Science of the Total Environment 675 (2019) 462–471

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Science of the Total Environment

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Source and potential risk assessment of suspended atmospheric

microplastics in Shanghai
Kai Liu a, Xiaohui Wang a, Tao Fang b, Pei Xu a, Lixin Zhu a, Daoji Li a,⁎
a
State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Costal Research, East China Normal University, 3663 North Zhongshan Road, Shanghai 200062, China
b
College of Marine Life and Fisheries, Huaihai Institute of Technology, 59 Cangwu Road, Lianyungang, Jiangsu 222005, China

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Suspended atmospheric microplastics

are ubiquitously distributed in the
Shanghai.
• The total estimated annual weight of
suspended atmospheric microplastics
in Shanghai is approximately 120.72 kg.
• The potential ecological risk from
suspended atmospheric microplastics
is estimated to be minor.
• An estimated 21 microplastic particles
are potentially inhaled by an adult in
Shanghai every day.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A growing body of research has recently revealed that airborne microplastics could be an important source of
Received 7 January 2019 microplastic pollution in marine environments. However, the origins and spatial distributions of suspended at-
Received in revised form 11 March 2019 mospheric microplastics (SAMPs) are poorly understood. Further, SAMPs abundances have only been observed
Accepted 8 April 2019
using passive sampling devices that could lead to underestimates of abundances. To address these knowledge-
Available online 9 April 2019
gaps, the current study investigated the potential source and spatial distribution of SAMPs in Shanghai during
Editor: James Chapman May 2018 using an active suspended particulate sampler. SAMPs abundances from filtered air ranged from 0
to 4.18 n/m3 (items per cubic meter of air). Microfibers comprised 67% of all SAMPs, followed by fragments
Keywords: and granules comprising 30% and 3% of SAMPs, respectively. μ-FT-IR analysis revealed that the SAMPs consisted
Atmosphere of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE), polyester (PES), polyacrylonitrile (PAN), poly(N-methyl
Suspended atmospheric microplastics acrylamide) (PAA), rayon (RY), ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA), epoxy resin (EP), and alkyd resin (ALK). Synthetic
Distribution compounds comprised 54% of the observed particles, of which PET, PE, PES, PAN, PAA, and RY comprised 91% of
Composition the microplastics. Our preliminary evaluation indicated that textile clothes are likely major source of the airborne
microplastics. Modeling estimated that approximately 120.7 kg of SAMPs are annually transported through
Shanghai air. Moreover, an estimation of the ecological risk from SAMPs indicated that a minor ecological conse-
quence was present, necessitating further evaluation of SAMPs pollution. In addition, modeling estimated that
approximately 21 particles of microplastics are inhaled daily by people in Shanghai from outdoor environments.
Given the prevalence of airborne microfibers, it is critically urgent to reevaluate procedures for sampling,
transporting, and processing microplastic field samples. Future investigations should seek to develop more rigor-
ous and conclusive methods to evaluate these types of samples.
© 2019 Published by Elsevier B.V.

⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: daojili@sklec.ecnu.edu.cn (D. Li).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.110
0048-9697/© 2019 Published by Elsevier B.V.
 K. Liu et al. / Science of the Total Environment 675 (2019) 462–471
1. Introduction
Airborne pollutants negatively affect human health and could be re-
lated to chronic symptoms that are often initially overlooked by those af-
fected (Franck et al., 2014). For example, fine particulate matter
(diameter b 2.5 μm; PM2.5) concentrations have been suggested to be
closely related to human respiratory diseases (Chai et al., 2018). Further,
an additional type of plastic-based pollutant particle defined as
“microplastics” (typically with diameter b 5 mm) have drawn increasing
global attention after their recognition in the University of Plymouth
(Thompson et al., 2004). Following this growing recognition,
microplastics have been detected widely in inland (Zhang et al., 2016),
arctic (Obbard et al., 2014), and even sea-floor (Van Cauwenberghe
et al., 2013) ecosystems. In most instances, fibers, and especially textile fi-
bers, comprise the majority of detected microplastics (Cesa et al., 2017).
Microplastic prevalence is generally closely related to anthropogenic ac-
tivities (Frère et al., 2017), although considerable abundances have been
found in Polar Regions where little anthropogenic activity occurs
(Peeken et al., 2018). It has previously been inferred that shipping and
fishing activities in adjacent areas could lead to microplastic pollution in
the absence of direct anthropogenic activities (Lusher et al., 2015). How-
ever, recent studies have also indicated that the deposition of atmospheric
microplastics could be another important source of marine microplastic
pollution (Dris et al., 2015). Consequently, marine microplastic concen-
trations can be partially attributed to atmospheric sources.
Plastic matrix, products from petroleum, are highly resistant to deg-
radation and can persist in marine environments for hundreds of years
(Welden and Cowie, 2017). Numerous studies have demonstrated the
biological effect of microplastics on aquatic organisms (Cole et al.,
2015; Sussarellu et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2017). In particular, ubiqui-
tously distributed microplastics pose great physical (Wright et al.,
2013) and physiological (Rodriguez-Seijo et al., 2017) threats to aquatic
organisms. Thus, the ecological risks and potential consequences of
microplastic ubiquity has resulted in increasing concern by scientists,
the public media, and non-government organizations.
Due to their small size and relatively low density, microplastics are
easily transported by wind and can persist in the atmosphere for ex-
tended periods of time (Dris et al., 2016), thereby posing considerable
long-term threats to ecosystems. SAMPs can also be potentially inhaled
by animals via respiratory activity, and thus also present a danger to
human health (Prata, 2018). Dris et al. (2015) first investigated the de-
position of atmospheric microplastics and suggested that SAMPs could
be transferred by wind to remote locations, eventually entering marine
environments. Thus, SAMPs could represent a significant source of
microplastic pollution overall. However, the methods used to detect
these airborne microplastics have been indirect and only approximate,
and thus the actual density of SAMPs could have been underestimated.
For example, the aforementioned studies have only reported
microplastics that were retained in sampling devices, and the possibility
that the observed microplastics were from an adjacent area and acci-
dently blown into collection containers by wind could not be ruled
out. To better understand the sources, transportation, and potential eco-
logical consequences of microplastic pollution in a coastal city, a case
study was carried out in Shanghai, which is a mega city and a global fi-
nancial center. This study represents the first evaluation of the distribu-
tion of SAMPs and first preliminary assessment of ecological risks from
SAMPs in Shanghai. The goal of the present study was to provide a pre-
liminary understanding of the sources, transportation, and potential
ecological risk of SAMPs.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Study area and sampling
Vertical and horizontal variation of SAMPs was investigated in
Shanghai during March and April of 2018. Six monitoring stations
463
were located in four different municipal districts across Shanghai
(Fig. 1, see appendix A). Three of the stations were located at the same
site within the Science Building of the East China Normal University,
but at different altitudes of 1.7 m, 33 m, and 80 m. Sampling was con-
ducted during both sunny and cloudy days.
SAMPs were collected using a KB-120F type intelligent middle flow
total suspended particulate sampler (Jinshida, Qingdao) with an intake
flow rate of 100 ± 0.1 L/min. All sampling at every station was con-
ducted in triplicate over 1 h and by filtering approximately 6 m3 of air
per sample. Whatman GF/A glass microfiber filters (1.6 μm pore size,
90 mm diameter) were carefully placed in an antistatic aluminum
alloy separator on the upper part of the instrument prior to sampling.
To avoid contamination, each filter was carefully pre-examined micro-
scopically prior to use. The filtering instrument was then placed hori-
zontally on an aluminum alloy tripod at a height of about 1.7 m above
the ground, which corresponds to the height that most people would
be breathing in air. Pressure correction on the filter was performed
with the system software prior to initiation in order to accurately calcu-
late the volume of filtered air. Following filtering, filters were carefully
removed and quickly transferred to marked, clean-air sampling cas-
settes using stainless steel tweezers.
Weather conditions in the area of sampling sites were also recorded,
since the distribution of microplastics can be easily influenced by exter-
nal factors. A portable Kestrel 5500L meteorological station (Kestrel,
U.S.A.) was used during sampling to monitor typical environmental pa-
rameters including the wind direction, wind speed, crosswind speed,
headwind speed, wind chill temperature, relative humidity, heat stress
index, dew point, psychro wet-bulb temperature, station pressure,
barometric pressure, and density altitude. The instrument was pre-
calibrated prior to use.
2.2. Inspection and verification of microplastic presence
2.2.1. Inspection
Suspected microplastics on the filters were enumerated and
photographed using a stereomicroscope (Leica M165 FC, Germany)
equipped with a Leica DFC 450C camera.
2.2.2. μ-FT-IR analysis
A Micro Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer (Thermo Nicolet
iN10, U.S.A.) equipped with an internal mercury cadmium telluride
(MCT) detector was used to confirm the presence of suspected
microplastics (Peng et al., 2017). Ample liquid nitrogen was used to
cool the MCT detector when the instrument was started and a stable sig-
nal was acquired by waiting 30–40 min per the manufacturer's proto-
cols. The mid-infrared wavelength range (4000–675 cm−1) was used
to co-scan samples 64 times at a resolution of 8 cm−1, and the resulting
spectra were acquired under the transmission mode. Calibration to am-
bient carbon dioxide and water vapor levels was conducted before anal-
ysis to correct for background interference. The spectra were then
analyzed using the OMNIC 9 software package and evaluated using
the OMNIC spectra library (Mecozzi et al., 2016). Samples with confi-
dence values N 60% were considered as plastic materials.
2.3. Quality assurance
Several measures were used to mitigate potential contamination,
based on previously described protocols (Zhao et al., 2017). Briefly, all
filters, stainless tweezers, and glass vessels were wrapped in aluminum
foil and baked at 450 °C in a muffle furnace for 4 h prior to use. In addi-
tion, the use of plastic materials was avoided as much as possible. If plas-
tics were necessary to use, they were rinsed at least three times with
filtered Milli-Q water to reduce contaminant residues. Further, 100%
cotton lab coats and nitrile gloves were worn throughout the entire
sampling and processing procedures. Lastly, experimenters immedi-
ately left the area of the instrument and maintained a distance of
464 K. Liu et al. / Science of the Total Environment 675 (2019) 462–471

