History of Kenya

A part of Eastern Africa, the territory of what is known as Kenya has seen human habitation since the
beginning of the Lower Paleolithic. The Bantu expansion from a West African centre of dispersal reached
the area by the 1st millennium AD. With the borders of the modern state at the crossroads of the Bantu,
Nilo-Saharan and Afro-Asiatic ethno-linguistic areas of Africa, Kenya is a truly multi-ethnic state.

The European and Arab presence in Mombasa dates to the Early Modern period, but European exploration
of the interior began in the 19th century. The British Empire established the East Africa Protectorate in
1895, from 1920 known as the Kenya Colony.[1]

The independent Republic of Kenya was formed in 1963. It was ruled as a de facto one-party state by the
Kenya African National Union (KANU), led by Jomo Kenyatta from 1963 to 1978. Kenyatta was
succeeded by Daniel arap Moi, who ruled until 2002. Moi attempted to transform the de facto one-party
status of Kenya into a de jure status during the 1980s, but with the end of the Cold War, the practices of
political repression and torture which had been "overlooked" by the Western powers as necessary evils in
the effort to contain communism were no longer tolerated.

Moi came under pressure, notably by US ambassador Smith Hempstone, to restore a multi-party system,
which he did by 1991.
Moi won elections in 1992 and 1997, which were overshadowed by politically-
motivated killings on both sides. During the 1990s, evidence of Moi's involvement in human rights abuses
and corruption, such as the Goldenberg scandal, was uncovered. He was constitutionally barred from
running in the 2002 election, which was won by Mwai Kibaki. Widely reported electoral fraud on Kibaki's
side in the 2007 elections resulted in the 2007–2008 Kenyan crisis. Kibaki was succeeded by Uhuru
Kenyatta in the 2013 general election. There were allegations that his rival Raila Odinga actually won the
contest, however, the Supreme Court through a thorough review of evidence adduced found no malpractice
during the conduct of the 2013 general election both from the IEBC and the Jubilee Party of Uhuru
Kenyatta.

Contents
Paleolithic
Neolithic
Iron Age
Swahili culture and trade
Portuguese and Omani influences
19th century history
British rule (1895–1963)
East Africa Protectorate
First World War
Kenya Colony
Representation
Second World War
Rural trends
 Kenya African Union
Mau-Mau Uprising
Trade Unionism and the struggle for independence
Constitutional Debates and the Path to Independence
Independence
Kenyatta tenure (1963–1978)
Foreign policies
Moi regime (1978–2002)
Multi-party politics
Recent history (2002 to present)
2002 elections
Economic trends
2007 elections and ethnic violence
Demographic trends
Presidency of Uhuru Kenyatta (2013-present)
See also
References
Bibliography
History
Primary sources

Paleolithic
In 1929, the first evidence of the presence of ancient early human ancestors in Kenya was discovered when
Louis Leakey unearthed one million year old Acheulian handaxes at the Kariandusi Prehistoric Site in
southwest Kenya.[2] Subsequently, many species of early hominid have been discovered in Kenya. The
oldest, found by Martin Pickford in the year 2000, is the six million year old Orrorin tugenensis, named
after the Tugen Hills where it was unearthed.[3] It is the second oldest fossil hominid in the world after
Sahelanthropus tchadensis.

In 1995 Meave Leakey named a new species of hominid Australopithecus anamensis following a series of
fossil discoveries near Lake Turkana in 1965, 1987 and 1994. It is around 4.1 million years old.[4]: 3 5 

In 2011, 3.2 million year old stone tools were discovered at Lomekwi near Lake Turkana - these are the
oldest stone tools found anywhere in the world and pre-date the emergence of Homo.[5]

One of the most famous and complete hominid skeletons ever discovered was the 1.6-million-year-old
Homo erectus known as Nariokotome Boy, which was found by Kamoya Kimeu in 1984 on an excavation
led by Richard Leakey.[6]

The oldest Acheulean tools ever discovered anywhere in the world are from West Turkana, and were dated
in 2011 through the method of magnetostratigraphy to about 1.76 million years old.[7]

East Africa, including Kenya, is one of the earliest regions where modern humans (Homo sapiens) are
believed to have lived. Evidence was found in 2018, dating to about 320,000 years ago, at the Kenyan site
of Olorgesailie, of the early emergence of modern behaviors including: long-distance trade networks
(involving goods such as obsidian), the use of pigments, and the possible making of projectile points. It is
observed by the authors of three 2018 studies on the site, that the evidence of these behaviors is
approximately contemporary to the earliest known Homo sapiens fossil remains from Africa (such as at
Jebel Irhoud and Florisbad), and they suggest that complex and modern behaviors had already begun in
Africa around the time of the emergence of Homo sapiens.[8][9][10] Further evidence of modern behaviour
was found in 2021 when evidence of Africa's earliest funeral was found. A 78,000 year old Middle Stone
Age grave of a three-year-old child was discovered in Panga ya Saidi cave. Researchers said the child's
head appeared to have been laid on a pillow. The body had been laid in a fetal position. Michael Petraglia,
a professor of human evolution and prehistory at the Max Planck Institute said, “It is the oldest human
burial in Africa. It tells us something about our cognition, our sociality and our behaviours and they are all
very familiar to us today.”[11][12]

Neolithic
The first inhabitants of present-day Kenya were hunter-gatherer groups, akin to the modern Khoisan
speakers.[13] The Kansyore culture, dating from the mid 5th millennium BCE to the 1st millennium BCE
was one of East Africa's earliest ceramic producing group of hunter-gatherers. This culture was located at
Gogo falls in Migori county near Lake Victoria.[14] Kenya's rock art sites date between 2000BCE and
1000 CE. This tradition thrived at Mfangano Island, Chelelemuk hills, Namoratunga and Lewa Downs.
The rock paintings are attributed to the Twa people, a hunter-gatherer group that was once widespread in
East Africa.[15] For the most part, these communities were assimilated into various food-producing societies
that began moving into Kenya from the 3rd millennium BCE.

Linguistic evidence points to a relative sequence of population movements into Kenya that begins with the
entry into northern Kenya of a possibly Southern Cushitic speaking population around the 3rd millennium
BCE. They were pastoralists who kept domestic stock, including cattle, sheep, goat, and donkeys.[16]
Remarkable megalithic sites from this time period include the possibly archaeoastronomical site
Namoratunga on the west side of Lake Turkana. One of these megalithic sites, Lothagam North Pillar Site,
is East Africa's earliest and largest monumental cemetery. At least 580 bodies are found in this well planned
cemetery.[17] By 1000 BCE and even earlier, pastoralism had spread into central Kenya and northern
Tanzania. Eburran hunter gatherers, who had lived in the Ol Doinyo Eburru volcano complex near Lake
Nakuru for thousands of years, start adopting livestock around this period.[18]

In present times the descendants of the Southern Cushitic speakers are located in north central Tanzania
near Lake Eyasi. Their past distribution, as determined by the presence of loanwords in other languages,
encompasses the known distribution of the Highland Savanna Pastoral Neolithic culture.[19]

Beginning around 700 BCE, Southern Nilotic speaking communities whose homelands lay somewhere
near the common border between Sudan, Uganda, Kenya and Ethiopia moved south into the western
highlands and Rift Valley region of Kenya.

