applied

sciences
Article
Artificial Intelligence Enabled Routing in Software
Defined Networking
Yan-Jing Wu 1, * , Po-Chun Hwang 2 , Wen-Shyang Hwang 2 and Ming-Hua Cheng 3
1 Department of Information Technology and Communication, Shih Chien University, Kaohsiung Campus,
Kaohsiung 845, Taiwan
2 Department of Electrical Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology,
Jiangong Campus, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan; 1103104147@gm.kuas.edu.tw (P.-C.H.);
wshwang@nkust.edu.tw (W.-S.H.)
3 Department of Digital Media Design, Tzu-Hui Institute of Technology, Pingtung 926, Taiwan;
cmha6777@mail.tzuhui.edu.tw
* Correspondence: yanjing@g2.usc.edu.tw




Received: 25 August 2020; Accepted: 17 September 2020; Published: 20 September 2020


Abstract: Software defined networking (SDN) is an emerging networking architecture that separates
the control plane from the data plane and moves network management to a central point, called the
controller. The controller is responsible for preparing the flow tables of each switch in the data plane.
Although dynamic routing can perform rerouting in case of congestion by periodically monitoring
the status of each data flow, problems concerning a suitable monitoring period duration and lack of
learning ability from past experiences to avoid similar but ineffective route decisions remain unsolved.
This paper presents an artificial intelligence enabled routing (AIER) mechanism with congestion
avoidance in SDN, which can not only alleviate the impact of monitoring periods with dynamic
routing, but also provide learning ability and superior route decisions by introducing artificial
intelligence (AI) technology. We evaluate the performance of the proposed AIER mechanism on the
Mininet simulator by installing three additional modules, namely, topology discovery, monitoring
period, and an artificial neural network, in the control plane. The effectiveness and superiority of our
proposed AIER mechanism are demonstrated by performance metrics, including average throughput,
packet loss ratio, and packet delay versus data rate for different monitoring periods in the system.

Keywords: software defined networking; artificial neural network; routing; monitoring period

1. Introduction

1.1. Software-Defined Networking

The revolutionary technology of radio access network (RAN) in each generation is obvious from
the first generation of mobile communications (1G) to the fifth generation of mobile communications
(5G) and beyond, but the revolution is not in core network (CN) technology. Only the 3G era has
experienced a major change from circuit switching to packet switching. Considering that global
operators have invested huge funds in the previous CN technology, the CN technology revolution
at the 3G stage allows the two switching modes to coexist and make the operators freely choose to
adopt circuit or packet switching mode until the 4G era comes, which is officially integrated into
the all-IP (Internet Protocol) packet switching core network system. With the growing demands for
wireless mobile communications in the Internet of things (IoT) society after 2020, 5G is regarded
as a revolutionary technology with great hopes and an innovation in the RAN technology. As to
the CN technology in 5G, it is expected to meet the needs of the rapid development of various
services that include a wide range of data and connections in the future, and to ultimately meet the

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6564; doi:10.3390/app10186564 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6564 2 of 16

user-centric wireless communications. One of the most important key to networking requirements
is the development of two technologies, software-defined networking (SDN) and network-function
virtualization (NFV) [1]. SDN is a kind of control signaling and user data separation, centralized control
of network functions, and open application interface (API). After the introduction of SDN, the new
challenges are how to reconstruct network functions, how to design new interface protocols, and then
optimize the architecture and end-to-end signaling process based on SDN. Similar to some concepts of
SDN, NFV uses cloud virtualization-based information technologies to transform 4G/5G core network,
using general purpose platform (GPP) to build the basic telecommunications environment. Focusing
on applying artificial intelligence (AI) technology to CN routing, this paper presents an AI-enabled
routing scheme specifically for SDN because the core concepts of both SDN and NFV technologies
are quite similar and the two have high conditions for complementary integration. Based on SDN
architecture, several works have been proposed to successfully overcome the limitations regarding
the de-facto standard simulator, Mininet [2], or the implementation of multi-domain connectivity
services [3–7].
SDN is an emerging networking architecture that consists of three layers [8,9], namely, the application,
control, and data planes (see Figure 1). SDN is programmable through logically centralized management
to simplify complex network tasks, such as route optimization, traffic engineering and so on for
increasingly diversified network deployment. The SDN control plane is required to discover a network
topology of the entire SDN infrastructure mainly for configuring data transmission paths between any
source-to-destination pairs in the data plane. However, discovering a network topology is challenging
due to frequent migration of the virtual machines in the data plane, lack of authentication standards,
and so on. For the purpose, the authors of [10] have presented a comprehensive survey of the topology
discovery and the associated security implications in SDNs. The application programming interface
that resides between the control and application planes is called the northbound interface, where a set of
network services such as quality of service (QoS), intrusion detection, and monitoring functions can be
implemented. Communication interface between the control and data planes is called the southbound
interface, where the OpenFlow protocol [11] is commonly used to exchange control messages with
forwarding devices, referred to as OpenFlow switches. An OpenFlow switch comprises one or more
flow tables, a group table, and an OpenFlow channel for the external controller. OpenFlow switches
handle arriving packets by checking if any flow entries in their flow tables match the new arriving
packets and whether or not to perform forwarding. A flow table consists of a set of flow entries.
Using the OpenFlow protocol, the controller in the control plane can add, update, and delete flow
entries in the flow table(s) of an OpenFlow switch via the OpenFlow channel. Figure 2 shows the
six main components of flow entry, namely, match fields, priority, counters, instructions, timeouts,
and cookies [12]. “Match fields” are used to match the ingress port number and part of the information
contained in the packet header. Flow entries match packets in “priority” order, to the first matching
entry being used in each table. If a matching entry is found, then “instructions” associated with the
specific flow entry are executed. “Counters” are updated simultaneously when packets are matched.
If no match is found, then the forwarding decision will depend on the configuration of the table-miss
flow entry. “Timeouts” indicate the maximum amount of time or idle time before the expiration of the
flow entry. The “cookie” falls under opaque data, which may be used by the controller to filter, modify,
or delete flow statistics, but not to process packets.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 3 of 16
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Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 3 of 16

Figure 1. Software defined networking (SDN) architecture.

