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"Education is a liberating force, and in

our age it is also a democratising force,
cutting across the barriers of caste and
class, smoothing out inequalities imposed
by birth and other circumstances. "

" - Indira Gandhi

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~
~
Indira Gandhi
National Open University
OVA-002
School of Performing and Understanding Indian
Visual Art
Art Forms
..

Block

2
INTRODUCTION TO VISUAL ARTS
UNIT 1
Visual Arts 5 .

UNIT 2
Painting 9
UNIT 3
Sculpture 15
UNIT 4
Architecture 20

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I
Expert Committee
Prof. T.K. Venkatasubramanian Prof. Mahesh Champaklal
Department of History Dean, Faculty of Dramatics
Faculty of Social Sciences M S University, Vadodara
University of Delhi
• Dr. (Smt.) Chodamani Nandgopal
Dr. Kanak Rele Member, Research & Project Consultant
Director, Nalanda Dance Research Centre Bangalore
Plot - 7/1 N S Road No. 10
Prof. C. Gajendra Naidu
JVPD Scheme, Ville Parle (West)
Nodal Officer & Head
Mumbai
Project Facilitation Unit
Smt. Saroja Vaidyanathan IGNOU, New Delhi
Director, Ganesha N atyalaya .
Prof. Sunil Kumar
Vasant Kunj, New Delhi
Director
Prof. Chinmay Mehta School of Perfonnaing and Visual Arts
Former Dean, Faculty of Fine Arts IGNOU, New Delhi
University of Rajasthan, Jaipur

Block Preparation Team

Unit Contribution . Content Editing
Dr. (Smt.) Chodamani Nandgopal Mr. Govindaraju Bharadwaza
Member, Research & Project Consultant School ofPerformaing and Visual Arts
Bangalore IGNOU, New Delhi
Unit Design and Format Editing Language Editing
Prof. Sunil Kumar Mrs. Malathy A
Director School of Humanities
School of Performaing and Visual Arts Faculty of English
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Mohd. Tahir Siddiqui Descipline Coordination
School of Performaing and Visual Arts
ProfSunilKumar
IGNOU, New Delhi
Director
School of Performaing and Visual Arts
IGNOU, New Delhi

Print Production
Mr. B. Natarajan Mr. Jitender Sethi Mr. Ajit Kumar
Deput Registrar (P) Assistant Registrar (P) Section Officer (P)
MPDD MPDD MPDD
January, 2010
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 20/0
ISBN: 978-81-2664526-8
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any
other means, without permission in writing from the copyright holder.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi Naiional Open University courses may be obtained
from the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in
Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the
Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU.
Lasertypesetted at Graphic Printers, 204, Pankaj Tower, Mayur Vihar, Phase-I, Delhi-ll 0091.
Printed at Dee Kay Printers, 5/16, Kirti Nagar Indl. Area, New Delhi-I 10015

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BLOCK 2 INTRODUCTION TO VISUAL
ARTS
This Block relates to the understanding of Visual Arts. You have studied in detail about
dance, music and theatre in previous Blocks. All of them belong to Performing Arts
group. Similarly painting, sculpture and architecture are grouped under visual arts. The
study of Indian arts is not complete without studying the elements and concepts of these
five arts. In India both performing and visual art evolved depending on each other. They
are known as fme arts.

The first unit in this Block is devoted to the study of visual arts in general.

The second unit in this Block discusses painting in general and different techniques and
materials used in painting and the early development of painting in India.

The third unit in this Block discusses sculpture and its technique, types and materials
and the early development of Indian sculpture.

The last unit of this Block is an attempt to understand architecture as one of the visual
arts.

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UNIT 1 VISUALARTS -AESTHETICS
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction •
1.2 Visual Art and Communication
1.3 Aesthetics in Visual Art
1.4 Use of Visual Arts
1.5 Types of Visual Arts
1.6 Summary
1.7 Self-Assessment Questions
1.8 Terminal Questions.
1.9 Answers

1.0 OBJECTIVES
In the previous four blocks, you have studied about the understanding of art in general
and performing arts in particular. In this block we will study about Visual arts which
consist of painting, sculpture and architecture. They serve as the records of human
emotions, taste and achievement from time to time. There are certain principles through
which the expression of art is effective. We discuss these aspects of visual arts.
After reading this unit you will be able to:
• understand what is meant by visual art;
• discuss the techniques related to visual arts;
• identify different ways oflooking at visual arts;
• explain how visual arts are used for communication.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
We have learnt in the first Block that art has been defined in many ways. Every civilization
and culture produces certain structures or objects by combining colours or shapes,
with some reference in nature. Nature is the open book from which we learn different
shapes, colours, textures and sizes. We should keep our eyes, heart and mind open to
observe and learn from nature. So what is very important is our vision to see and
understand the desired objects as they exist in nature. To create or to appreciate a
painting or sculpture or we need proper vision without which we cannot visualize the
shape, colour, proportion of natural or man-made things. Visual arts were also included
in fine arts along with music and dance. To create a more precise understanding the arts
of painting, sculpture and architecture have been brought under visual arts. We cannot
imagine our life without these arts. They are also functional. We will discuss more about
this later in this unit.