The arrival of the Southern Nilotes in Kenya occurred shortly before the introduction of iron to East Africa.
The past distribution of the Southern Nilotic speakers, as inferred from place names, loan words and oral
traditions includes the known distribution of Elmenteitan sites.[19]

Iron Age
Evidence suggests that autochthonous Iron production developed in West Africa as early as 3000–
2500BCE.[20] The ancestors of Bantu speakers migrated in waves from west/central Africa to populate
much of Eastern, Central and Southern Africa from the first millennium BC. They brought with them iron
forging technology and novel farming techniques as they migrated and integrated with the societies they
encountered.[21][22] The Bantu expansion is thought to have reached western Kenya around 1000
BCE.[23]

The Urewe culture is one of Africa's oldest iron smelting centres. Dating from 550BCE to 650BCE, this
culture dominated the Great Lakes region including Kenya. Sites in Kenya include Urewe, Yala and
Uyoma in northern Nyanza.[24][25] By the first century BC, Bantu speaking communities in the great lakes
region developed iron forging techniques that enabled them to produce carbon steel.[26]

Later migrations through Tanzania led to settlement on the Kenyan coast. Archaeological findings have
shown that by 100 BCE to 300 AD, Bantu speaking communities were present at the coastal areas of
Misasa in Tanzania, Kwale in Kenya and Ras Hafun in Somalia. These communities also integrated and
intermarried with the communities already present at the coast. Between 300 AD-1000 AD, through
participation in the long existing Indian Ocean trade route, these communities established links with
Arabian and Indian traders leading to the development of the Swahili culture.[27]

Historians estimate that in the 15th century, Southern Luo speakers started migrating into Western Kenya.
The Luo descend from migrants closely related to other Nilotic Luo Peoples (especially the Acholi and
Padhola people) who moved from South Sudan through Uganda into western Kenya in a slow and multi-
generational manner between the 15th and 20th centuries. As they moved into Kenya and Tanzania, they
underwent significant genetic and cultural admixture as they encountered other communities that were long
established in the region. [28][29]

The walled settlement of Thimlich Ohinga is the largest and best preserved of 138 sites containing 521
stone structures that were built around the Lake Victoria region in Nyanza Province. Carbon dating and
linguistic evidence suggest that the site is at least 550 years old. Archaeological and ethnographic analysis
of the site taken with historical, linguistic and genetic evidence suggests that the populations that built,
maintained and inhabited the site at various phases had significant ethnic admixture.[30]

Swahili culture and trade

Swahili people inhabit the Swahili coast which is the coastal area of the Indian Ocean in Southeast Africa.
It includes the coastal areas of Southern Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania and Northern Mozambique with
numerous islands, cities and towns including Sofala, Kilwa, Zanzibar, Comoros, Mombasa, Gede, Malindi,
Pate Island and Lamu.[31] The Swahili coast was historically known as Azania in the Greco-Roman era
and as Zanj or Zinj in Middle Eastern, Chinese and Indian literature from the 7th to the 14th century.[32][33]
The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea is a Graeco-Roman manuscript that was written in the first century AD.
It describes the East African coast (Azania) and a long existing Indian Ocean Trade route.[34] The East
African Coast was long inhabited by hunter-gatherer and Cushitic groups since at least 3000BC. Evidence
of indigenous pottery and agriculture dating as far back as this period has been found along the coast and
offshore islands.[35] International trade goods including Graeco-Roman pottery, Syrian glass vessels,
Sassanian pottery from Persia and glass beads dating to 600BC have been found at the Rufiji River delta in
Tanzania.[36]

Bantu Groups had migrated to the Great Lakes Region by 1000BCE. Some Bantu speakers continued to
migrate further southeast towards the East African Coast. These Bantu speakers mixed with the local
inhabitants they encountered at the coast. The earliest settlements in the Swahili coast to appear on the
archaeological record are found at Kwale in Kenya, Misasa in Tanzania and Ras Hafun in Somalia.[27] The
Kenyan coast had hosted communities of ironworkers and communities of Eastern Bantu subsistence-
farmers, hunters and fishers who supported the economy with agriculture, fishing, metal production and
trade with outside areas.[37] Between 300AD – 1000AD Azanian and Zanj settlements in the Swahili coast
continued to expand with local industry and international trade flourishing.[27] Between 500 and 800 A.D.
they shifted to a sea-based trading economy and began to migrate south by ship. In the following centuries,
trade in goods from the African interior, such as gold, ivory, and slaves stimulated the development of
market towns such as Mogadishu, Shanga, Kilwa, and Mombasa. These communities formed the earliest
city-states in the region[38] which were collectively known to the Roman Empire as "Azania".

By the 1st century CE, many of the settlements such as those in Mombasa, Malindi, and Zanzibar - began
to establish trade relations with Arabs. This led ultimately to the increased economic growth of the Swahili,
the introduction of Islam, Arabic influences on the Swahili Bantu language, and cultural diffusion. Islam
rapidly spread across Africa between 614AD – 900AD. Starting with the first Hijrah (migration) of Prophet
Muhammad's followers to Ethiopia, Islam spread across Eastern, Northern and Western Africa.[27][39] The
Swahili city-states became part of a larger trade network.[40][41] Many historians long believed that Arab or
Persian traders established the city-states, but archeological evidence has led scholars to recognize the city-
states as an indigenous development which, though subjected to foreign influence due to trade, retained a
Bantu cultural core.[42]
The Azanian and Zanj communities had a high degree of intercultural exchange
and admixture. This fact is reflected in the language, culture and technology present at the coast. For
instance, between 630AD - 890AD, Archaeological evidence indicates that crucible steel was
manufactured at Galu, south of Mombasa. Metallurgical analysis of iron artefacts indicates that the
techniques used by the inhabitants of the Swahili coast combined techniques used in other African sites as
well as those in West and South Asian sites.[27][43]
The Swahili City States begin to emerge from pre-
existing settlements between 1000AD and 1500AD. The earliest gravestone found at Gedi Ruins dates to
the earlier part of this period.[27][44] The oldest Swahili texts in existence also date to this period. They
were written in old Swahili script (Swahili-Arabic alphabet) based on Arabic letters. This is the script found
on the earliest gravestones.[45]

One of the most travelled people of the ancient world, Moroccan explorer Ibn Battuta, visited Mombasa on
his way to Kilwa in 1331. He describes Mombasa as a large island with banana, lemon and citron trees.
The local residents were Sunni Muslims who he described as “religious people, trustworthy and righteous.”
He noted that their mosques were made of wood and were expertly built.[46][47] Another ancient traveller,
Chinese Admiral Zheng He visited Malindi in 1418. Some of his ships are reported to have sunk near
Lamu Island. Recent genetic tests done on local inhabitants confirmed that some residents had Chinese
ancestry.[48][49]

Swahili, a Bantu language with many Arabic loan words, developed as a lingua franca for trade between
the different peoples.[4]: 2 14  A Swahili culture developed in the towns, notably in Pate, Malindi, and
Mombasa. The impact of Arabic and Persian traders and immigrants on the Swahili culture remains
controversial. During the Middle Ages,

the East African Swahili coast [including Zanzibar] was a wealthy and advanced region,
which consisted of many autonomous merchant cities. Wealth flowed into the cities via the
Africans' roles as intermediaries and facilitators of Indian, Persian, Arab, Indonesian,
Malaysian, African and Chinese merchants. All of these peoples enriched the Swahili culture
to some degree. The Swahili culture developed its own written language; the language
incorporated elements from different civilisations, with Arabic as its strongest quality. Some
Arab settlers were rich merchants who, because of their wealth, gained power—sometimes as
rulers of coastal cities.[50]

Portuguese and Omani influences

Portuguese explorers appeared on the East African coast at the end of the 15th century. The Portuguese did
not intend to found settlements, but to establish naval bases that would give Portugal control over the Indian
Ocean. After decades of small-scale conflict, Arabs from Oman defeated the Portuguese in Kenya.

The Portuguese became the first Europeans to explore the region of current-day Kenya: Vasco da Gama
visited Mombasa in April 1498. Da Gama's voyage successfully reached India (May 1498), and this
initiated direct maritime Portuguese trade links with South Asia, thus challenging older trading networks
over mixed land and sea routes, such as the spice-trade routes that utilised the Persian Gulf, Red Sea and
caravans to reach the eastern Mediterranean. (The Republic of Venice had gained control over much of the
trade between Europe and Asia. Especially after the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople in 1453,
Turkish control of the eastern Mediterranean inhibited the use of traditional land-routes between Europe
and India. Portugal hoped to use the sea route pioneered by da Gama to bypass political, monopolistic and
tariff barriers.)