Figure 1. Software defined networking (SDN) architecture.
Figure 1. Software defined networking (SDN) architecture.

Figure 2. Main components of flow entry.

Figure 2. Main components of flow entry.
1.2. Artificial Intelligence EnabledFigure Routing 2. Main components of flow entry.
1.2. Artificial Intelligence Enabled Routing
Notably, in the recent decade, performance has improved in numerous fields with the application
1.2. Artificial
Notably,
of artificial Intelligence
in the recent
intelligence Enabled
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decade,
technology has improved
[13]. The networking in exception.
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Turing Notably, of
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intelligent if humans
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vector machines (SVMs) [17], decision trees [18], random forests [19], artificial neural networks learning. As to deep
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Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 4 of 16

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6564 4 of 16

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 4 of 16

Figure 3. Evolution of artificial intelligence (AI).

An ANN mainly simulates Figurehuman

3. Evolutionbrainofnerves
artificialusing mathematical
intelligence (AI). models. In contrast to
Figure 3. Evolution of artificial intelligence (AI).
human brain nerves (see Figure 4a), inputs x1, x2, and x3 of an ANN (see Figure 4b) simulate human
brainAn ANN
nerve mainly simulates
dendrites; weights w human brain
1, w2, and w3nerves
of an ANN using simulate
mathematical axons;models.
and the Indeviation
contrast tovalue
human of
An ANN mainly simulates human brain nerves using mathematical models. In contrast to
brain nerves (see Figure 4a), inputs
an ANN (denoted by b) simulates a synapse, x ,
1 2 x , and x
which of an ANN (see Figure 4b) simulate
3 is a critical action value of a neuron. Equation (1) human brain
human brain nerves (see Figure 4a), inputs x1, x2, and x3 of an ANN (see Figure 4b) simulate human
nerve dendrites;
represents weights w
the operation 1 , w2 ,of
mode andone w3neuron,
of an ANN where simulate
y denotes axons; theand the deviation
output. To handlevalue of an
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brain nerve dendrites; weights w1, w2, and w3 of an ANN simulate axons; and the deviation value of
ANN (denoted
nonlinear by b) simulates
problems, Equation a(1) synapse,
is further which is a critical
substituted action
with an value of a neuron.
activation functionEquation
to form(1) a
an ANN (denoted by b) simulates a synapse, which is a critical action value of a neuron. Equation (1)
represents the operation mode of one neuron, where y denotes the
differentiable nonlinear function, as expressed by Equation (2). Through the backpropagation output. To handle complex nonlinear
represents the operation mode of one neuron, where y denotes the output. To handle complex
problems, Equation
algorithm (BPA) [22],(1) the
is further substituted
optimization gradientwithdescent
an activation method function
can betoused
formtoa differentiable
continuously
nonlinear problems, Equation (1) is further substituted with an activation function to form a
nonlinear function,
iteratively computeasand expressed
updateby theEquation
weights(2). in Through
the ANNthe backpropagation
model such that the algorithm (BPA) [22],
model output can
differentiable nonlinear function, as expressed by Equation (2). Through the backpropagation
the optimization gradient descent method can be used to continuously iteratively
approach the expected value, that is, the corresponding label data (designated as yi’), until the error compute and update
algorithm (BPA) [22], the optimization gradient descent method can be used to continuously
the weights
function (seeinEquation
the ANN model
(3)) such that the model output can approach the expected value, that is,
converges.
iteratively compute and update the weights in the ANN model such that the model output can
the corresponding label data (designated as yi ’), until the error function (see Equation (3)) converges.
approach the expected value, that is, the y corresponding
x 1 w1  x 2 w2 label x 3 w3data (designated as yi’), until the error (1)
function (see Equation (3)) converges. y = x w + x w + x w (1)
y  Activation 1function 1 (2x 12w1  x3 2 w32  x 3 w3 ) (2)
y  x 1 w1  x 2 w2  x 3 w3 (1)
y = Activation
Loss functionf unction
y  Activation functionX

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yi x2 w
( x 1iw10  x 2 w2 0 x2 3 w3 )
(2)
(3)
(2)
Loss f unction = ( yi − yi ) (3)
i=0
where i indicates the i-th record of training
Loss function
where i indicates the i-th record of training data. 
data.
 i 0 i
( y  yi ') 2
(3)

where i indicates the i-th record of training data.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 4.
4. (a)
(a) A
A neuron
neuron of
of Human
Human brain
brain nerves;
nerves; (b)
(b) ANN
ANN model
model for
for simulating
simulating aa neuron.
neuron.
(a) (b)
Since the layers of an ANN in DL are allowed to be heterogeneous and to deviate widely from
Figure 4. (a) A neuron of Human brain nerves; (b) ANN model for simulating a neuron.
biologically informed
informed connectionist
connectionist models
models for of
for the sake theefficiency,
sake of efficiency,
trainability, and trainability, and
understandability,
this paper presents an AI-enabled routing (AIER) mechanism with congestion avoidance by introducing
Since the layers of an ANN in DL are allowed to be heterogeneous and to deviate widely from
biologically informed connectionist models for the sake of efficiency, trainability, and
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6564 5 of 16

an ANN model in the control plane of SDN for intelligent path selection. The successful application of
ANNs for the AIER not only can alleviate the impact of monitoring periods with dynamic routing
but also can provide the learning ability to make superior routing decisions from past experiences.
It is also demonstrated that the proposed AIER outperforms the SDN routing schemes with no AI
application via simulations. The significant improvement in the average throughput, packet loss ratio,
and packet delay versus data rate for different monitoring periods in the system can be observed.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 discusses works related to
our proposed AIER mechanism in SDN, and the proposed AIER scheme is elaborated in Section 3.
Simulation results and performance evaluation discussions are presented in Section 4. Finally,
concluding remarks are given in Section 5.