Fig. 1. Geographic visualization of sampling sites. a: Sampling stations (LK, YN, PJ, and NH); b: Photograph of LK station; c: Vertical distribution of sampling sites at the LK station (LK-1, LK-
2, and LK-3)-.

about 40–50 m downwind when sampling and after the instrumenta-
tion were initiated.
2.4. Ecological risk assessment model
There is no current systematic and standardized model for assessing
potential ecological risk that is completely suitable for microplastic pol-
lution. Consequently, we developed a preliminary assessment method
in an attempt to better understand the potential ecological risks from
microplastics. The assessment of potential ecological risks (Hakanson,
1980) has recently been applied towards pollution in sediments or
water column, and also to aerosol contamination. A modified version
of the assessment model for potential ecological risks was calculated
as follows:
X
n
RI ¼ Ei
i¼1
 
Ci
Ei ¼ T i 
C0
where RI and Ei correspond to the potential ecological risk and potential
ecological hazardous single indices, respectively. Ti, which was the
heavy metal toxicity coefficient in the original model, was replaced by
the chemical toxicity coefficient for polymers, as described by Lithner
et al. (2011). The ratio of Ci and C0 corresponds to the quotient of ob-
served AMP polymer concentrations versus those of the background.
An ideal C0 value would be that from an air sample for total suspended
particulates prior to the rapid development of the synthetic fiber econ-
omy. However, due to the lack of such data, the outdoor SAMPs abun-
dance (0.9 n/m3) in Paris was chosen as the background value (Dris
et al., 2017). It is important to note that the exact data values were
not the focus of this study, but were rather used only to provide prelim-
inary discussion for further assessment. The criteria levels for the poten-
tial ecological risk index are shown in Table 1.
(along its longest dimension) of microplastics were measured using
the Image J software program (version 1.51j8) after importing high res-
olution photographs. Principal Component Analysis was performed to
explore the relationship between the SAMPs abundance and weather
variables of each during sampling period. The linear method from the
unconstrained model was chosen for evaluating the potential correla-
tion. Relative distance of stations in the bi-plot indicates the similarity
of samples composition.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Distribution of atmospheric microplastics
Microplastics were detected in all but one sample analyzed here, in-
dicating a ubiquitous prevalence of SAMPs in atmospheric environ-
ments of Shanghai. SAMP abundances ranged from 0 to 4.18 n/m3,
ð1Þ
with a mean concentration of 1.42 ± 1.42 n/m3 (mean ± standard de-
viation) (Fig. 2). Compared to air sampled in Paris (Dris et al., 2017)
exhibiting a median SAMPs level of 0.9 n/m3, a similar, but slightly
ð2Þ
higher contamination level (0.93 n/m3) was observed in Shanghai.
The concentrations of SAMPs are likely related to anthropogenic activi-
ties, population densities, and industrialization levels. Previous studies
have observed that domestic washing of clothes could produce consid-
erable microplastic contamination (Browne et al., 2010; De Falco et al.,
2018). Shanghai has a population of 24.18 million people that is nearly
twice that of Paris, which could lead to the generation of more domestic
microplastics. However, urban hygiene is carefully considered in Shang-
hai. In particular, a number of air cleaning activities are conducted in
Shanghai under the supervision of the Shanghai Municipal Environ-
mental Protection Bureau (Shanghai Municipal Environmental
Table 1
Pollution criteria of potential ecological risk by microplastics.
Ecological risk RIa Ecological risk assessment Eib
assessment by single factor

