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ince our last publication about dia- adult Muslims. The high global preva- not only in Indonesia, Pakistan, and the
betes and fasting during Ramadan lence of type 2 diabetes— 6.6% among Middle East, but also in North America,
(1), we have received many inquires adults age 20 –79 years (5)— coupled Europe, and Oceania.
and comments concerning important is- with the results of the population-based Although recommendations for man-
sues that were not discussed in the previ- Epidemiology of Diabetes and Ramadan agement of diabetes in patients who elect
ous document, including the voluntary 1422/2001 (EPIDIAR) study, which dem- to fast during Ramadan were proposed in
1- to 2-day fasts per week that many Mus- onstrated among 12,243 people with di- 1995 at a conference in Casablanca (7),
lims practice throughout the year, as well abetes from 13 Islamic countries that our previous document was prompted by
as the effect of prolonged fasting (more ⬃43% of patients with type 1 diabetes the EPIDIAR study (6). The purpose of
than 18 h a day) in regions far from the and ⬃79% of patients with type 2 diabe- this review is to evaluate new data that
equator during Ramadan when it occurs tes fast during Ramadan (6), lead to the has emerged since the publication of
in summer—a phenomenon expected to estimate that worldwide more than 50 the 2005 article and to refine our
affect millions worldwide for the next million people with diabetes fast during recommendations.
10 –15 years. Since 2005, there have been Ramadan. In this revised document, we con-
substantial additions to the literature, in- Ramadan is a lunar-based month, and tinue to avoid use of the terms “indica-
cluding two studies examining the effect its duration varies between 29 and 30 tions” or “contraindications” for fasting
of structured education and support for days. Muslims who fast during Ramadan because fasting is a spiritual issue for
safe fasting, both of which had promising must abstain from eating, drinking, use of which patients make their own decision
results (2,3). In addition, new medica- oral medications, and smoking from pre- after receiving appropriate advice from
tions, such as the incretin-based thera- dawn to after sunset; however, there are religious teachings and from health care
pies, have been introduced with less risk no restrictions on food or fluid intake be- providers. However, we emphasize that
for hypoglycemia. tween sunset and dawn. Most people con- fasting, especially among patients with
According to a 2009 demographic sume two meals per day during this type 1 diabetes with poor glycemic con-
study, Islam has 1.57 billion adherents, month, one after sunset and the other be- trol, is associated with multiple risks.
making up 23% of the world population fore dawn.
of 6.8 billion, and is growing by ⬃3% per Fasting is not meant to create exces- SUMMARY OF MAJOR
year (4). Fasting during Ramadan, a holy sive hardship on the Muslim individual CHANGES AND UPDATES — The
month of Islam, is a duty for all healthy according to religious tenets. Neverthe- current report:
● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
● Addresses the voluntary 1- to 2-day
From the 1Dasman Diabetes Institute, Dasman, Kuwait; the 2Department of Internal Medicine, Unit of
Diabetes & Metabolism, Alexandria Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria, Egypt; the 3Department of Medicine, fasts per week that many Muslims prac-
University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; the 4Eastern Mediterranean tice throughout the year
Office of the World Health Organization, Cairo, Egypt; the 5Department of Internal Medicine and Endo- ● Discusses the effect of prolonged fast-
crinology, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt; the 6Department of Internal Medicine and Diabetes, Cairo
University, Cairo, Egypt; 7Consultant Diabetes and Endocrinology, North Wales, U.K.; the 8EDC, Center ing (more than 18 h a day) in regions far
for Diabetes Education, McDonough, Georgia; the 9American Diabetes Association, Alexandria, Virginia; from the equator during Ramadan
the 10Ministry of Health, Palestinian National Authority, Shifa Hospital, Gaza, Palestine; 11Dubai Hospital, when it occurs in summer (a phenom-
Dubai, United Arab Emirates; 12Al-Nour Hospital, Mekkah, Saudi Arabia; and the 13Division of Endo- enon expected to affect millions of peo-
crinology, Diabetes, and Bone and Mineral Disorders, Department of Medicine, Henry Ford Hospital,
Detroit, Michigan.