2. Related Works
Packets passing through a route from source to destination nodes encounter various delay
types [23], such as processing, queuing, transmission, and propagation delays. Packet delay causes
packet loss and throughput degradation during transmission. SDN routing schemes are generally
classified into two types, namely, static and dynamic. With static routing, the well-known Dijkstra
algorithm [24] considered only edge weights in the associated network topology to find the shortest
path for data transmission. The authors of [25] extended the Dijkstra algorithm by taking into account
node weights to select a route that is better than the shortest path in terms of distance. Besides,
the authors of [26] used depth-first search to find multiple paths from source-to-destination nodes in a
hierarchical network topology then determined the best path using worst-fit searching. However, a
selected route will not change with static routing unless a link breakup is detected.
To avoid excessive single-link burden and packet loss caused by static routing due to diversified
network conditions, such as burst traffic, link breakups, and device crashes, dynamic routing schemes
have been proposed. Lan et al. [27] proposed a dynamic routing scheme with load-balanced path
configuration. Song et al. [28] calculated each path utilization at the controller with link utilizations
being received periodically from the data plane, and then changed the forwarding path, if necessary.
The authors of [29] presented an effective dynamic routing mechanism with which the controller is
aware of each link status and connected port number between any two switches in the data plane
through the link layer discovery protocol [30]. The connected port number was then used to configure
the corresponding flow entry on each switch according to a route selection algorithm. To reduce packet
loss during path reconfiguration, rerouting was triggered when the link utilization of the current path
exceeds 80%.
Although dynamic routing can perform rerouting under certain pre-defined conditions by
periodically monitoring the status of each data flow, problems concerning a suitable monitoring period
duration and the lack of learning ability from past experiences to avoid similar but ineffective path
decisions remain unsolved. The authors of [31] emphasized that the monitoring period duration
has a significant impact on network performance. A monitoring period that is too short may cause
excessive communication burden on the southbound interface. By contrast, a monitoring period
that is too long may cause the control plane to obtain outdated information from the data plane.
Therefore, the monitoring period duration is crucial for dynamic routing. Besides, the configuration
of an alternative path in the data plane is time consuming. That is, data transmission through the
original path may result in packet loss due to link congestion before the completion of the alternative
path configuration. Furthermore, the system traffic load usually varies with time. Given Figure 5 as
an example, the selected path can afford data transmission from 10 to 50 s in the case of light load.
However, the selected path may cause congestion in the case of heavy load at about 60 s. Although the
control plane can find an alternative path to alleviate congestion, the alternative path will be rerouted
to the previously-selected path due to the shortest path selection from 70 to 110 s. At approximately
120 s, link congestion may occur again in the case of heavy load. Meanwhile, an alternative path same
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6564 6 of 16
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alternative
as path same
the one decided at 60ass the one decided
is selected again. at
In60 s is words,
other selecteddynamic
again. In other schemes
routing words, dynamic
are blindrouting
to past
schemes are blind to past experiences and
experiences and thus lack learning abilities. thus lack learning abilities.

Figure 5. Example of the system load vs. time.

Figure 5. Example of the system load vs. time.

In recent years, several routing mechanisms [32–38] combined with AI technology have been
In recent years, several routing mechanisms [32–38] combined with AI technology have been
proposed to enhance learning ability from past experiences and smart route-decision capability,
proposed to enhance learning ability from past experiences and smart route-decision capability,
thereby improving overall network performance. First of all, the works in [33–35] introduced
thereby improving overall network performance. First of all, the works in [33–35] introduced AI
AI technology to routing protocols for wireless sensor networks in order to improve the energy
technology to routing protocols for wireless sensor networks in order to improve the energy
consumption of each node. On the other hand, the authors of [36] implemented an intelligent routing
consumption of each node. On the other hand, the authors of [36] implemented an intelligent routing
protocol in a particular, simple SDN topology. Their proposed intelligent routing protocol was based
protocol in a particular, simple SDN topology. Their proposed intelligent routing protocol was based
on the reinforcement learning process to choose the best data transmission paths according to the
on the reinforcement learning process to choose the best data transmission paths according to the
best criteria in terms of weights periodically rewarded by each node on the current path. However, a
best criteria in terms of weights periodically rewarded by each node on the current path. However, a
formula associated with the cost function was not specifically defined and the impact of rewarding
formula associated with the cost function was not specifically defined and the impact of rewarding
periods was not considered. Pasca et al. [37] proposed an application-aware multipath flow routing
periods was not considered. Pasca et. al. [37] proposed an application-aware multipath flow routing
framework (AMPS) by enabling the controller of SDN to prioritize each flow using machine learning
framework (AMPS) by enabling the controller of SDN to prioritize each flow using machine learning
techniques and to assign one or more paths based on its classified priority even if the flow are between
techniques and to assign one or more paths based on its classified priority even if the flow are
the same pair of nodes. The main contribution of AMPS controller in comparison to SDN with
between the same pair of nodes. The main contribution of AMPS controller in comparison to SDN
traditional routing is its ensuring high availability of an unloaded path for high priority flows even in
with traditional routing is its ensuring high availability of an unloaded path for high priority flows
a heavily loaded network. Fu et al. [38] presented a routing strategy based on deep Q-learning (DQL)
even in a heavily loaded network. Fu et. al. [38] presented a routing strategy based on deep Q-
to generate optimal routing paths autonomously for SDN-based data center networks. However, they
learning (DQL) to generate optimal routing paths autonomously for SDN-based data center
aimed to provide different quality of service guarantees for mice-flows and elephant-flows, designated
networks. However, they aimed to provide different quality of service guarantees for mice-flows and
in a data center network.
elephant-flows, designated in a data center network.
The aforementioned works have obtained considerable improvement on network performance
The aforementioned works have obtained considerable improvement on network performance
by introducing AI technology. To avoid network congestion that may cause serious packet delay,
by introducing AI technology. To avoid network congestion that may cause serious packet delay,
packet loss and throughput degradation, this paper proposes an AIER mechanism by introducing an
packet loss and throughput degradation, this paper proposes an AIER mechanism by introducing an
ANN model to the controller of SDN that uses flow load and link load as the feature data, and queuing
ANN model to the controller of SDN that uses flow load and link load as the feature data, and
size of an OpenFlow switch as label data. The proposed AIER mechanism consists of three stages:
queuing size of an OpenFlow switch as label data. The proposed AIER mechanism consists of three
(1) collection of a set of adequate data for model training, (2) establishment of an ANN model in the
stages: (1) collection of a set of adequate data for model training, (2) establishment of an ANN model
control plane using the training data, and (3) application of the ANN model for path selection.
in the control plane using the training data, and (3) application of the ANN model for path selection.
3. Proposed AIER Mechanism
3. Proposed AIER Mechanism
3.1. System Architecture
3.1. System Architecture
The SDN architecture we consider is illustrated in Figure 6. The routing module in the application
planeThe SDN
is used architecture
to find the routewe consider
between is illustrated in Figure
any source-to-destination pairs6.atThe routing module
the beginning. in the
In the control
application plane is used to find the route between any source-to-destination pairs at the beginning.
plane, the well-established Ryu controller [39] is adopted. There are three modules in the controller,
In the control plane, the well-established Ryu controller [39] is adopted. There are three modules in
the controller, topology discovery, period monitor, and an ANN model, which are used to explore
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6564 7 of 16