Portuguese rule in East Africa focused mainly on a coastal strip centred in Mombasa. The Portuguese
presence in East Africa officially began after 1505, when a naval force under the command of Dom
Francisco de Almeida conquered Kilwa, an island located in the south-east of present-day Tanzania.[51]

The Portuguese presence in East Africa served the purpose of controlling trade within the Indian Ocean
and securing the sea routes linking Europe and Asia. Portuguese naval vessels disrupted the commerce of
Portugal's enemies within the western Indian Ocean, and the Portuguese demanded high tariffs on items
transported through the area, given their strategic control of ports and of shipping lanes. The construction of
Fort Jesus in Mombasa in 1593 aimed to solidify Portuguese hegemony in the region. The Omani Arabs
posed the most direct challenge to Portuguese influence in East Africa, besieging Portuguese fortresses.
Omani forces captured Fort Jesus in 1698, only to lose it in a revolt (1728), but by 1730 the Omanis had
expelled the remaining Portuguese from the coasts of present-day Kenya and Tanzania. By this time the
Portuguese Empire had already lost interest in the spice-trade sea-route because of the decreasing
profitability of that traffic. (Portuguese-ruled territories, ports and settlements remained active to the south,
in Mozambique, until 1975.)

Under Seyyid Said (ruled 1807–1856), the Omani sultan who moved his capital to Zanzibar in 1824, the
Arabs set up long-distance trade-routes into the African interior. The dry reaches of the north were lightly
inhabited by semi-nomadic pastoralists. In the south, pastoralists and cultivators bartered goods and
competed for land as long-distance caravan routes linked them to the Kenyan coast on the east and to the
kingdoms of Uganda on the west.[4]: 2 27  Arab, Shirazi and coastal African cultures produced an Islamic
Swahili people trading in a variety of up-country commodities, including slaves.[4]: 2 27 

19th century history

Omani Arab colonisation of the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts brought the once independent city-states
under closer foreign scrutiny and domination than was experienced during the Portuguese period.[52] Like
their predecessors, the Omani Arabs were primarily able only to control the coastal areas, not the interior.
However, the creation of plantations, intensification of the slave trade and movement of the Omani capital
to Zanzibar in 1839 by Seyyid Said had the effect of consolidating the Omani power in the region. The
slave trade had begun to grow exponentially starting at the end of the 17th Century with a large slave
market based at Zanzibar.[53][54] When Sultan Seyyid Said moved his capital to Zanzibar, the already large
clove and spice plantations continued to grow, driving demand for slaves.[55] Slaves were sourced from the
hinterland. Slave caravan routes into the interior of Kenya reached as far as the foothills of Mount Kenya,
Lake Victoria and past Lake Baringo into Samburu country.[56]
Arab governance of all the major ports along the East African coast continued until British interests aimed
particularly at securing their 'Indian Jewel' and creation of a system of trade among individuals began to put
pressure on Omani rule. By the late 19th century, the slave trade on the open seas had been completely
strangled by the British. The Omani Arabs had no interest in resisting the Royal Navy's efforts to enforce
anti-slavery directives. As the Moresby Treaty demonstrated, whilst Oman sought sovereignty over its
waters, Seyyid Said saw no reason to intervene in the slave trade, as the main customers for the slaves were
Europeans. As Farquhar in a letter made note, only with the intervention of Said would the European Trade
in slaves in the Western Indian Ocean be abolished. As the Omani presence continued in Zanzibar and
Pemba until the 1964 revolution, but the official Omani Arab presence in Kenya was checked by German
and British seizure of key ports and creation of crucial trade alliances with influential local leaders in the
1880s. Nevertheless, the Omani Arab legacy in East Africa is currently found through their numerous
descendants found along the coast that can directly trace ancestry to Oman and are typically the wealthiest
and most politically influential members of the Kenyan coastal community.[51]

The first Christian mission was founded on 25 August 1846, by Dr. Johann Ludwig Krapf, a German
sponsored by the Church Missionary Society of England.[4]: 5 61  He established a station among the
Mijikenda at Rabai on the coast. He later translated the Bible into Swahili.[51] Many freed slaves rescued
by the British Navy are settled here.[56] The peak of the slave plantation economy in East Africa was
between 1875 – 1884. It is estimated that between 43,000 – 47,000 slaves were present on the Kenyan
coast, which made up 44 percent of the local population.[56] In 1874, Frere Town settlement in Mombasa
was established. This was another settlement for freed slaves rescued by the British Navy. Despite pressure
from the British to stop the East African slave trade, it continued to persist into the early 20th century.[56]

By 1850 European explorers had begun mapping the interior.[4]: 2 29  Three developments encouraged
European interest in East Africa in the first half of the 19th century.[4]: 5 60  First, was the emergence of the
island of Zanzibar, located off the east coast of Africa.[4]: 5 60  Zanzibar became a base from which trade and
exploration of the African mainland could be mounted.[4]: 5 60  By 1840, to protect the interests of the
various nationals doing business in Zanzibar, consul offices had been opened by the British, French,
Germans and Americans. In 1859, the tonnage of foreign shipping calling at Zanzibar had reached 19,000
tons.[4]: 5 61  By 1879, the tonnage of this shipping had reached 89,000 tons. The second development
spurring European interest in Africa was the growing European demand for products of Africa including
ivory and cloves. Thirdly, British interest in East Africa was first stimulated by their desire to abolish the
slave trade.[4]: 5 60–61  Later in the century, British interest in East Africa would be stimulated by German
competition.

British rule (1895–1963)

East Africa Protectorate

In 1895 the British government took over and claimed the interior as far west as Lake Naivasha; it set up
the East Africa Protectorate. The border was extended to Uganda in 1902, and in 1920 the enlarged
protectorate, except for the original coastal strip, which remained a protectorate, became a crown colony.
With the beginning of colonial rule in 1895, the Rift Valley and the surrounding Highlands became
reserved for whites. In the 1920s Indians objected to the reservation of the Highlands for Europeans,
especially British war veterans. The whites engaged in large-scale coffee farming dependent on mostly
Kikuyu labour. Bitterness grew between the Indians and the Europeans.[57]

This area's fertile land has always made it the site of migration and conflict. There were no significant
mineral resources—none of the gold or diamonds that attracted so many to South Africa.
Imperial Germany set up a protectorate over the Sultan of Zanzibar's coastal possessions in 1885, followed
by the arrival of Sir William Mackinnon's British East Africa Company (BEAC) in 1888, after the
company had received a royal charter and concessionary rights to the Kenya coast from the Sultan of
Zanzibar for a 50-year period. Incipient imperial rivalry was forestalled when Germany handed its coastal
holdings to Britain in 1890, in exchange for German control over the coast of Tanganyika. The colonial
takeover met occasionally with some strong local resistance: Waiyaki Wa Hinga, a Kikuyu chief who ruled
Dagoretti who had signed a treaty with Frederick Lugard of the BEAC, having been subject to
considerable harassment, burnt down Lugard's fort in 1890. Waiyaki was abducted two years later by the
British and killed.[51]

Following severe financial difficulties of the British East Africa Company, the British government on 1
July 1895 established direct rule through the East African Protectorate, subsequently opening (1902) the
fertile highlands to white settlers.