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Introduction to Visual Arts
1.2 VISUALART AND COMMUNICATION
We learn from history that all living beings used to communicate with the help of signs
and symbols in early ages. After the advent of human culture, different types of tools
were put into use to create effective symbols. They conveyed some kind of message
not in words but b¥ these created symbols. This kind of communication is known as
non-verbal communication. Before language came into existence the non-verbal symbols
were the only way of expression. With the growth oflanguage, script and literature it
was thought that the non-verbal communication would lose its importance. But instead
of describing a concept through a number of written pages, we can show a picture and
that can be more effective. Thus visual' art can be used for a specific type of
communication.
Visual art expands man's capacity to understand the world because of its potential to
communicate. It creates social awareness. To understand history better we try to see a
painting or sculpture or the architectural remains of the period. Apart from the value of
the function they performed in early times, they serve as visual records and communicate
to us about the past. In this way the creations of visual arts are the constant
communicators of the past and great pointers towards the future. Thus they are necessary
parts of human life and history.

1.3 AESTHETICS IN VISUAL ART

Any human activity, group or personal besides purely utilitarian purpose involves fine
ways of thiriking and acting which are considered universally important. To put it simply,
this kind of feeling and the ways of expressing it in visual or performing mode are
known as aesthetics. It is a science and theory of art. Art is the heart of aesthetic
activity. In it human activity turns to be artistic activity, which has produced immortal
,
,
masterpieces of everlasting value to mankind. Landscape painting known as nature
painting or landscape-gardening or garden sculpture draws our mind towards the
environment. By this act we become closer to nature.
Aesthetic activity can be seen in everyday life. A person can grow as a fme personality
with a sense of appreciation in art. Through this kind of attitude an artistic culture is
evolved. The visual art created in historical times shows the taste of the person who
commissioned it as well as the creator. We know about the Mughal emperor who built
Taj Mahal and other structures, which tell us about the taste of the times and the purpose
of creating a great piece of visual art. Several theories have been developed to interpret
art and they fall under the study of aesthetics.

1.4 USEOFVISUALARTS
As we have discussed earlier, art in any form is needed for developing one's own
interest and perceptions in life. But architecture is the most functional among the visual
arts because man always wants to live in a comfortable place according to his own
taste. Sometimes he may have to live in a place already designed by somebody. So
design and plan are the important elements of architecture. In the field of religion, visual
arts like sculpture and painting were used to communicate the principles of religion to
common people. The creation of the world, the story of early human beings Adam and
Eve and how they emerged as children of God is portrayed effectively in Sistine Chapel
in Italy in an artistic piece of the Italian Renaissance of 15th century AD. Similarly in
India the Buddha's life is beautifully narrated in a story form in the paintings ofAjanta.
6 We learn many things by visiting a palace, temple, mosque or mansion. They give us

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information about the lifestyle of a person who lived in a particular period. Some of the Visual Arts -
Aesthetics
principles used there in design are applicable to all times. You must also have noticed
that to make the place beautiful some paintings or sculptures are placed in different
locations. This would serve as the visual record of the tastes of a person. When you feel
that you wish to relax or spend time in a meaningful way you go in search of a pleasant
place or an art show or even a museum .•When you spend time appreciating art work
you learn many things and you will refresh your mind. This is the actual use of art.

History of art as a discipline studies the evolution, development and current trends in
arts. An artist may be a sculptor or a painter, or a designer and even architect and they
are professionals whose work is as important as that of scientists, engineers, doctors,
teachers and advocates. Visual art as a profession has been in practice for a long time
throughout the world. There are examples of kings and emperors like Akbar, giving
state titles and royal treatment to painters and the employing court artists. You will study
more about this under the unit - Miniature Painting.

Even today, in advertising, film, publication, industry and construction projects, designers,
painters, sculptors and architects are required. The use of visual arts is equally high
today as in earlier times, only the trends and applications are modified. Since visual arts
are best used in media and communication they adopt the changes easier than the
performing arts.