ple world-wide for the next 10 –15
Corresponding author: Mahmoud Ibrahim, mahmoud@arab-diabetes.com. years)
The document and specific recommendations were developed in collaboration with members of the Amer- ● Reviews additional and novel literature,
ican Diabetes Association (ADA). This report represents the collective analysis, evaluation, and opinion of including studies examining the effect
the authors at the time of publication and does not represent the official position of ADA. of structured education and support for
DOI: 10.2337/dc10-0896
© 2010 by the American Diabetes Association. Readers may use this article as long as the work is properly safe fasting
cited, the use is educational and not for profit, and the work is not altered. See http://creativecommons. ● Provides additional information in-
org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ for details. cluding the clinical use of new medica-
tions with an emphasis on those with In individuals without diabetes, the Table 1—Major risks associated with fasting
lesser risk for hypoglycemia, such as in- processes described above are regulated in patients with diabetes
cretin-based therapies by a delicate balance between circulating Hypoglycemia
● Addresses safety information and the levels of insulin and counterregulatory Hyperglycemia
use and limitations of existing medica- hormones that help maintain glucose Diabetic ketoacidosis
tions such as thiazolidinediones concentrations in the physiological range. Dehydration and thrombosis
● Addresses the growing global scope of In patients with diabetes, however, glu-
the challenge of diabetes and fasting cose homeostasis is perturbed by the un-
during Ramadan—more than 50 mil- derlying pathophysiology and often by RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH
lion people with diabetes will fast dur- pharmacological agents designed to en- FASTING IN PATIENTS
ing Ramadan in 2010 hance or supplement insulin secretion. In WITH DIABETES — Fasting during
patients with type 1 diabetes, glucagon Ramadan has been uniformly discour-
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF secretion may fail to increase appropri- aged by the medical profession for pa-
FASTING — Insulin secretion, which ately in response to hypoglycemia. Epi- tients with diabetes. In keeping with this,
promotes the storage of glucose in liver a large epidemiological study conducted
nephrine secretion is also defective in
and muscle as glycogen, is stimulated by in 13 Islamic countries on 12,243 diabetic
some patients with type 1 diabetes be-
study had good glycemic control. Severe osmotic diuresis, further contributing Table 2— Categories of risk in patients with
hypoglycemia was more frequent in pa- to volume and electrolyte depletion. type 1 or type 2 diabetes who fast during
tients in whom the dosage of oral hypo- Orthostatic hypotension may develop, Ramadan
glycemic agents or insulin were changed especially in patients with preexisting Very high risk
and in those who reported a significant autonomic neuropathy. Syncope, falls, Severe hypoglycemia within the 3 months
change in their lifestyle (6). injuries, and bone fractures may result prior to Ramadan
from hypovolemia and the associated hy- A history of recurrent hypoglycemia
Hyperglycemia potension. In addition, contraction of the Hypoglycemia unawareness
Long-term morbidity and mortality stud- intravascular space can further exacerbate Sustained poor glycemic control
ies in people with diabetes, such as the the hypercoagulable state that is well Ketoacidosis within the 3 months prior to
Diabetes Control and Complications Trial demonstrated in diabetes (23). Increased Ramadan
(DCCT) and the UK Prospective Diabetes blood viscosity secondary to dehydration Type 1 diabetes
Study (UKPDS), demonstrated the link may enhance the risk of thrombosis and Acute illness
among hyperglycemia, microvascular stroke (24). A report from Saudi Arabia Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic coma within
complications, and possibly macrovascu- suggested an increased incidence of reti- the previous 3 months
lar complications (19,22). However, nal vein occlusion in patients who fasted Performing intense physical labor
meal, should be avoided. Because of the glycemia during Ramadan as a reflection glycemia. The educational program
delay in digestion and absorption, inges- of social habits encountered during the should include advice on the timing and
tion of foods containing “complex” carbo- month. intensity of physical activity during fast-
hydrates (slow digesting foods) may be ing. Certainly, it is important that use of
advisable at the predawn meal, which Ramadan-focused structured diabetes-related medications and their
should be eaten as late as possible before diabetes education potential risk during fasting are also
the start of the daily fast. It is also recom- The role of structured education for pa- discussed.
