTION IN HIGH-TEMPERATURE CARBONATE FORMATIONS 15

2,000 I I I [ I 1 1 1 1 I I I 4 -13,000

D 12,000~

iiiiii:i: I
ll-’i--i”i
12,400 ‘ ‘Oil - - - Gas A Reservo~-Ress; — ● Ac;d ‘Treatments ,
r I 11,000:
-1 10,000~
I8,600 I
-1 9,000 ;
Q
? 8,000 z
II \
n 7,000 ~
~ 1,000
6,000”:
m
5,000 &
4,000
E
3,000 ~.
2,000 g
1,000 a
o o

Fig. 2’1-Long-term production history of Well No. 2.

10,000 ..— ., -500

Emulsified Acid Treatment---
9,000- :---- ———.—— ——————
—— .450
WGas(mc~) UOil(130PD) ---------------
------------------- !--=-””- ------------ ——__
--–-, 400
\ F-
-----------------”-----=-- ----------–--7- 350
<nnnJ–––––.-—.––– –––-––––.=---–.= -4---–=.=-t–\- 300
250 ~
z ““”V 200
m

150
2,000”- :’ ., .::;’. “,’ , ,, , ;“,,, ,,,” 100
50
n“ 0
0

Fig.22Ahort-term productionofWell No.2.

405
16 R. C. NAVARRETE, B.A. HOLMS, S. B. McCONNELL, AND D. E. LINTON SPE50B12

600

500 —-.——.=——.—...=——— ———————————

400

—-__———
—————
—————
-—— 5,000 *

200
x .
100 ————— ——— —

Fig. 23-Long-term production history of Well No. 3.

2,500
300

250
2,000

200
1,500
g 150 g
: m
1,000
100

500 50

0 0

Fig. 24--Short-term production of Well No. 3.