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 7 of 16

topology discovery, period monitor, and an ANN model, which are used to explore the link states of the
the link states
OpenFlow of the OpenFlow
switches, periodicallyswitches, periodically
receive the exchange receive
informationthe exchange
from the information from
data plane, and the data
implement
plane, and implement the proposed AIER mechanism to select an intelligent
the proposed AIER mechanism to select an intelligent path with congestion avoidance, respectively. path with congestion
avoidance,
The data plane respectively.
consists ofThe data nodes
n source plane (denoted
consists of as n
S1 source
, S2 , . . . nodes
, Sn ), m(denoted
destinationas nodes
S1, S2,(denoted
…, Sn), mas
destination
D1 , D2 , . . . ,nodes (denoted
Dm ), and as Dof1, OpenFlow
a number D2, …, Dm),switches.
and a number
Therefore, of OpenFlow
we assumeswitches. Therefore,
that a maximum of we
m·n
assume
(denoted thatas ad)maximum
data flowsofare
m∙n (denotedand
generated as d)a data
total flows are generated
of R paths between any and source-to-destination
a total of R paths between
pairs
any source-to-destination
are available. pairs are available.

Figure 6.
Figure Software-definednetworking
6. Software-defined networking(SDN)
(SDN)architecture
architecturewith
withthe
the proposed
proposed artificial
artificial intelligence
intelligence
enabled routing (AIER).
enabled routing (AIER).
3.2. AIER Mechanism
3.2. AIER Mechanism
Assuming that there are no link fabrication attacks and no migration of OpenFlow switches [40],
Assuming that there are no link fabrication attacks and no migration of OpenFlow switches [40],
the proposed AIER mechanism adds an ANN model in the SDN controller. First, the AIER mechanism
the proposed AIER mechanism adds an ANN model in the SDN controller. First, the AIER
collects a set of training data in which each record consists of feature data and label data. Next,
mechanism collects a set of training data in which each record consists of feature data and label data.
the training data are used to train the ANN model, iteratively. The routing algorithm obtains learning
Next, the training data are used to train the ANN model, iteratively. The routing algorithm obtains
abilities after model training has been completed. Thus, the AIER mechanism not only can predict the
learning abilities after model training has been completed. Thus, the AIER mechanism not only can
corresponding output based on the new data but also can select a suitable path to avoid congestion.
predict the corresponding output based on the new data but also can select a suitable path to avoid
Figure 7 shows the pseudo code of the proposed AIER mechanism, which includes the following
congestion. Figure 7 shows the pseudo code of the proposed AIER mechanism, which includes the
three stages.
following three stages.
3.2.1.Collection
3.2.1. Collectionof
ofTraining
TrainingData
Data
Prior to
Prior to training
training the
the ANN
ANNmodel,
model,an anadequately
adequately large
largesetset
of training
of trainingdata is collected
data in which
is collected each
in which
record
each contains
record a congestion
contains flag, flag,
a congestion the generation
the generationratesrates
of allofdata flows,
all data and every
flows, allocated
and every path path
allocated from
illustrated in Figure 8, let n = 3, m = 1, and R =
from a source to a destination. As illustrated in Figure 8, let n = 3, m = 1, and R = 3 as an example.1
a source to a destination. As 3 as an example. Table
shows1 the
Table training
shows data set,data
the training including every field
set, including of each
every fieldrecord
of eachand several
record anddata samples.
several Field “C”
data samples.
can be“C”
Field 1 orcan
0 depending
be 1 or 0 on whether there
depending exists one
on whether or more
there existsOpenFlow
one or more switch whose queuing
OpenFlow switchlength
whoseis
larger than 80% along the allocated path. If yes, then C is 1; otherwise, C is 0. The
queuing length is larger than 80% along the allocated path. If yes, then C is 1; otherwise, C is 0. The d d fields immediately
following
fields from Field
immediately “C” represent
following the data
from Field “C”generation
represent the rates of dgeneration
data data flows.ratesTheoflast d fields
d data indicate
flows. The
the allocated path number (belonging to {0, 1, 2}) for each data flow.
last d fields indicate the allocated path number (belonging to {0, 1, 2}) for each data flow.
Appl.
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Sci. 2020, 10, 6564
x 88 of
of 16
16
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 8 of 16
Input :
Input
Number : of source nodes: n
Number
Number of of source nodes:
destination n m
nodes:
Number
Number of of destination
available paths:nodes:Rm
Number of available
ANN model, which ispaths: R by training data and validated by test data
obtained
ANN
Loadsmodel,
for all which is obtained
data flows: L= <L1by 2, …, Ld>
, Ltraining data//and
d =validated
mn by test data
Loads for all data flows: L=
All available path configurations: <L , L
1 <P , …,
2 1, P2,d…, PS>,
L > // d = mn d
// S = R , |Pk| = d
All available path configurations: <P1, P2, …, PS>, // S = Rd, |Pk| = d
Output :
Output
Minimum : congestion probability (Cmin) among all path configurations
Minimum
1. set C=congestion
[] probability (Cmin) among all path configurations
1.
2. set C=<L
while [ ]1, L2, …., Ld> has variation do
2.
3. whilefor 1, L2, P
<Leach ….,
k doLd> has variation do
3.
4. for eachANNdo
P k model input (L, Pk)
4.
5. ANN
Ck = ANN modelmodel
inputoutput
(L, Pk)
5.
6. C k = ANN model
Append(C, Ck) output
6.
7. end for Append(C, Ck)
7.
8. end
Cu =forcongestion probability of the current path configuration
8.
9. C ==
Cumin congestion
min{C} probability of the current path configuration
9.
10. C
ifmin
Cmin < Cu && (Cu − Cmin) > Th
= min{C}
10.
11. if Cmin Conduct
< Cu &&path (Cu −reconfiguration
Cmin) > Th to Pk with Cmin
11.
12. end if Conduct path reconfiguration to Pk with Cmin
12. end if
13. if queuing length of any switch in the current path configuration > 80%
13.
14. if queuing
Triggerlength
pathofreconfiguration
any switch in the current path configuration > 80%
14.
15. end ifTrigger path reconfiguration
15. end if
Figure 7. Pseudo code of the artificial intelligence enabled routing (AIER) mechanism.
Figure
Figure 7.
7. Pseudo
Pseudo code
code of
of the
the artificial
artificial intelligence
intelligence enabled
enabled routing (AIER) mechanism.
routing (AIER) mechanism.