mended that fluid intake be increased tients is well established in the manage- A well-trained health care profes-
during nonfasting hours. ment of diabetes. This should be sional should be able to deliver all these
Exercise. Normal levels of physical ac- extended to Ramadan-focused diabetes components to people with diabetes ei-
tivity may be maintained. However, ex- education. Many Muslims with diabetes ther individually or in a group session at
cessive physical activity may lead to a are very passionate about fasting during diabetes centers, primary health care cen-
higher risk of hypoglycemia and should Ramadan. This passion is a golden oppor- ters, local mosques, and/or community
be avoided, particularly during the few tunity to empower people with diabetes centers. The ability to deliver this educa-
hours before the sunset meal. Quite com- for better management of their diabetes, tional program in a simple, structured
monly, multiple prayers are performed af- not only during Ramadan but also method and in the patients’ own language
are unwilling or unable to monitor their pealing alternative strategy, but at a sub- Evaluated for Cardiovascular Outcomes
blood glucose levels several times daily. It stantially greater expense. Compared and Regulation of Glycaemia in Diabetes
is currently recommended that treatment with those who did not fast during Ra- (RECORD) study, which failed to demon-
regimens aimed at intensive glycemia madan, patients with type 1 diabetes on strate either harm or benefit. Neverthe-
management be used in patients with di- insulin pump therapy who fasted showed less, most perceive a relative advantage of
abetes. The DCCT and its follow up, the a slight improvement in A1C (3). pioglitazone compared with rosiglitazone
Epidemiology for Diabetes Interven- vis-à-vis lipid effects. A practical issue of
tions and Complications (EDIC) study, Management of patients with type 2 significant importance with respect to the
demonstrated that intensive glycemia diabetes utility of glitazones in periods of fasting
management is protective against mi- Diet-controlled patients. In patients such as Ramadan is that these agents re-
crovascular and perhaps macrovascular with type 2 diabetes who are well con- quire 2– 4 weeks to exert substantial an-
complications and that the benefits are trolled with lifestyle therapy alone, the tihyperglycemic effects. Therefore, these
long lasting (19,28). Glycemic control at risk associated with fasting is quite low. agents cannot be quickly substituted for
near-normal levels requires use of multi- However, there is still a potential risk for agents associated with hypoglycemia dur-
ple daily insulin injections (three or more) occurrence of postprandial hyperglyce- ing periods of fasting (31).
or use of continuous subcutaneous insu- mia after the predawn and sunset meals if Sulfonylureas. It has been suggested that
the lowest risk of severe fasting hypogly- dicious use of intermediate- or long- stopping insulin delivery from the pump.
cemia among the secretagogues. acting insulin preparations plus a short- Such an advantage is not available to
Incretin-based therapy. Therapies that acting insulin administered before meals. those treated with a conventional insulin
affect the incretin system include gluca- Although hypoglycemia tends to be less injection in which insulin continues to be
gon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists frequent, it is still a risk, especially in pa- released from the site of injection
(GLP-1ras) exenatide and liraglutide and tients who have required insulin therapy throughout its predetermined duration of
dipeptidylpeptidase-4 inhibitors (DPP- for a number of years or in whom insulin action. Any excess insulin action can
4is) alogliptin, saxagliptin, sitagliptin, deficiency predominates in the patho- only be counteracted by intake of
and vildagliptin. These classes of agents physiology. Very elderly patients with carbohydrates.
are not independently associated with hy- type 2 diabetes may be at especially high Fasting at Ramadan may be success-
poglycemia, though they can increase the risk. fully accomplished in people with type 1
hypoglycemic effects of sulfonylureas, Using one injection of a long-acting diabetes if they are fully educated and fac-
glinides, and insulin. Exenatide in partic- or intermediate-acting insulin can pro- ile with the use of the insulin pump and
ular can be dosed before meals to mini- vide adequate coverage in some patients are otherwise metabolically stable and
mize appetite and promote weight loss. as long as the dosage is appropriately in- free from any acute illnesses. Prior to Ra-
With its short half-life of 2 h, it is not dividualized; however, most patients will madan, they should receive adequate
Table 3—Recommended changes to treatment regimen in patients with type 2 diabetes who cose monitoring, and dosage and timing
fast during Ramadan of medications.
Newer pharmacological agents have
Before Ramadan During Ramadan lesser hypoglycemic potential and may
have specific advantages during Ra-
Patients on diet and exercise Consider modifying the time and intensity of physical madan. Similarly, insulin pump therapy
control activity; ensure adequate fluid intake may provide greater safety in the Ra-
Patients on oral hypoglycemic Ensure adequate fluid intake madan setting. There are a few studies of
agents these newer techniques in the Ramadan
Biguanide, metformin 500 mg, Metformin, 1,000 mg at the sunset meal, 500 mg at setting with encouraging results, but in
three times daily the predawn meal general this challenging therapeutic situ-
TZDs, AGIs, or incretin-based No change needed ation has not been adequately addressed
therapies in clinical trials.
Sulfonylureas once a day Dose should be given before the sunset meal; adjust
the dose based on the glycemic control and the risk
of hypoglycemia Acknowledgments — The Egyptian Diabetes
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based study of diabetes and its character- Z, Keen H. The British Diabetic Associ- 33. Rendell M. The role of sulphonylureas in
istics during the fasting month of ation Cohort Study, II: cause-specific the management of type 2 diabetes melli-
Ramadan in 13 countries: results of the mortality in patients with insulin- tus. Drugs 2004;64:1339 –1358
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