Minor b150 Minor b40

2.5. Statistical analyses
Medium 150–300 Medium 40–80
High 300–600 High 80–160
Statistical analyses were performed in SPSS 23.0 and all graphs were Danger 600–1200 Danger 160–320
generated using Origin Pro 2017. Statistical significance was considered Extreme danger ≥1200 Extreme danger ≥320
at the 0.05 alpha level. Suspected microplastics were recorded and the a
Potential ecological risk.
actual abundances were re-calculated after μ-FT-IR scanning. The sizes b
Potential ecological hazardous single indices.
 K. Liu et al. / Science of the Total Environment 675 (2019) 462–471
Fig. 2. Horizontal (a) and vertical distribution (b) of suspended atmospheric microplastic abundances in Shanghai. In Fig. 2-a, distance away from the coastline of each station was
measured by the projection on the line connected LK and NH station.
Protection Bureau, 2018) and in accordance with the “Notice on further
establishment and re-inspection of the dust pollution control area”. For
example, daily street cleaning activities are conducted including dust
sweeping and washing with water. These activities could possibly pro-
mote the settlement and reduction certain amount of contaminant
SAMPs.
SAMPs abundances varied considerably among sampling sites (coef-
ficients of variation: 33%–123%) (Fig. 2). These results are consistent
with those obtained from sediments and surface waters (Law and
Thompson, 2014), wherein the low density and buoyant characteristics
of microplastics likely contribute to their presence in those environ-
ments. The highest abundance was observed at the YN station (mean:
4.18 n/m3; Fig. 2-a). The smallest concentration (0 n/m3) was observed
near the sea side of Shanghai, which is potentially due to the dilution of
SAMPs via ocean air and few human activities. However, there were
some cotton fiber identified on the filter and it was excluded to count.
The likely highest contributor to the horizontal distribution of SAMPs
observed here is the degree of influence from anthropogenic activities.
SAMPs abundances tended to decrease horizontally as distance to the
coastline decreased (Fig. 1-a). The highest concentrations were ob-
served at 1.7 m above the ground, with decreasing concentrations
with increasing altitude. SAMPs were even observed 80 m above the
ground (Fig. 1-b). However, no significant differences in concentrations
were observed among samples from different altitudes (Kruskal-Wallis
test, p = 0.875 N 0.05), which could possibly result from admixture by
wind. The highest sampling station was still within the troposphere,
where the mixing effects of airflow convection are obvious. Thus,
these processes could lead to the homogenous vertical distribution of
atmospheric microplastics. Another potential source of SAMPs could
be the incomplete incineration of garbage in the study area. In addition,
SAMPs particles could be possibly attributed to the incomplete combus-
tion of large plastic debris via chimneys.
Principle component analysis (PCA) was used to determine the rela-
tionships between SAMPs abundances and environmental factors at the
sampling sites (Fig. 3). 84% of the total data variance could be explained
by factors 1 and 2 that explained 58% and 26% of all variance, respec-
tively. Factor 1 contains loadings of the environmental variables dew
point, psychro wet bulb temperature and heat stress index (0.34, 0.34
and 0.34, respectively). Factor 2 presents variables of relative humidity
(0.50), barometric pressure (0.33) and wind speed (0.23). Increasing
distance between sites was reflected in highly different SAMPs charac-
teristics among all samples, with the exception of samples LK-2 and
LK-3. These results reflect the heterogeneous distribution of SAMPs in
the Shanghai study area. Further, these results are consistent with
465
those of Zhao et al., 2015, which observed similar SAMP patterns in es-
tuary environments. Specifically, microplastics were heterogeneously
distributed in the surface waters of the Jiaojiang, Oujiang, and Minjiang
estuaries. Moreover, microplastics exhibited high standard variations of
10.6%–119.8% and 12.1%–88.6% in the Jiaojiang and Minjiang estuaries,
respectively. In Fig. 3, approximated positive correlation is found
when the angle between loading arrows of the environmental variables
is acute and negative when it is obtuse. Wind direction also appeared to
strongly correlate to the distributions of SAMPs in estuaries (Pearson's
correlation, R = 0.78, P = 0.01). Microplastics are easily distributed by
winds, due to their low densities and small sizes. Other analyses have
similarly documented that the spatial distribution of microplastics can
be significantly influenced by winds and greater abundances are ob-
served at downwind sites (Browne et al., 2010). In addition, relatively
high humidity levels contribute to the deposition of dust and SAMPs.
Here, a negative relationship was observed between relative humidity
and the density of SAMPs (Pearson's correlation, R = -0.84, P = 0.03).
Intriguingly, significant linear correlations were not observed between
SAMP abundances and the average population density (Pearson's corre-
lation, R = 0.66, P = 0.44), road dust particulate (Pearson's correlation,
R = 0.16, P = 0.95), or PM 2.5 (Pearson's correlation, R = 0.77, P =
0.29). These results could possibly be attributed to the complex land-
scape of the Shanghai study area and the density of buildings.
3.2. Morphological characteristics of observed microplastics
Typical microplastics observed here are shown in Fig. 4. Fibrous
microplastics including fiber and fiber fragments were primarily ob-
served, which is consistent with observations from the Huangpu river
(Peng et al., 2018) and the Tehran metropolis (Dehghani et al., 2017).
Foam and film microplastics were not observed, which is similar to
other studies (Cai et al., 2017). Surprisingly, fragments and granules
were also observed in our study. As indicated above, fibrous
microplastics comprised 67% of the total particles, followed by frag-
ments and granules comprising 30% and 3%, respectively.
Fewer fragments and granules were observed 80 m above the
ground, and the size distribution of SAMPs varied with altitude (Fig. 5-
b). Microplastics observed here ranged in size from 23.07 to 9555 μm,
with a mean of 582.2 μm (Fig. 5-b). Microplastics smaller than 1 mm
comprised 87% of all synthetic items observed. The largest sized parti-
cles were observed at 1.7 m above the ground, where overall sizes
ranged from 23.07 to 9955 μm (average of 597.5 μm). Sizes ranged at
the middle altitude (33 m above ground) from 25.07 to 504.6 μm with
an average of 176.2 μm. At the highest altitude sampling point, particle
466 K. Liu et al. / Science of the Total Environment 675 (2019) 462–471