A key to the development of

Kenya's interior was the
construction, started in 1895, of a
railway from Mombasa to Kisumu,
on Lake Victoria, completed in
1901. This was to be the first piece
of the Uganda Railway. The British
government had decided, primarily
for strategic reasons, to build a
railway linking Mombasa with the
British protectorate of Uganda. A
major feat of engineering, the
"Uganda railway" (that is the
railway inside Kenya leading to
Uganda) was completed in 1903
and was a decisive event in
modernising the area. As governor
of Kenya, Sir Percy Girouard was
instrumental in initiating railway
extension policy that led to
construction of the Nairobi-Thika
and Konza-Magadi railways.[58]

Some 32,000 workers were

imported from British India to do
the manual labour. Many stayed, as
did most of the Indian traders and
small businessmen who saw 1911 map
opportunity in the opening up of
the interior of Kenya. Rapid
economic development was seen as necessary to make the railway pay, and since the African population
was accustomed to subsistence rather than export agriculture, the government decided to encourage
European settlement in the fertile highlands, which had small African populations. The railway opened up
the interior, not only to the European farmers, missionaries and administrators, but also to systematic
government programmes to attack slavery, witchcraft, disease and famine. The Africans saw witchcraft as a
powerful influence on their lives and frequently took violent action against suspected witches. To control
this, the British colonial administration passed laws, beginning in 1909, which made the practice of
witchcraft illegal. These laws gave the local population a legal, nonviolent way to stem the activities of
witches.[59]

By the time the railway was built, military resistance by the African population to the original British
takeover had petered out. However new grievances were being generated by the process of European
settlement. Governor Percy Girouard is associated with the debacle of the Second Maasai Agreement of
1911, which led to their forceful removal from the fertile Laikipia plateau to semi-arid Ngong. To make
way for the Europeans (largely Britons and whites from South Africa), the Maasai were restricted to the
southern Loieta plains in 1913. The Kikuyu claimed some of the land reserved for Europeans and
continued to feel that they had been deprived of their inheritance.

In the initial stage of colonial rule, the administration relied on traditional communicators, usually chiefs.
When colonial rule was established and efficiency was sought, partly because of settler pressure, newly
educated younger men were associated with old chiefs in local Native Councils.[60]

In building the railway the British had to confront strong local opposition, especially from Koitalel Arap
Samoei, a diviner and Nandi leader who prophesied that a black snake would tear through Nandi land
spitting fire, which was seen later as the railway line. For ten years he fought against the builders of the
railway line and train. The settlers were partly allowed in 1907 a voice in government through the
legislative council, a European organisation to which some were appointed and others elected. But since
most of the powers remained in the hands of the Governor, the settlers started lobbying to transform Kenya
in a Crown Colony, which meant more powers for the settlers. They obtained this goal in 1920, making the
Council more representative of European settlers; but Africans were excluded from direct political
participation until 1944, when the first of them was admitted in the Council.[60]

First World War

Kenya became a military base for the British in the First World War (1914–1918),[61] as efforts to subdue
the German colony to the south were frustrated. At the outbreak of war in August 1914, the governors of
British East Africa (as the Protectorate was generally known) and German East Africa agreed a truce in an
attempt to keep the young colonies out of direct hostilities. However Lt Col Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck took
command of the German military forces, determined to tie down as many British resources as possible.
Completely cut off from Germany, von Lettow conducted an effective guerilla warfare campaign, living off
the land, capturing British supplies, and remaining undefeated. He eventually surrendered in Zambia eleven
days after the Armistice was signed in 1918. To chase von Lettow the British deployed Indian Army troops
from India and then needed large numbers of porters to overcome the formidable logistics of transporting
supplies far into the interior by foot. The Carrier Corps was formed and ultimately mobilised over 400,000
Africans, contributing to their long-term politicisation.[60]

Kenya Colony

An early anti-colonial movement opposed to British rule known as Mumboism took root in South Nyanza
in the early 20th century. Colonial authorities classified it as a millennialist cult. It has since been recognised
as an anti-colonial movement. In 1913, Onyango Dunde of central Kavirondo proclaimed to have been sent
by the serpent god of Lake Victoria, Mumbo to spread his teachings. The colonial government recognised
this movement as a threat to their authority because of the Mumbo creed. Mumbo pledged to drive out the
colonialists and their supporters and condemned their religion. Violent resistance against the British had
proven to be futile as the Africans were outmatched technologically. This movement therefore focused on
anticipating the end of colonialism, rather than actively inducing it. Mumboism spread amongst Luo people
and Kisii people. The Colonial authorities suppressed the movement by deporting and imprisoning
adherents in the 1920s and 1930s. It was officially banned in 1954 following the Mau Mau rebellion.[62]

The first stirrings of modern African political organisation in Kenya Colony sought to protest pro-settler
policies, increased taxes on Africans and the despised kipande (Identifying metal band worn around the
neck). Before the war, African political focus was diffuse. But after the war, problems caused by new taxes
and reduced wages and new settlers threatening African land led to new movements. The experiences
gained by Africans in the war coupled with the creation of the white-settler-dominated Kenya Crown
Colony, gave rise to considerable political activity. Ishmael Ithongo called the first mass meeting in May
1921 to protest African wage reductions. Harry Thuku formed the Young Kikuyu Association (YKA) and
started a publication called Tangazo which criticised the colonial administration and missions. The YKA
gave a sense of nationalism to many Kikuyu and advocated civil disobedience. The YKA gave way to the
Kikuyu Association (KA) which was the officially recognised tribal body with Harry Thuku as its
secretary. Through the KA, Thuku advocated for African suffrage. Deeming it unwise to base a nationalist
movement around one tribe, Thuku renamed his organisation the East African Association and strived for
multi-ethnic membership by including the local Indian community and reaching out to other tribes. The
colonial government accused Thuku of sedition, arrested him and detained him until 1930.[63]

In Kavirondo (later Nyanza province), a strike at a mission school, organised by Daudi Basudde, raised
concerns about the damaging implications on African land ownership by switching from the East African
Protectorate to the Kenyan Colony. A series of meetings dubbed ‘Piny Owacho’ (Voice of the People)
culminated in a large mass meeting held in December 1921 advocating for individual title deeds, getting rid
of the kipande system and a fairer tax system. Archdeacon W. E. Owen, an Anglican missionary and
prominent advocate for African affairs, formalised and canalised this movement as the president of the
Kavirondo Taxpayers Welfare Association. Bound by the same concerns, James Beauttah initiated an
alliance between the Kikuyu and Luo communities.[63][64]

In the mid-1920s, the Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) was formed. Led by Joseph Keng’ethe and Jesse
Kariuki, it picked up from Harry Thuku's East African Association except that it represented the Kikuyu
almost exclusively. Johnstone Kenyatta was the secretary and editor of the associations’ publication
Mugwithania (The unifier). The KCA focused on unifying the Kikuyu into one geographic polity, but its
project was undermined by controversies over ritual tribute, land allocation and the ban on female
circumcision. They also fought for the release of Harry Thuku from detention. Upon Thuku's release, he
was elected president of the KCA. The government banned the KCA after World War II began when Jesse
Kariuki compared the compulsory relocation of Kikuyus who lived near white owned land to Nazi policies
on compulsory relocation of people.[63]

Most political activity between the wars was local, and this succeeded most among the Luo of Kenya,
where progressive young leaders became senior chiefs. By the later 1930s government began to intrude on
ordinary Africans through marketing controls, stricter educational supervision and land changes. Traditional
chiefs became irrelevant and younger men became communicators by training in the missionary churches
and civil service. Pressure on ordinary Kenyans by governments in a hurry to modernise in the 1930s to
1950s enabled the mass political parties to acquire support for "centrally" focused movements, but even
these often relied on local communicators.[65]

During the early part of the 20th century, the interior central highlands were settled by British and other
European farmers, who became wealthy farming coffee and tea.[66] By the 1930s, approximately 15,000
white settlers lived in the area and gained a political voice because of their contribution to the market
economy.[67] The area was already home to over a million members of the Kikuyu tribe, most of whom
had no land claims in European terms, and lived as itinerant farmers. To protect their interests, the settlers
banned the growing of coffee, introduced a hut tax and the landless were granted less and less land in
exchange for their labour. A massive exodus to the cities ensued as their ability to provide a living from the
land dwindled.[60]