Figure 8. Example of the data plane in SDN.

Figure 8. Example of the data plane in SDN.
Table 1. Fields in the training data set.
Figure 8. Example of the data plane in SDN.
C Congestion S1 -D1 Data S2 -DTable
1 Data 1. Fields
S3 -D1 in the training
Data data set.
S1 -D1 Allocated S2 -D1 Allocated S3 -D1 Allocated
Flag Flow Table 1. Fields
Flow in the training
Flow data set.
Path Number Path Number Path Number
0
C 57M
S1-D1 S55M
2-D1 S3-D1 70M S1-D1 0
S2-D1 1
S3-D1 2
C 65M S
1 Congestion 1-D1
Data SData
-D1 SData
263M 3-D1 30MAllocated
S1-D1 0 S -D
Allocated 0 Allocated
2 1 S 3-D1 1
0 Congestion
Flag 65M Data
Flow Data
50M
Flow Data
Flow 65M Allocated
Path number 0 Path Allocated
number2 Path Allocated
number1
Flag
0 Flow
57M Flow 55M Flow 70M Path number 0 Path number
1 Path number
2
3.2.2. ANN Model 01 Training57M 55M
65M 63M 30M 70M 00 10 21
10 stage is
After the first
65M
65M 63M
50Mwe use
complete,
30M
65M 00
the BPA algorithm
02 the ANN model.
[22] to train
11 The training
0 65M 50M 65M 0 2 1
data
3.2.2 require
ANN Modelpreprocessing
Training before the model is trained. Separating the label data and feature data in
the
3.2.2training data set,
ANN Model we consider Field “C” as the label data (in red) and the other fields as the feature
Training
After
data (in the as
blue), first stageinisTable
shown complete,
2. Thewe use the
feature BPA
data algorithm
of each record[22]are to thetrain theofANN
inputs model.
a neuron The
model,
After
training therequire
data first stage is complete,
preprocessing we use
before the the BPAis algorithm
model trained. [22] to train
Separating the the ANN
label data model.
and The
feature
whereas the label data of each record are used for error computation with respect to the output of a
training data
data in model.
the requiredata
training preprocessing
set,we
weneed before Field
consider the model
“C” is trained. Separating theand
labelthe
data andfields
feature
neuron Furthermore, to normalize theasfeature
the label
datadata
such(inthatred) their values other
range fromas0
data in the training
the feature data (in data
blue),set,
as we
shownconsider Field2.“C”
in Table Theas the label
feature datadata
of each(in red) andare
record the the
other fieldsofasa
inputs
the feature data (in blue), as shown in Table 2. The feature data of each record are the inputs of a
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6564 9 of 16

to 1. Next, the training data set is randomly divided into a training data subset and a test data subset
on the principle that the former subset is much larger than the latter subset. The training data subset is
used to train the ANN model, whereas the test data subset is used to verify the accuracy of the trained
ANN model. Generally, accuracy should be at least 0.8.

Table 2. Label and feature data after normalization.