Fig. 3. Relationship between SAMPs abundances and environmental parameters from sampling sites. Circles and loading arrows in the biplot represent sampling stations and
environmental variables projection.

sizes ranged from 47.70 to 2230 μm with an average of 830 μm. The
microplastics were variously colored including black, blue, red, trans-
parent, brown, green, yellow, and grey particles (Fig. 4-c). Blue and
black particles comprised the majority of the SAMPs, with 37% and
33% of the total, respectively, and these colors were observed at every
sampling site. Blue and black microfibers comprised most of the
microplastics, with 25% and 28% of the total SAMPs, respectively. Al-
though the microfibers appeared similar in shape, we surprisingly
found that the shape of these particles differed at the transversal sur-
face. A total of 29% of the microfibers were round and about 14–19 μm
in size, while others were flat and exhibited sizes of 10–37 μm along
the longest dimension.

Fig. 4. Photographs of typically observed microplastics. a-c: fibers; d-e: fragments; f: a granule.
 K. Liu et al. / Science of the Total Environment 675 (2019) 462–471 467

Fig. 5. Morphological and chemical composition of observed suspended atmospheric microplastics in Shanghai. a: Shape; b: Size; c: Color; d: Polymer; ground, aerial, and upper altitude
sampling heights (1.7, 33 m, and 80 m, respectively). PET: polyethylene terephthalate, PE: polyethylene, PES: polyester, PAN: polyacrylonitrile, PAA: poly(N-methyl acrylamide), RY:
rayon, EVA: ethylene vinyl acetate, EP: epoxy resin; ALK: alkyd resin.