Representation

Kenya became a focus of resettlement of young, upper class British officers after the war, giving a strong
aristocratic tone to the white settlers. If they had £1,000 in assets they could get a free 1,000 acres (4 km2 );
the goal of the government was to speed up modernisation and economic growth. They set up coffee
plantations, which required expensive machinery, a stable labour force, and four years to start growing
crops. The veterans did escape democracy and taxation in Britain, but they failed in their efforts to gain
control of the colony. The upper class bias in migration policy meant that whites would always be a small
minority. Many of them left after independence.[68][69]

Power remained concentrated in the governor's hands; weak legislative and executive councils made up of
official appointees were created in 1906. The European settlers were allowed to elect representatives to the
Legislative Council in 1920, when the colony was established. The white settlers, 30,000 strong, sought
"responsible government," in which they would have a voice. They opposed similar demands by the far
more numerous Indian community. The European settlers gained representation for themselves and
minimised representation on the Legislative Council for Indians and Arabs. The government appointed a
European to represent African interests on the Council. In the "Devonshire declaration" of 1923 the
Colonial Office declared that the interests of the Africans (comprising over 95% of the population) must be
paramount—achieving that goal took four decades. Historian Charles Mowat explained the issues:

[The Colonial Office in London ruled that] native interests should come first; but this proved
difficult to apply [in Kenya] ... where some 10,000 white settlers, many of them ex-officers
of the war, insisted that their interests came before those of the three million natives and
23,000 Indians in the colony, and demanded 'responsible government', provided that they
alone bore the responsibility. After three years of bitter dispute, provoked not by the natives
but by the Indians, vigorously backed by the Government of India, the Colonial Office gave
judgment: the interest of the natives was 'paramount', and responsible government out of
the question, but no drastic change was contemplated – thus in effect preserving the
ascendancy of the settlers.[70]

Second World War

In the Second World War (1939–45) Kenya became an important British military base for successful
campaigns against Italy in the Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia. The war brought money and an opportunity
for military service for 98,000 men, called "askaris". The war stimulated African nationalism. After the war,
African ex-servicemen sought to maintain the socioeconomic gains they had accrued through service in the
King's African Rifles (KAR). Looking for middle class employment and social privileges, they challenged
existing relationships within the colonial state. For the most part, veterans did not participate in national
politics, believing that their aspirations could best be achieved within the confines of colonial society. The
social and economic connotations of KAR service, combined with the massive wartime expansion of
Kenyan defence forces, created a new class of modernised Africans with distinctive characteristics and
interests. These socioeconomic perceptions proved powerful after the war.[71][72]

Rural trends
British officials sought to modernise Kikuyu farming in the Murang'a District 1920–1945.:) Relying on
concepts of trusteeship and scientific management, they imposed a number of changes in crop production
and agrarian techniques, claiming to promote conservation and "betterment" of farming in the colonial tribal
reserves. While criticised as backward by British officials and white settlers, African farming proved
resilient and Kikuyu farmers engaged in widespread resistance to the colonial state's agrarian reforms.[73]

Modernisation was accelerated by the Second World War. Among the Luo the larger agricultural
production unit was the patriarch's extended family, mainly divided into a special assignment team led by
the patriarch, and the teams of his wives, who, together with their children, worked their own lots on a
regular basis. This stage of development was no longer strictly traditional, but still largely self-sufficient
with little contact with the broader market. Pressures of overpopulation and the prospects of cash crops,
already in evidence by 1945, made this subsistence economic system increasingly obsolete and accelerated
a movement to commercial agriculture and emigration to cities. The Limitation of Action Act in 1968
sought to modernise traditional land ownership and use; the act has produced unintended consequences,
with new conflicts raised over land ownership and social status.[74]

As Kenya modernized after the war, the role of the British religious missions changed their roles, despite
the efforts of the leadership of the Church Missionary Society to maintain the traditional religious focus.
However the social and educational needs were increasingly obvious, and the threat of the Mau Mau
uprisings pushed the missions to emphasize medical, humanitarian and especially educational programs.
Fundraising efforts in Britain increasingly stressed the non-religious components. Furthermore, the
imminent transfer of control to the local population became a high priority.[75][76]

Kenya African Union

As a reaction to their exclusion from political representation, the Kikuyu people, the most subject to
pressure by the settlers, founded in 1921 Kenya's first African political protest movement, the Young
Kikuyu Association, led by Harry Thuku. After the Young Kikuyu Association was banned by the
government, it was replaced by the Kikuyu Central Association in 1924.

In 1944 Thuku founded and was the first chairman of the multi-tribal Kenya African Study Union
(KASU), which in 1946 became the Kenya African Union (KAU). It was an African nationalist
organization that demanded access to white-owned land. KAU acted as a constituency association for the
first black member of Kenya's legislative council, Eliud Mathu, who had been nominated in 1944 by the
governor after consulting élite African opinion. The KAU remained dominated by the Kikuyu ethnic
group. However, the leadership of KAU was multitribal. Wycliff Awori was the first vice president
followed by Tom Mbotela. In 1947 Jomo Kenyatta, former president of the moderate Kikuyu Central
Association, became president of the more aggressive KAU to demand a greater political voice for
Africans. In an effort to gain nationwide support of KAU, Jomo Kenyatta visited Kisumu in 1952. His
effort to build up support for KAU in Nyanza inspired Oginga Odinga, the Ker (chief) of the Luo Union
(an organisation that represented members of the Luo community in East Africa) to join KAU and delve
into politics.[63]

In response to the rising pressures, the British Colonial Office broadened the membership of the Legislative
Council and increased its role. By 1952 a multiracial pattern of quotas allowed for 14 European, 1 Arab,
and 6 Asian elected members, together with an additional 6 Africans and 1 Arab member chosen by the
governor. The council of ministers became the principal instrument of government in 1954.

Mau-Mau Uprising
A key watershed came from 1952 to 1956, during the Mau Mau Uprising, an armed local movement
directed principally against the colonial government and the European settlers.[77] It was the largest and
most successful such movement in British Africa. Members of the forty group, World War II(WW2)
veterans, including Stanley Mathenge, Bildad Kaggia and Fred Kubai became core leaders in the rebellion.
Their experiences during the WW2 awakened their political consciousness, giving them determination and
confidence to change the system. Key leaders of KAU known as the Kapenguria six were arrested on the
21st of October. They include Jomo Kenyatta, Paul Ngei, Kungu Karumba, Bildad Kaggia, Fred Kubai
and Achieng Oneko. Kenyatta denied he was a leader of the Mau Mau but was convicted at trial and was
sent to prison in 1953, gaining his freedom in 1961.

An intense propaganda campaign by the colonial government effectively discouraged other Kenyan
communities, settlers and the international community from sympathising with the movement by
emphasising on real and perceived acts of barbarism perpetrated by the Mau Mau. Although a much
smaller number of Europeans lost their lives compared to Africans during the uprising, each individual
European loss of life was publicised in disturbing detail, emphasising elements of betrayal and bestiality.[63]
As a result, the protest was supported almost exclusively by the Kikuyu, despite issues of land rights and
anti-European, anti-Western appeals designed to attract other groups. The Mau Mau movement was also a
bitter internal struggle among the Kikuyu. Harry Thuku said in 1952, "To-day we, the Kikuyu, stand
ashamed and looked upon as hopeless people in the eyes of other races and before the Government. Why?
Because of the crimes perpetrated by Mau Mau and because the Kikuyu have made themselves Mau Mau."
That said, other Kenyans directly or indirectly supported the movement. Notably, Pio Gama Pinto, a
Kenyan of Goan descent, facilitated the provision of firearms to forest fighters. He was arrested in 1954
and detained until 1959.[63] Another notable example was the pioneering lawyer Argwings Kodhek, the
first East African to obtain a law degree. He became known as the Mau Mau lawyer as he would
successfully defend Africans accused of Mau Mau crimes pro bono.[78] 12,000 militants were killed during
the suppression of the rebellion, and the British colonial authorities also implemented policies involving the
incarceration of over 150,000 suspected Mau Mau members and sympathizers (mostly from the Kikuyu
people) into concentration camps. [79] In these camps, the colonial authorities also used various forms of
torture to attempt information from the detainees.[80] In 2011, after decades of waiting, thousands of secret
documents from the British Foreign Office were declassified. They show that the Mau Mau rebels were
systematically tortured and subjected to the most brutal practices, men were castrated and sand introduced
into their anus, women were raped after introducing boiling water into their vaginas. The Foreign Office
archives also reveal that this was not the initiative of soldiers or colonial administrators but a policy
orchestrated from London.[81]