S1 -D1 S2 -D1 S3 -D1

C Congestion S1 -D1 S2 -D1 S3 -D1
Allocated Path Allocated Path Allocated Path
Flag Data Flow Data Flow Data Flow
Number Number Number
0 0.412 0.397 0.731 0.875 0.375 0.325
1 0.687 0.759 0.376 0.875 0.875 0.375
0 0.816 0.302 0.302 0.875 0.325 0.375

3.2.3. Application of the ANN Model

Because there are 3 source-to-destination pairs and 3 available paths, there exist 33 possible
path configuration outcomes. The ANN model trained in the preceding stage is employed for path
configuration in the controller, and the congestion probability, which is denoted by Ck for each
path configuration k, is calculated, as summarized in Table 3. Assuming that the current path
configuration is {0, 0, 0}, if any congestion probabilities lower than the current path configuration
by a predefined threshold (denoted as Th), for example, 20%, exist, the controller will replace the
current path configuration with one with the smallest congestion possibility. For instance, the new
path configuration will be {2, 2, 1} in Table 3. The controller is responsible for forwarding the new
path configuration through the southbound interface to the OpenFlow switches in the data plane.
The predefined threshold Th can avoid the so called ping-pong effect. Moreover, the AIER mechanism
can periodically monitor the queuing length of each OpenFlow switch for the current path configuration
to avoid potentially inaccurate output in the trained ANN model. If any queuing length of an OpenFlow
switch is greater than 80%, then path reconfiguration is triggered.

Table 3. Congestion probabilities resulted from the trained model.

Congestion
Data Rate (Mbps) Path Configuration
Configuration k Probability
S1 -D1 S2 -D1 S3 -D1 S1 -D1 S2 -D1 S3 -D1 Ck
1 70 75 90 0 0 0 0.90
2 70 75 90 0 0 1 0.70
3 70 75 90 0 0 2 0.65
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
26 70 75 90 2 2 1 0.55
27 70 75 90 2 2 2 0.80

4. Performance Evaluation

4.1. Simulation Settings

The parameters and their values used in the simulation are summarized in Table 4. The routing
module in the application plane uses the Dijkstra algorithm. The communication interface between
the data and control planes uses OpenFlow Protocol V1.3. The network topology of the data plane,
as illustrated in Figure 9, consists of three source nodes, one destination node, and 9 available
transmission paths. Therefore, a total of 729 path configuration outcomes are obtained. We use the
Iperf [41] tool to generate UDP flows at data rates varying from 70 Mbps to 150 Mbps. The bandwidth
of each link is 250 Mbps. The buffer size of each OpenFlow switch is 200 packets. The monitoring
period is fixed at 3, 5, or 10 s.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 10 of 16

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6564 10 of 16

Table 4. Parameters and values used in the simulation.

Parameters Values
Simulator Mininet 2.3.0
SDN protocol OpenFlow V1.3
Packet generator Iperf
Traffic type UDP
Link bandwidth 250 Mbps
Data rate 70 Mbps ~ 150 Mbps
Figure 9.Buffer
The SDN
size data plane used in the
200simulation.
packets
Routing module Dijkstra algorithm
TableMonitoring
4. Parametersperiod 3, 5,simulation.
and values used in the or 10 s
No. of source nodes 3
Parametersnodes
No. of destination Values 1
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x No. of Simulator
available paths 9
Mininet 2.3.0 10 of 16

SDN protocol OpenFlow V1.3

Packet generator Iperf
Traffic type UDP
Link bandwidth 250 Mbps
Data rate 70 Mbps ~ 150 Mbps
Buffer size 200 packets
Routing module Dijkstra algorithm
Monitoring period 3, 5, or 10 s
No. of source nodes 3
No. of destination nodes 1
No. of available paths 9
The SDN
Figure 9. The SDN data plane used in the simulation.

AAmultilayer
multilayer perceptron
perceptron (MLP), which
(MLP), which consistsofofan aninput
inputlayer,
layer,
anan output layer,
andand at least
Table 4. Parametersconsists
and values used output
in the simulation. layer, at least one
one hidden layer, is used as an ANN model in the control plane. Figure 10 depicts
hidden layer, is used as an ANN model in the control plane. Figure 10 depicts multiple nodes for the multiple nodes for
the input
input layer
layer andandonlyonly
oneone
node node for output
the output
forParameters
the layer.layer. The number
The number Values of neutrons
of neutrons at theattwo
thehidden
two hidden
layers
layers varies from 100 to 200, which are used
Simulator to evaluate the accuracy
Mininet 2.3.0of the ANN
varies from 100 to 200, which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the ANN model. First, we collect model. First, we
collect
65,00065,000 data records
data records to traintothe
train
SDN
ANN theprotocol
ANN model.
model. TheOpenFlow
The training training
data are data
80%are
V1.3 of 80% of the data
the 65,000 65,000 data
records,
records, and the remaining 13,000
and the remaining 13,000 data records data records
Packet generator are the validation
are the validation data. The data. The accuracy of the trained
Iperfaccuracy of the trained model with
model with 120 and 140 neutrons at
Traffic the
typefirst and second
120 and 140 neutrons at the first and second hidden layers, respectively, hidden layers,
UDP can be respectively,
approximatedcan be
at 82%.
approximated at 82%. Considering Linkboth performance
bandwidth advantages
250 and
Mbps computational
Considering both performance advantages and computational complexity [42], 120 and 140 neutrons complexity [42],
120 andfirst
at the 140and
neutrons
secondathidden
the first and
layers, second
Data rate hidden
respectively, arelayers,
70 Mbps
adopted respectively,
~ 150
for theMbps
ANN aremodel.
adopted for the ANN
model. Buffer size 200 packets
Routing module Dijkstra algorithm
Monitoring period 3, 5, or 10 s
No. of source nodes 3
No. of destination nodes 1
No. of available paths 9

A multilayer perceptron (MLP), which consists of an input layer, an output layer, and at least
one hidden layer, is used as an ANN model in the control plane. Figure 10 depicts multiple nodes for
the input layer and only one node for the output layer. The number of neutrons at the two hidden
layers varies from 100 to 200, which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the ANN model. First, we
collect 65,000 data records to train the ANN model. The training data are 80% of the 65,000 data
records, and the remaining 13,000 data records are the validation data. The accuracy of the trained
model with 120 and Figure
140 10. ANN model
neutrons (a four-layer
at the first andmultilayer
second perceptron (MLP)).respectively, can be
hidden layers,
Figure 10. ANN model (a four-layer multilayer perceptron (MLP)).
approximated at 82%. Considering both performance advantages and computational complexity [42],
120 and 140 neutrons at the first and second hidden layers, respectively, are adopted for the ANN
model.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6564 11 of 16