3.3. Chemical composition of microplastics
Spectrum analysis indicated that the SAMPs were composed of poly-
ethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE), polyester (PES), poly-
acrylonitrile (PAN), poly(N-methyl acrylamide) (PAA), rayon (RY),
ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA), epoxy resin (EP) and alkyd resin (ALK).
PES and RY were observed in air samples (Fig. 6), which is consistent
with an investigation of a freshwater river of Shanghai (Peng et al.,
2018), wherein the SAMPs in the waters were likely derived from atmo-
spheric deposition and wind. Nevertheless, previous research has impli-
cated the presence of hydraulic-driven patterns of microplastics, with
the source of microplastics primarily deriving from urban wastewater
discharge. In particular, partial similarity in microplastic polymer com-
position between SAMPs and microplastics in sediment and water col-
umns strongly implied the presence of an intimate connection
between the two. Unlike SAMP deposition in Dongguan (Cai et al.,
2017), PP and PS representing film and foam particles, respectively,
were not observed here, which could possibly be related to the density
and physical features of microplastics. PET, PE, and PES comprised
nearly half (49%) of the SAMPs observed here, followed by PAN and
PAA with 12% and 9%, respectively. In contrast, RY, EVA, EP, and ALK
polymers were relatively infrequently observed and accounted for 15%
468 K. Liu et al. / Science of the Total Environment 675 (2019) 462–471
Fig. 6. Spectra of identified SAMPs in the present study. PET: polyethylene terephthalate,
PE: polyethylene, PES: polyester, PAN: polyacrylonitrile, PAA: poly(N-methyl
acrylamide), RY: rayon, EVA: ethylene vinyl acetate, EP: epoxy resin; ALK: alkyd resin.
of the total SAMPs. Fiber shaped SAMPs were identified as PET, PAN,
PAA, RY, and PES, comprising 50%, 17%, 17%, and 2% of the totals, respec-
tively. An additional 46% of the suspected microplastics were identified
as cellulose (cotton and silk materials) and were thus not included in
the data presented here. However, these airborne microfibers still
pose a threat to human health, if inhaled. Consequently, these materials
are worth reconsidering and evaluating in future studies.
A relatively high percentage of synthetic SAMPs are likely closely
connected to the increasing production of synthetic fiber. A total of
65.2 million metric tons of synthetic fiber was produced globally in
2014. Of this total, Asian production reached 52.5 million metric tons,
rendering this area the highest producer of synthetic fibers. In addition,
the production of cellulose and polyester reached 5.0 and 49.2 million
metric tons between 1994 and 2014, respectively (American fiber man-
ufacturers association, 2014). Similarly, Asian production comprised the
substantial majority of polyester production, totaling 82% of global pro-
duction. Textiles made with synthetic fibers generally feature high resil-
ience and resistance to abrasion. In addition, these materials exhibit
finer touches and feels compared to natural fibers like cotton and silk.
Consequently, the manufacturers of textiles and furniture incorporate
these synthetic fibers into their products. Indeed, some blankets and
clothes available on the market are completely made of just one or
two types of synthetic fibers (PET and PA). Likewise, PAN fibers are
manmade wools that are characterized as soft feels, being easy to dye,
and resistance to light, among other advantages. Because of these out-
standing qualities, PAN is widely used in the textile industry.
Fragmented microplastics could possibly result from the exposure of
larger plastic items to strain, fatigue, or UV light. Epoxy and alkyd resins
are typical coating materials used on metals or woods for water-
proofing and to prevent insect infestation. However, the resins would
gradually become fragile and fragmented after long-term exposure to
physical abrasion and UV radiation.
The chemical composition of SAMPs observed along a vertical gradi-
ent in the Shanghai atmosphere is shown in Fig. 5-d. CE particles were
commonly observed in the air column extending from the ground
(1.7 m) to the higher altitude that was sampled (80 m). Interestingly,
PET polymers were only found at the middle and lower altitudes,
which could be possibly attributed to their higher densities. These abun-
dant airborne microfibers originate from textile sources that are likely
resultant from mechanical abrasion or from damage to textile clothes
and beddings (e.g., in pillow fillers, blankets, and curtains). In addition,
some SAMPs are likely produced from the physical breakdown of com-
pounds from daily human activities including walking or strenuous ex-
ercises. Further, other human activities could accelerate the process of
SAMPs contamination. For example, Shanghai residents typically dry
their clothes, bed sheets, and curtains by hanging them on balconies,
which is a local custom of the area. Clothes are more easily dried
under airflow and sunlight and it is also believed that natural sunlight
contributes to the extermination of mites and bacteria on the clothes.
As a result of the direct exposure to sunlight, these synthetic textiles
would be exposed to UV irradiation and ambient thermal variation.
Resulting photo-oxidation and thermal effects (Song et al., 2017)
would then easily promote the breakdown and degradation of these
textiles into microfibers, and potentially contribute to SAMPs contami-
nation. Cai et al., 2018 evaluated the degradation of new PE, PP, and
PS pellets in simulated seawater, ultrapure water, and under varying
air conditions after exposure to UV irradiation for three months. The ex-
periments revealed the presence of granular oxidation, cracks, and
flakes on the surfaces of artificial samples in addition to various levels
of fragmentation. Despite the relatively high density of PET
(1.34 g/cm3), PET microfibers still contributed 87.5% of all SAMPs ob-
served in the 80 m altitude samples here. Based on the observations de-
scribed above, these SAMPs could have possibly originated from the
hanging of clothes by residents and other sources, followed by resus-
pension into higher altitude airs by vertical winds.
3.4. Risk assessment
Microplastics can be ingested by many organisms because of their
small sizes, and numerous investigations have demonstrated the bio-
availability of microplastics in environments. For example,
microplastics have been found in zooplankton (Desforges et al., 2015;
Sun et al., 2018), the digestive systems of bivalves (Li et al., 2018) and
fish (Lusher et al., 2013), and even in mammals (Eriksson and Burton,
2003; Zhao et al., 2016). Consequently, increasing environmental accu-
mulation of microplastics poses significant threats to all organisms, in-
cluding humans. Indeed, up to 1.1 × 104 pieces of microplastics are
estimated to be eaten by European shellfish consumers every year
(Van Cauwenberghe and Janssen, 2014).
In the present study, we preliminarily estimated the total level of
SAMPs in Shanghai and evaluated the potential health risk to urban res-
idents in the city. The total weight of atmospheric suspended
microplastics in Shanghai was calculated based on the following equa-
tions:
Total weight of SAMPs ¼ W g þ W m þ W h ð3Þ
X
80
W α ¼ A  ρβ  S γ h ð4Þ
i¼1:7
Sγ ¼ SShanghai −Sland occupation ð5Þ
 K. Liu et al. / Science of the Total Environment 675 (2019) 462–471 469

Table 2
Total weight of SAMPs identified in Shanghai.