The Mau Mau uprising set in play a series of events that expedited the road to Kenya's Independence. A
Royal Commission on Land and Population condemned the reservation of land on a racial basis. To
support its military campaign of counter-insurgency the colonial government embarked on agrarian reforms
that stripped white settlers of many of their former protections; for example, Africans were for the first time
allowed to grow coffee, the major cash crop. Thuku was one of the first Kikuyu to win a coffee licence,
and in 1959 he became the first African board member of the Kenya Planters Coffee Union. The East
African Salaries Commission put forth a recommendation – 'equal pay for equal work' – that was
immediately accepted. Racist policies in public places and hotels were eased. John David Drummond, 17th
Earl of Perth and Minister of State for Colonial affairs stated: "The effort required to suppress Mau Mau
destroyed any settlers illusions that they could go it alone; the British Government was not prepared for the
shedding of [more] blood in order to preserve colonial rule."[82][83][63]

Trade Unionism and the struggle for independence

The pioneers of the trade union movement were Makhan Singh, Fred Kubai and Bildad Kaggia. In 1935,
Makhan Singh started the Labour trade union of Kenya. In the 1940s, Fred Kubai started the Transport and
Allied Workers Union and Bildad Kaggia founded the Clerks and Commercial Workers Union. In 1949,
Makhan Singh and Fred Kubai started the East Africa Trade Union Congress. They organised strikes
including the railway workers strike in 1939 and the protest against granting of a Royal Charter to Nairobi
in 1950. These pioneering trade union leaders were imprisoned during the crackdown on Mau Mau.[84][63]
Following this crackdown, all national African political activity was banned. This ban was in place even
when the first African members of the legislative council (MLCs) were elected. To manage and control
African political activity, the colonial government permitted district parties starting in 1955. This effectively
prevented African unity by encouraging ethnic affiliation. Trade unions led by younger Africans filled the
vacuum created by the crackdown as the only organisations that could mobilise the masses when political
parties were banned.[84][63]

The Kenya Federation of Registered Trade Unions (KFRTU) was started by Aggrey Minya in 1952 but
was largely ineffective.[84] Tom Mboya was one of the young leaders who stepped into the limelight. His
intelligence, discipline, oratory and organisational skills set him apart. After the colonial government
declared a state of emergency on account of Mau Mau, at age 22, Mboya became the Director of
Information of KAU. After KAU was banned, Mboya used the KFRTU to represent African political
issues as its Secretary General at 26 years of age. The KFRTU was backed by the western leaning
International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU). Tom Mboya then started the Kenya Federation
of Labour (KFL) in place of KFRTU, which quickly became the most active political body in Kenya,
representing all the trade unions. Mboya's successes in trade unionism earned him respect and admiration.
Mboya established international connections, particularly with labour leaders in the United States of
America through the ICFTU. He used these connections and his international renown to counter moves by
the colonial government.[84][63]

Several trade union leaders who were actively involved in the independence struggle through KFL would
go on to join active politics becoming members of parliament and cabinet ministers. These include Arthur
Aggrey Ochwada, Dennis Akumu, Clement Lubembe and Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo.[84][85][86] The
trade union movement would later become a major battlefront in the proxy cold war that would engulf
Kenyan politics in the 1960s.[87]

Constitutional Debates and the Path to Independence

After the suppression of the Mau Mau rising, the British provided for the election of the six African
members to the Legislative Council (MLC) under a weighted franchise based on education. Mboya
successfully stood for office in the first election for African MLCs in 1957, beating the previously
nominated incumbent, Argwings Kodhek. Daniel Arap Moi was the only previously nominated African
MLC who kept his seat. Oginga Odinga was also elected and shortly afterwards nominated as the first
chairman of the African elected members. Mboya's party, the Nairobi People's Convention Party (NPCP),
was inspired by Kwame Nkurumah's People's Convention Party. It became the most organised and
effective political party in the country. The NPCP was used to effectively mobilise the masses in Nairobi in
the struggle for greater African representation on the council. The new colonial constitution of 1958
increased African representation, but African nationalists began to demand a democratic franchise on the
principle of "one man, one vote." However, Europeans and Asians, because of their minority position,
feared the effects of universal suffrage.

In June 1958, Oginga Odinga called for the release of Jomo Kenyatta. This call built momentum and was
taken up by the NPCP. Agitation for African suffrage and self-rule picked up in pace. One major hindrance
to self-rule was the lack of African human capital. Poor education, economic development and a lack of
African technocrats were a real problem. This inspired Tom Mboya to begin a programme conceptualised
by a close confidante Dr. Blasio Vincent Oriedo, funded by Americans, of sending talented youth to the
United States for higher education. There was no university in Kenya at the time, but colonial officials
opposed the programme anyway. The next year Senator John F. Kennedy helped fund the programme,
hence its popular name – The Kennedy Airlift.[88] This scholarship program trained some 70% of the top
leaders of the new nation, including the first African woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize,
environmentalist Wangari Maathai and Barack Obama's father, Barack Obama Sr.[89]

At a conference held in 1960 in London, agreement was reached between the African members and the
British settlers of the New Kenya Group, led by Michael Blundell. However many whites rejected the New
Kenya Group and condemned the London agreement, because it moved away from racial quotas and
toward independence. Following the agreement a new African party, the Kenya African National Union
(KANU), with the slogan "Uhuru," or "Freedom," was formed under the leadership of Kikuyu leader
James S. Gichuru and labour leader Tom Mboya. KANU was formed in May 1960 when the Kenya
African Union (KAU) merged with the Kenya Independence Movement (KIM) and Nairobi People's
Convention Party (NPCP).[90] Mboya was a major figure from 1951 until his death in 1969. He was
praised as nonethnic or antitribal, and attacked as an instrument of Western capitalism. Mboya as General
Secretary of the Kenya Federation of Labour and a leader in the Kenya African National Union before and
after independence skilfully managed the tribal factor in Kenyan economic and political life to succeed as a
Luo in a predominantly Kikuyu movement.[91] A split in KANU produced the breakaway rival party, the
Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU), led by Ronald Ngala and Masinde Muliro. In the elections of
February 1961, KANU won 19 of the 33 African seats while KADU won 11 (twenty seats were reserved
by quota for Europeans, Asians and Arabs). Kenyatta was finally released in August and became president
of KANU in October.

Independence
In 1962, a KANU-KADU coalition government, including both Kenyatta and Ngala, was formed. The
1962 constitution established a bicameral legislature consisting of a 117-member House of Representatives
and a 41-member Senate. The country was divided into 7 semi-autonomous regions, each with its own
regional assembly. The quota principle of reserved seats for non-Africans was abandoned, and open
elections were held in May 1963. KADU gained control of the assemblies in the Rift Valley, Coast and
Western regions. KANU won majorities in the Senate and House of Representatives, and in the assemblies
in the Central, Eastern and Nyanza regions.[92] Kenya now achieved internal self-government with Jomo
Kenyatta as its first president. The British and KANU agreed, over KADU protests, to constitutional
changes in October 1963 strengthening the central government. Kenya attained independence on 12
December 1963[93] and was declared a republic on 12 December 1964 with Jomo Kenyatta as Head of
State. In 1964 constitutional changes further centralised the government and various state organs were
formed. One of the key state organs was the Central Bank of Kenya which was established in 1966.