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 11 of 16

4.2. Results and Discussions

4.2. Results and Discussions
The performance of the proposed AIER mechanism is compared with that of static and dynamic
The performance of the proposed AIER mechanism is compared with that of static and dynamic
routing
routingschemes
schemes bybyvarying
varyingthe thedata
datarate
rateof
ofeach
each source-to-destination
source-to-destination pair. pair.Performance
Performance measures
measures
include
includethethe
average
averagethroughput,
throughput,packet
packetloss
loss ratio,
ratio, and packetdelay
and packet delayfor
fordifferent
differentmonitoring
monitoring periods
periods
(3, (3,
5, or
5, or 10 s). The effectiveness and superiority of the AIER mechanism are demonstrated byby
10 s). The effectiveness and superiority of the AIER mechanism are demonstrated thethe
simulation results.
simulation results.
Figure
Figure1111shows
showsthe theaverage
averagethroughput
throughput of of each flow
flow versus
versusdata
datarate
rateforfordifferent
different monitoring
monitoring
periods.
periods.TheTheaverage
averagethroughput
throughput with with static
static routing
routing is is the
the smallest
smallestamong
amongthe thethree
threeschemes
schemes andand
descends
descends to the increasing data rate regardless of the monitoring period. This phenomenon is becauseall
to the increasing data rate regardless of the monitoring period. This phenomenon is because
dataallflows
data flows senddata
send their theirthrough
data through
the samethe path
samedue
pathtodue
the to the shortest
shortest path selection.
path selection. UnlikeUnlike static
static routing,
routing,
dynamic dynamic
routing can routing can change transmission
change transmission pathsifperiodically
paths periodically a predefinedifcongestion
a predefined congestion
condition occurs.
condition occurs. In contrast to the AIER mechanism, no increasing amount
In contrast to the AIER mechanism, no increasing amount is observed in the average throughput is observed in the average
withthroughput
dynamic withroutingdynamic routing
when data ratewhen data rateasispacket
is increased, increased,
loss as packet
occurs loss path
before occurs before path
reconfiguration
reconfiguration
is complete. is complete.
In other words, the In AIER
other mechanism
words, the AIERis notmechanism
influenced is not influenced
much much byperiod
by the monitoring the
monitoring period duration. Besides, the AIER mechanism has a smaller
duration. Besides, the AIER mechanism has a smaller path reconfiguration frequency than dynamic path reconfiguration
frequency
routing, as thethan dynamic
former schemerouting, as the former
can perform morescheme
suitablecan perform
path more suitable
configuration as soonpath
asconfiguration
possible. Thus,
as soon as possible. Thus, the AIER mechanism performs better in terms of average throughput than
the AIER mechanism performs better in terms of average throughput than either static or dynamic
either static or dynamic routing. Figure 12 shows packet delay versus data rate for different
routing. Figure 12 shows packet delay versus data rate for different monitoring periods. Similar to
monitoring periods. Similar to the aforementioned elaboration, the AIER mechanism exhibits better
the aforementioned elaboration, the AIER mechanism exhibits better performance in packet delay
performance in packet delay compared with the other two routing schemes, particularly when the
compared with the other two routing schemes, particularly when the network load is heavy. This is
network load is heavy. This is because the AIER mechanism is capable of predicting better paths for
because the AIER mechanism is capable of predicting better paths for each flow from past experiences.
each flow from past experiences.

(a)

(b)

Figure 11. Cont.

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6564 12 of 16
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 12 of 16

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 12 of 16

(c)
Figure
Figure 11. Average
11. Average flow
flow throughputvs.
throughput vs.data
data rate
rate for
for different
differentmonitoring periods.
monitoring (a) Monitoring
periods. (a) Monitoring
period
period = 3 s;= (b)
3 s; Monitoring
(b) Monitoring period==55s;s;(c)
period (c) Monitoring
Monitoring period
period= 10 s. s.
= 10

Regarding packet loss performance, Figure 13 presents packet loss ratio versus data rate for
different monitoring periods. Packet loss ratio increases as the data rate grows. Each link bandwidth is
250 Mbps; thus, the data rate of each flow reaching approximately 70 Mbps begins to cause excessive
single-link burden and packet loss owing to the shortest path selection. However, dynamic routing
can adjust path allocation periodically to alleviate congestion in the shortest path. Hence, it has a
smaller packet loss ratio compared with static routing. It is noteworthy Figure 13 illustrates that nearly
no packet loss is observed with the AIER mechanism (c) until the data rate of each flow increases to
120 Mbps. Thus, the AIER mechanism demonstrates a significant improvement in packet loss owing to
Figure 11. Average flow throughput vs. data rate for different monitoring periods. (a) Monitoring
its intelligent path selection design with congestion avoidance.
period = 3 s; (b) Monitoring period = 5 s; (c) Monitoring period = 10 s.

(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)

Figure 12. Cont.

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6564 13 of 16
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 13 of 16

(c)
Figure 12. Packet delay vs. data rate for different monitoring periods. (a) Monitoring period = 3 s; (b)
Monitoring period = 5 s; (c) Monitoring period = 10 s.