Height Air volume (m3) Polymer type Density (g/cm3)a Volume of single SAMP (cm3) Total weight (kg)

Ground 8.76 × 109 CE 1.35 2.15 × 10−7 (Fiber); 1.25 × 10−8 (Fragment) 6.46
PET 1.45
PE 0.96
PES 1.38
PAN 1.18
RY 1.5
EVA 0.98
Aerial 1.61 × 1011 CE 1.35 1.57 × 10−7 (Fiber); 1.67 × 10−8 (Fragment) 1.45
PET 1.45
PAN 1.18
Upper 2.42 × 1011 CE 1.35 2.4 × 10−7 (Fiber); 2.15
PE 0.96 5.70 × 10−8 (Fragment)
PAA 1.3
EP 0.98
a
International Plastics Handbook (Osswald, 2006); PET: polyethylene terephthalate, PE: polyethylene, PES: polyester, PAN: polyacrylonitrile, PAA: poly(N-methyl acrylamide), RY:
rayon, EVA: ethylene vinyl acetate, EP: epoxy resin; ALK: alkyd resin.

where Wg, Wm, and Wh refer to the total weight of SAMPs in the air col- The prevalence of SAMPs could have possible negative influences on
umn at a specific altitude (1.7 m, 33 m, and 80 m above the ground, re- human health. Previous studies have indicated that workers in a textile
spectively), A and ρβ represent the average abundance of SAMPs and the factory suffered from dyspnea and were diagnosed with airway and in-
density of SAMPs (g/cm3) for different polymer types, respectively. Sγ terstitial inflammatory responses that were caused by plastic fibers and
(m2) and h (m) correspond to the area of the sample areas and the particles (Prata, 2018). Assuming that 10–20 m3 of air is consumed per
height of the air column, respectively. Sγ, S shanghai, and S land occupation day by an adult (Exposure factors handbook, 2011), our modeling esti-
refer to the area without residence occupation, the total area of Shang- mated that about 21 pieces of microplastics are inhaled daily by Shang-
hai, and the area occupied by buildings, with each given in m2 (Shanghai hai residents near the ground (using an average air volume of 15 m3).
Statistical Yearbook, 2017). Increasing production of synthetic materials would likely lead to expo-
Due to the high percentage (97%) of microplastics exhibiting fiber nential increases in SAMPs in the future and increased threats to human
and fragment types, the total level of SAMPs could be inferred to be health. However, it should also be noted that the relatively low abun-
the sum of SAMPs in Shanghai. The average mass of SAMPs at a specific dances of SAMPs in the environment are not enough to cause severe in-
height was also calculated. To calculate volumes from fibers and frag- flammatory responses. Moreover, fewer SAMPs could actually reach
ments, fibrous microplastics were regarded as cylinders, while frag- lungs after filtration and remediation by respiratory systems. Neverthe-
ments were considered as rectangles with the longest and shortest less, the potential risk from SAMPs necessitates additional inclusive and
sides as the sides of the rectangle and using an average thickness of 3 detailed scientific methods for their evaluation. In additional studies,
μm. The weight of SAMPs in Shanghai was thusly estimated to be microplastic sizes should also be considered when assessing risks, as
10.06 kg (Table 2). A considerable level of SAMPs was found near the many reports have indicated that small microplastics are more easily
ground, at almost three times that of the middle and higher altitudes. ingested by organisms (Jeong et al., 2016).
This disparity in abundances is likely related to denser anthropogenic
activities near the ground. 4. Conclusions
In addition to the transfer of microplastics through food chains,
microplastics can be translocated to humans through the air. Owing to The prevalence of airborne microplastics in a mega city (Shanghai)
their small size and buoyant characteristics, these SAMPs could then was evaluated in this study and the spatial distribution of SAMPs within
possibly be inhaled by humans, thereby endangering human health. Shanghai was investigated. Higher levels of SAMPs pollution were ob-
Previous studies have indicated that workers in a synthetic textile fac- served at the YN station and near the ground when compared to levels
tory are more likely to contract pneumonia or lesions due to fiber inha- at higher altitudes. The buoyant characteristics of SAMPs and their
lation (Prata, 2018). In addition, these SAMPs could also potentially transport by wind could be one critical source for marine microplastic
transport microorganisms (Jiang et al., 2018), representing an addi- pollution. A detailed comparison of SAMPs observed here, as compared
tional danger to exposed organisms once it enters the host respiratory to other studies, is provided in Table 4. Several commonalties in mor-
system. Recent studies have incorporated several methods to inclu- phological features and chemical compositions were observed among
sively evaluate the ecological risk from microplastics (Peng et al., these studies, suggesting that marine microplastics may ultimately de-
2018; Xu et al., 2018). However, most assessment models have been rive from terrestrial environments via atmospheric deposition.
based on pollutants in sediments or water columns, and are thus not ap-
propriate to evaluate the risk of atmospheric microplastics. A preliminary Table 3
risk assessment of SAMPs was conducted here that was based on the po- Potential ecological risk evaluation for SAMPs in the study area.
tential ecological risk index and incorporated abundances and polymer Sample Municipal Polymer type RIa Risk
types. Regional ecological evaluation via the potential ecological risk sites district level
model indicated that only a minor threat was expected for all sampling LK-1 Putuo CE, PET, RY 1.29 Minor
areas (Table 3). The RI ranged from 0.36 to 4.03 overall, while a higher LK-2 CE, PET, PAN 1.93 Minor
risk index was observed at the YN station, and the lowest ecological risk LK-3 CE, PE, PAA, EP 1.82 Minor
index was observed at the NH station closer to the sea, where anthropo- YN Changning CE, PET, PE, PES, PAN, RY 6.54 Minor
PJ Minhang CE, PET, PE, PES, PAN, EVA, ALK 2.29 Minor
genic activities were scarce. Less ecological risk was observed at the NH Pudong new CE, PET, PAN 0.23 Minor
higher altitudes relative to the near ground samples. However, it should area
be noted that the ecological risk index may represent an underestimate a
Potential ecological hazardous single indices; PET: polyethylene terephthalate, PE:
due to the lack of polymer toxicity coefficients for cellulose, rayon, and polyethylene, PES: polyester, PAN: polyacrylonitrile, PAA: poly(N-methyl acrylamide), RY:
alkyd resin, and their consequent exclusion from these analyses. rayon, EVA: ethylene vinyl acetate, EP: epoxy resin; ALK: alkyd resin.
470 K. Liu et al. / Science of the Total Environment 675 (2019) 462–471