The British government bought out the white settlers and they mostly left Kenya. The Indian minority-
dominated retail business in the cities and most towns, but was deeply distrusted by the Africans. As a
result, 120,000 of the 176,000 Indians kept their old British passports rather than become citizens of an
independent Kenya; large numbers left Kenya, most of them headed to Britain.[94]

Kenyatta tenure (1963–1978)

Once in power Kenyatta swerved from radical nationalism to conservative bourgeois politics. The
plantations formerly owned by white settlers were broken up and given to farmers, with the Kikuyu the
favoured recipients, along with their allies the Embu and the Meru. By 1978 most of the country's wealth
and power was in the hands of the organisation which grouped these three tribes: the Kikuyu-Embu-Meru
Association (GEMA), together comprising 30% of the population.
At the same time the Kikuyu, with Kenyatta's support, spread
beyond their traditional territorial homelands and repossessed lands
"stolen by the whites" – even when these had previously belonged
to other groups. The other groups, a 70% majority, were outraged,
setting up long-term ethnic animosities.[95]

The minority party, the Kenya African Democratic Union

(KADU), representing a coalition of small tribes that had feared
dominance by larger ones, dissolved itself voluntarily in 1964 and
1973 newsreel about Kenyatta's rule
former members joined KANU. KANU was the only party 1964–
66 when a faction broke away as the Kenya People's Union
(KPU). It was led by Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, a former vice-president and Luo elder. KPU advocated a
more "scientific" route to socialism—criticising the slow progress in land redistribution and employment
opportunities—as well as a realignment of foreign policy in favour of the Soviet Union. On 25 February
1965, Pio Gama Pinto, a Kenyan of Goan descent and freedom fighter who was detained during the
colonial period was assassinated in what is recognised as Kenya's first political assassination. He was also
Oginga Odinga's chief tactician and link to the eastern bloc.[96] His death dealt a severe blow to the Oginga
Odinga's organisational efforts.[97]

The government used a variety of political and economic measures to harass the KPU and its prospective
and actual members. KPU branches were unable to register, KPU meetings were prevented and civil
servants and politicians suffered severe economic and political consequences for joining the KPU. A
security Act was passed in Parliament in July 1966 and granted the government powers to carry out
detention without trial, which was used against KPU members.[98] In a series of dawn raids in August
1966, several KPU party members were arrested and detained without trial. They included Ochola
Mak'Anyengo (the secretary general of the Kenya Petroleum Oil Workers Union), Oluande Koduol
(Oginga Odinga's private secretary) and Peter Ooko (the general secretary of the East African Common
Services Civil Servants Union).[99]

In June 1969, Tom Mboya, a Luo member of the government considered a potential successor to Kenyatta,
was assassinated. Hostility between Kikuyu and Luo was heightened, and after riots broke out in Luo
country the KPU was banned. The specific riots that led to the banning of the KPU resulted in the incident
referred to as the Kisumu massacre.[100] Kenya thereby became a one-party state under KANU.[101]

Ignoring his suppression of the opposition and continued factionalism within KANU the imposition of one-
party rule allowed Mzee ("Old Man") Kenyatta, who had led the country since independence, to claim he
had achieved "political stability." Underlying social tensions were evident, however. Kenya's very rapid
population growth and considerable rural to urban migration were in large part responsible for high
unemployment and disorder in the cities. There also was much resentment by blacks at the privileged
economic position held by Asians and Europeans in the country.

At Kenyatta's death (22 August 1978), Vice-President Daniel arap Moi became interim President. On 14
October, Moi formally became President after he was elected head of KANU and designated its sole
nominee. In June 1982, the National Assembly amended the constitution, making Kenya officially a one-
party state. On 1 August members of the Kenyan Air Force launched an attempted coup, which was
quickly suppressed by Loyalist forces led by the Army, the General Service Unit (GSU) – paramilitary
wing of the police – and later the regular police, but not without civilian casualties.[51]

Foreign policies
Independent Kenya, although officially non-aligned, adopted a pro-Western stance.[102] Kenya worked
unsuccessfully for East African union; the proposal to unite Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda did not win
approval. However, the three nations did form a loose East African Community (EAC) in 1967, that
maintained the customs union and some common services that they had shared under British rule. The
EAC collapsed in 1977 and was officially dissolved in 1984. Kenya's relations with Somalia deteriorated
over the problem of Somalis in the North Eastern Province who tried to secede and were supported by
Somalia. In 1968, however, Kenya and Somalia agreed to restore normal relations, and the Somali rebellion
effectively ended.[51]

Moi regime (1978–2002)

Kenyatta died in 1978 and was succeeded by Daniel Arap Moi (b. 1924, d. 2020) who ruled as President
1978–2002. Moi, a member of the Kalenjin ethnic group, quickly consolidated his position and governed in
an authoritarian and corrupt manner. By 1986, Moi had concentrated all the power – and most of its
attendant economic benefits – into the hands of his Kalenjin tribe and of a handful of allies from minority
groups.[51]

On 1 August 1982, lower-level air force personnel, led by Senior Private Grade-I Hezekiah Ochuka and
backed by university students, attempted a coup d'état to oust Moi. The putsch was quickly suppressed by
forces commanded by Army Commander Mahamoud Mohamed, a veteran Somali military official.[103] In
the coup's aftermath, some of Nairobi's poor Kenyans attacked and looted stores owned by Asians. Robert
Ouko, the senior Luo in Moi's cabinet, was appointed to expose corruption at high levels, but was
murdered a few months later. Moi's closest associate was implicated in Ouko's murder; Moi dismissed him
but not before his remaining Luo support had evaporated. Germany recalled its ambassador to protest the
"increasing brutality" of the regime and foreign donors pressed Moi to allow other parties, which was done
in December 1991 through a constitutional amendment.[51]

On the heels of the Garissa massacre of 1980, Kenyan troops committed the Wagalla massacre in 1984
against thousands of civilians in the North Eastern Province. An official probe into the atrocities was later
ordered in 2011.[104]

Multi-party politics

After local and foreign pressure, in December 1991, parliament

repealed the one-party section of the constitution. The Forum for
the Restoration of Democracy (FORD) emerged as the leading
opposition to KANU, and dozens of leading KANU figures
switched parties. But FORD, led by Oginga Odinga (1911–1994),
a Luo, and Kenneth Matiba, a Kikuyu, split into two ethnically
based factions. In the first open presidential elections in a quarter
century, in December 1992, Moi won with 37% of the vote, Matiba
received 26%, Mwai Kibaki (of the mostly Kikuyu Democratic
Party) 19%, and Odinga 18%. In the Assembly, KANU won 97 of
the 188 seats at stake. Moi's government in 1993 agreed to
economic reforms long urged by the World Bank and the
International Monetary Fund, which restored enough aid for Kenya
to service its $7.5 billion foreign debt.[51]
President Daniel arap Moi in 1979
Obstructing the press both before and after the 1992 elections, Moi
continually maintained that multiparty politics would only promote
tribal conflict. His own regime depended upon exploitation of inter-group hatreds. Under Moi, the
apparatus of clientage and control was underpinned by the system of powerful provincial commissioners,
each with a bureaucratic hierarchy based on chiefs (and their police) that was more powerful than the
elected members of parliament. Elected local councils lost most of their power, and the provincial bosses
were answerable only to the central government, which in turn was dominated by the president. The
emergence of mass opposition in 1990–91 and demands for constitutional reform were met by rallies
against pluralism. The regime leaned on the support of the Kalenjin and incited the Maasai against the
Kikuyu. Government politicians denounced the Kikuyu as traitors, obstructed their registration as voters
and threatened them with dispossession. In 1993 and after, mass evictions of Kikuyu took place, often with
the direct involvement of army, police and game rangers. Armed clashes and many casualties, including
deaths, resulted.[105]

Further liberalisation in November 1997 allowed the expansion of political parties from 11 to 26. President
Moi won re-election as President in the December 1997 elections, and his KANU Party narrowly retained
its parliamentary majority.