Regarding packet loss performance, Figure 13 presents packet loss ratio versus data rate for
different monitoring periods. Packet loss ratio increases as the data rate grows. Each link bandwidth
is 250 Mbps; thus, the data rate of each flow reaching approximately 70 Mbps begins to cause
excessive single-link burden and packet loss owing to the shortest path selection. However, dynamic
routing can adjust path allocation periodically to alleviate congestion in the shortest path. Hence, it
has a smaller packet loss ratio compared with static (c)routing. It is noteworthy Figure 13 illustrates that
nearly no packet
Figure lossdelay
Packet
12. Packet is observed
delayvs.vs.data
datawith
rate the
ratefor
for AIER mechanism
different
different monitoring
monitoring until the(a)data
periods.
periods. (a) rate of each
Monitoring
Monitoring flow
period
period increases
= 3=
s; 3(b)
s;
to 120 Mbps. Thus,
(b) Monitoring
Monitoring periodthe
=5=
period AIER mechanism
s; 5(c)s;Monitoring
(c) Monitoring demonstrates
= 10=s.10 s.
period
period a significant improvement in packet loss
owing to its intelligent path selection design with congestion avoidance.
Regarding packet loss performance, Figure 13 presents packet loss ratio versus data rate for
different monitoring periods. Packet loss ratio increases as the data rate grows. Each link bandwidth
is 250 Mbps; thus, the data rate of each flow reaching approximately 70 Mbps begins to cause
excessive single-link burden and packet loss owing to the shortest path selection. However, dynamic
routing can adjust path allocation periodically to alleviate congestion in the shortest path. Hence, it
has a smaller packet loss ratio compared with static routing. It is noteworthy Figure 13 illustrates that
nearly no packet loss is observed with the AIER mechanism until the data rate of each flow increases
to 120 Mbps. Thus, the AIER mechanism demonstrates a significant improvement in packet loss
owing to its intelligent path selection design with congestion avoidance.

(a)

(a)

(b)

Figure 13. Cont.

(b)
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6564 14 of 16
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x 14 of 16

(c)
Figure 13. Packet
Packet loss
loss ratio
ratio vs. data
data rate
rate for different monitoring periods. (a) Monitoring period == 33 s;s;
for different
(b) Monitoring period = = 55 s;
s; (c)
(c) Monitoring period ==10
Monitoring period 10ss.

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
This paper
This papersuccessfully
successfullyintroduces
introduces an an
ANN in the
ANN inSDNthe control plane for
SDN control intelligent
plane path selection
for intelligent path
with congestion avoidance. The proposed AIER mechanism not only
selection with congestion avoidance. The proposed AIER mechanism not only can alleviate can alleviate the impacttheof
monitoring
impact periods with
of monitoring dynamic
periods withrouting
dynamic butrouting
also canbut
provide learning
also can ability
provide fromability
learning past experiences
from past
by integrating AI technology. The AIER mechanism consists of three stages: (1)
experiences by integrating AI technology. The AIER mechanism consists of three stages: (1) collection collection of a set
of aadequate
of data fordata
set of adequate training, (2) establishment
for training, of an of
(2) establishment ANN model
an ANN in the
model incontrol plane
the control withwith
plane the
training data, and (3) application of the ANN model for path selection. After
the training data, and (3) application of the ANN model for path selection. After the ANN model is the ANN model is
trained, the controller can perform more suitable path configuration according
trained, the controller can perform more suitable path configuration according to the current data to the current data
flow traffic
flow traffic and
and link
link load. The effectiveness
load. The effectiveness andand superiority
superiority of of our
our proposed
proposed AIER AIER mechanism
mechanism are are
demonstrated by performing simulations on the Mininet simulator. The simulation
demonstrated by performing simulations on the Mininet simulator. The simulation results show that results show
thatAIER
the the AIER mechanism
mechanism considerably
considerably outperforms
outperforms static
static andand dynamicrouting
dynamic routingschemes
schemesinin terms
terms of
of
average throughput,
average throughput, packet
packet delay,
delay, and
and packet
packet loss
loss ratio. In future
ratio. In future works,
works, we
we will
will design
design anan intelligent
intelligent
routing scheme that considers link breakup between any two OpenFlow
routing scheme that considers link breakup between any two OpenFlow switches as feature data,switches as feature data,
except for
except for data
data flow
flow traffic
traffic and
and link
link load,
load, to
to enhance
enhance the
the comprehensiveness
comprehensiveness of of the
the ANN
ANN model.
model.
Author Contributions:
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.-J.W.
Conceptualization, and and
Y.-J.W. W.-S.H.; methodology,
W.-S.H.; Y.-J.W.
methodology, and P.-C.H.;
Y.-J.W. software,
and P.-C.H.; P.-C.H.
software,
and M.-H.C.;
P.-C.H. validation,
and M.-H.C.; Y.-J.W. Y.-J.W.
validation, and P.-C.H.; formal analysis,
and P.-C.H.; Y.-J.W.,Y.-J.W.,
formal analysis, P.-C.H. P.-C.H.
and W.-S.H.; investigation,
and W.-S.H.; Y.-J.W.,
investigation,
P.-C.H., W.-S.H., and M.-H.C.; data curation, P.-C.H.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.-J.W. and P.-C.H.;
Y.-J.W., P.-C.H., W.-S.H., and M.-H.C.; data curation, P.-C.H.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.-J.W. and
writing—review and editing, Y.-J.W.; supervision, W.-S.H.; project administration, W.-S.H.; funding acquisition,
P.-C.H.; writing—review
Y.-J.W. and and editing,
W.-S.H. All authors have readY.-J.W.; supervision,
and agreed W.-S.H.; project
to the published versionadministration, W.-S.H.; funding
of the manuscript.
acquisition, Y.-J.W. and W.-S.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded in part by the Ministry of Science and Technology under the Grant No.
MOST-109-2221-E-992-063.
Funding: This researchAnd,wasthe APC was
funded supported
in part by the in Ministry
part by theof
USC intramural
Science and project with the
Technology Grant the
under No.
109-08-01003.
Grant No. MOST-109-2221-E-992-063. And, the APC was supported in part the USC intramural
Conflictswith
project of Interest:
the GrantTheNo.
authors declare no conflict of interest.
109-05-05002-01.

References
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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