Table 4
Characteristics of observed microplastic in the similar and adjacent area studies.

Area Environment Characterization of MPs Reference

matrix
Shape Size (μm) Color Polymer types

Paris (urban) Atmosphere Fiber 50–3250 N/A RY, PA, PE; PP Dris et al.,
2017
Paris Atmosphere Fiber 50–600 N/A RY, PET, PA Dris et al.,
2016
Dongguan Atmosphere Fiber, foam, film, – Blue, black, red yellow, pink, white RY, PE, PP, PS Cai et al.,
fragment 2017
Yantai Atmosphere Fiber, foam, film, 50–1000 Black, red, white, transparent PET, PE, PVC, PS Zhou et al.,
fragment 2017
Shanghai Atmosphere Fiber, fragment, 23.07–9554.88 Blue, black, red, transparent, brown, green, PET, PE, PES, PAN, PAA, RY, EVA, Present study
granule yellow, grey EP, ALK
Yangtze Sediment Fiber, fragment, pellet 46.8–4968.7 Transparent, blue, black, yellow, red, white RY, PES, AC, PET, PE-PP, PS Peng et al.,
estuary 2017
Yangtze Water Fiber, fragment, film 70–5000 Blue, black, transparent, pink, grey PE, PP, PVC, ABS, PS, PC, ASA, PUR, Xu et al., 2018
estuary SAN

PET: polyethylene terephthalate, PE: polyethylene, PES: polyester, PAN: polyacrylonitrile, PAA: poly(N-methyl acrylamide), RY: rayon, EVA: ethylene vinyl acetate, EP: epoxy resin; ALK:
alkyd resin.

The results described here indicate that textile clothes that are typi-
cally fabricated with synthetic fibers likely contribute to SAMPs pollu-
tion, wherein a direct source could come from drying clothes with
natural sunlight. Our results suggest that 10.06 kg of SAMPs were
transported in the air of Shanghai during March and April in 2018,
thus posing a potential threat to human health. However, a preliminary
evaluation model proposed here indicates the presence of only a minor
potential ecological risk from SAMPs. Nevertheless, additional ecologi-
cal consequences should be conclusively assessed in future studies.
For example, future studies should consider the potential consequences
of microplastics towards human health by not only considering expo-
sure through food chains, but also through respiratory pathways. The
ubiquitous prevalence of SAMPs also poses a great challenge to the
methods used to sample potential contamination by SAMPs during
sampling, transportation, and processing. These areas should be further
evaluated in future studies. As an example, a procedural blank should be
carried through during the entire procedure from sampling to analysis,
in order to increase the accuracy of results.
Acknowledgements
This research was financially supported by the National Key Re-
search and Development Program (2016YFC1402205), National Natural
Science Fund of China (41676190), and the Natural Science Research of
Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions of China (15KJB170001). We are
grateful to SKLEC for providing the experimental platform. We also
would like to thank He Yinan from the Ocean University of China and
Miao Chenjian from Shandong University for their assistance with sam-
pling. We would also like to sincerely thank the logistics team of the Sci-
ence Building at the East China Normal University for sampling. We
extend our sincere thanks to the anonymous reviewers and dedicated
editors for their invaluable opinions and great contributions to the suc-
cessful publication of this manuscript.
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