Moi ruled using a strategic mixture of ethnic favouritism, state repression and marginalisation of opposition
forces. He utilised detention and torture, looted public finances and appropriated land and other property.
Moi sponsored irregular army units that attacked the Luo, Luhya and Kikuyu communities, and he denied
his responsibility by attributing the violence to ethnic clashes arising from land dispute.[106] Beginning in
1998, Moi engaged in a carefully calculated strategy to manage the presidential succession in his and his
party's favour. Faced with the challenge of a new, multiethnic political coalition, Moi shifted the axis of the
2002 electoral contest from ethnicity to the politics of generational conflict. The strategy backfired, ripping
his party wide open and resulting in the humiliating defeat of its candidate, Kenyatta's son, in the December
2002 general elections.[107][108]

Recent history (2002 to present)

2002 elections

Constitutionally barred from running in the December 2002

presidential elections, Moi unsuccessfully promoted Uhuru
Kenyatta, the son of Kenya's first President, as his successor. A
rainbow coalition of opposition parties routed the ruling KANU
party, and its leader, Moi's former vice-president Mwai Kibaki, was
elected President by a large majority.

On 27 December 2002, by 62% the voters overwhelmingly elected

members of the National Rainbow Coalition (NaRC) to parliament Mwai Kibaki and (the late) Mrs. Lucy
and NaRC candidate Mwai Kibaki (b. 1931) to the presidency. Kibaki with US President George W.
Voters rejected the Kenya African National Union's (KANU) Bush and Mrs. Laura Bush at the
presidential candidate, Uhuru Kenyatta, the handpicked candidate White House during a state visit in
of outgoing president Moi. International and local observers 2003.
reported the 2002 elections to be generally more fair and less
violent than those of both 1992 and 1997. His strong showing
allowed Kibaki to choose a cabinet, to seek international support and to balance power within the NaRC.

Economic trends
Kenya witnessed a spectacular economic recovery, helped by a favourable international environment. The
annual rate of growth improved from −1.6% in 2002 to 2.6% by 2004, 3.4% in 2005, and 5.5% in 2007.
However, social inequalities also increased; the economic benefits went disproportionately to the already
well-off (especially to the Kikuyu); corruption reached new depths, matching some of the excesses of the
Moi years. Social conditions deteriorated for ordinary Kenyans, who faced a growing wave of routine
crime in urban areas; pitched battles between ethnic groups fighting for land; and a feud between the police
and the Mungiki sect, which left over 120 people dead in May–November 2007 alone.[95]

2007 elections and ethnic violence

Once regarded as the world's "most optimistic," Kibaki's regime

quickly lost much of its power because it became too closely linked
with the discredited Moi forces. The continuity between Kibaki and
Moi set the stage for the self-destruction of Kibaki's National
Rainbow Coalition, which was dominated by Kikuyus. The
western Luo and Kalenjin groups, demanding greater autonomy,
backed Raila Amolo Odinga (1945– ) and his Orange Democratic
Movement (ODM).[109]
Orange Democratic Movement leader
Prime Minister Omolo Odinga
In the December 2007 elections, Odinga, the candidate of the
speaking with the Kenyan media.
ODM, attacked the failures of the Kibaki regime. The ODM
charged the Kikuyu with having grabbed everything and all the
other tribes having lost; that Kibaki had betrayed his promises for change; that crime and violence were out
of control, and that economic growth was not bringing any benefits to the ordinary citizen. In the December
2007 elections the ODM won majority seats in Parliament, but the presidential elections votes were marred
by claims of rigging by both sides. It may never be clear who won the elections, but it was roughly 50:50
before the rigging started.[110]

"Majimboism" was a philosophy that emerged in the 1950s, meaning federalism or regionalism in Swahili,
and it was intended to protect local rights, especially regarding land ownership. Today "majimboism" is
code for certain areas of the country to be reserved for specific ethnic groups, fuelling the kind of ethnic
cleansing that has swept the country since the election. Majimboism has always had a strong following in
the Rift Valley, the epicenter of the recent violence, where many locals have long believed that their land
was stolen by outsiders. The December 2007 election was in part a referendum on majimboism. It pitted
today's majimboists, represented by Odinga, who campaigned for regionalism, against Kibaki, who stood
for the status quo of a highly centralised government that has delivered considerable economic growth but
has repeatedly displayed the problems of too much power concentrated in too few hands – corruption,
aloofness, favouritism and its flip side, marginalisation. In the town of Londiani in the Rift Valley, Kikuyu
traders settled decades ago. In February 2008, hundreds of Kalenjin raiders poured down from the nearby
scruffy hills and burned a Kikuyu school. Three hundred thousand members of the Kikuyu community
were displaced from Rift Valley province.[111] Kikuyus quickly took revenge, organising into gangs armed
with iron bars and table legs and hunting down Luos and Kalenjins in Kikuyu-dominated areas like
Nakuru. "We are achieving our own perverse version of majimboism," wrote one of Kenya's leading
columnists, Macharia Gaitho.[112]

The Luo population of the southwest had enjoyed an advantageous position during the late colonial and
early independence periods of the 1950s, 1960s and early 1970s, particularly in terms of the prominence of
its modern elite compared to those of other groups. However the Luo lost prominence due to the success of
Kikuyu and related groups (Embu and Meru) in gaining and exercising political power during the Jomo
Kenyatta era (1963–1978). While measurements of poverty and health by the early 2000s showed the Luo
disadvantaged relative to other Kenyans, the growing presence of non-Luo in the professions reflected a
dilution of Luo professionals due to the arrival of others rather than an absolute decline in the Luo
numbers.[113]

Demographic trends

Between 1980 and 2000 total fecundity in Kenya fell by about

40%, from some eight births per woman to around five. During the
same period, fertility in Uganda declined by less than 10%. The
difference was due primarily to greater contraceptive use in Kenya,
though in Uganda there was also a reduction in pathological
sterility. The Demographic and Health Surveys carried out every
five years show that women in Kenya wanted fewer children than
Kenya demography (1961–2003)
those in Uganda and that in Uganda there was also a greater unmet
need for contraception. These differences may be attributed, in part
at least, to the divergent paths of economic development followed by the two countries since independence
and to the Kenya government's active promotion of family planning, which the Uganda government did not
promote until 1995.[114]

Presidency of Uhuru Kenyatta (2013-present)

The 3rd President of Kenya Mwai Kibaki ruled since 2002 until 2013. After his tenure Kenya held its first
general elections after the new constitution had been passed in 2010.[115] Uhuru Kenyatta (son of the first
president Jomo Kenyatta) won in a disputed election result, leading to a petition by the opposition leader,
Raila Odinga. The supreme court upheld the election results and President Kenyatta began his term with
William Ruto as the deputy president. Despite the outcome of this ruling, the Supreme Court and the head
of the Supreme Court were seen as powerful institutions that could carry out their role of checking the
powers of the president.[116] In 2017, Uhuru Kenyatta won a second term in office in another disputed
election. Following the defeat, Raila Odinga again petitioned the results in the Supreme Court, accusing the
electoral commission of mismanagement of the elections and Uhuru Kenyatta and his party of rigging. The
Supreme Court overturned the election results in what became a landmark ruling in Africa and one of the
very few in the world in which the results of a presidential elections were annulled.[117] This ruling
solidified the position of the Supreme Court as an independent body.[118] Consequently, Kenya had a
second round of elections for the presidential position, in which Uhuru emerged the winner after Raila
refused to participate, citing irregularities.[119][120]

The historical handshake in March 2018 between president Uhuru Kenyatta and his long-time opponent
Raila Odinga meant reconciliation followed by economic growth and increased stability.[121][122]

See also
Timeline of Kenya
Leaders:
Colonial Heads of Kenya
Heads of Government of Kenya (12 December 1963 to 12 December 1964)
Heads of State of Kenya (12 December 1964 to today)
Politics of Kenya
History of cities in Kenya:
 Mombasa history and timeline
Nairobi history and timeline
History of Africa
History of Uganda
History of Tanzania
List of human evolution fossils

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