1.5 TYPES OF VISUAL ARTS

Traditionally the visual arts were believed to include drawing, painting, sculpture and
architecture. But along with these many more arts have been joined the framework of
visual arts, as the trend today is to see and believe thorough visual language and
communication.

To show any concept in an interesting way if you present it using the elements of visual
arts you will communicate better. In the present world everything depends on visual
impact. To sell any product, advertisement is necessary with relevant visuals or pictures
or with video clippings. These can be created using photography or videography in the
frame work of design. So in the present day context, apart from drawing, painting,
sculpture and architecture, advertisement, photography, videography, film, television
and all other arts associated with them fall into the category of visual arts.

1.6 SUMMARY
In this unit we have studied mainly various forms of the visual arts. The information we
learnt here will serve as the background for understanding the topics such as painting,
sculpture and architecture. Visual arts have been used as the means of communication
in religion and society. Great architecture in the world has been created by using visual
principles in design. The symbols have been created from the time of the conception of
society. All these have been effectively expressed in visual arts from very early times.

1.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Self Assessment Question 1
Fill in the blanks with suitable words.
i) non-verbal language, ii) we need our eyes and vision, iii) Nature painting, iv) effective
communication, v) without visual arts
7
1. To create or to appreciate a painting, sculpture or architecture _

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Introduction to Visual Arts 2. Before language came into existence was the only way of
expression.
3. Wecannotimagineourlife . _

4. Landscape painting is also known as _

•
5. Visual art can be used for _

Self Assessment Question 2

State whether True or False
1. History of art is a discipline which does not study the evolution of art.

2. Art is a non-aesthetic activity

3. Design and plan are important elements of architecture.

4. Visual arts do not adopt changes easily

5. Photography is a non visual art.

1.8 TERMINALQUESTIONS
1. . Make a list of visual arts

2. Explain the use of visual arts.

1.9 ANSWERS
1 - ii, 2 - i, 3 - v, 4 - iii, 5 -iv.

2.,
- F 2 -F , 3 - T'.'4 - f 5 - F
Terminal Questions
1. Visualartsinclude Drawing, Painting, Sculpture,Architecture,Design, Photography,
Video, Film, Gardening etc.

2. History of art as a discipline studies the evolution, development and current trends
in arts. Artists, may be sculptors or painters, or designers and even architects.
They are all professionals whose work is as important as scientists, engineers,
doctors, teachers and advocates. So visual art as a profession has been in practice
for a long period of time throughout the world. There are examples of the kings
giving state titles and royal trea~ent to painters and employing court artists.

Even today, in advertising, film, publication sector, industry, and construction

projects, designers, painters, sculptors and architects are required. The use of
visual arts is equally high today as in historicaltimes, only the trends and applications
are modified. Since visual arts are best used in media and communication they
adopt the changes easee than the performing arts.

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UNIT 2 PAINTING
Structure

2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction •

2.2 Early Paintings - Rock Art

2.3 Historical Painting
2.4 Ancient Texts on Indian Painting
2.5 Information in the Literature
2.5.1 Shadangas - Six Limbs of Painting
2.5.2 Techniques of Colouring
2.5.3 Colours and Emotions

2.6 Summary
2.7 Self-Assessment Questions
2.8 Terminal Questions
2.9 Answers

2.0 OBJECTIVES
In the previous units you have studied about painting as one of the very significant visual
arts. In this unit we will discuss about the art of painting, the techniques, materials used
in the art of painting. We take this opportunity to learn the early phase of painting and
what are the types of paintings that we come across and the ancient literature on Indian
painting.

Objectives

After reading this unit you will be able to:

• understand the evolution and development of Indian painting;

• identify the ancient texts, techniques and elements of Indian painting;

• know the history of Indian painting;

• know the trends and approaches of painting after Indian independence.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Painting has been a very powerful medium of art in India. Painting as an art in India has
a long heritage and history. The very early traces of painting can be seen in rock art. In
the Indus period, the painted pottery had colourful patterns and designs. In the historical
period painting was used as a means of communicating religious principles and also to
narrate stories or incidents. In the medieval times painting acquired a very important
position as an independent art.

There are references in our literature to the members of royal families learning painting.
The royal courts patronised the talented individuals like painters, dancers, musicians
and poets. The artists acquired respectable status and were honoured by the kings for

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I
Introduction to Visual Arts their artistic achievements. Emperor Akbar patronised Baswan, KhwajaAbdus Samad
and many other artists. They are responsible for the development of Mughal Miniature
School. We will study more about Mughal Miniature School in Unit -3. Let us study
here the development of Indian painting in a chronological order.

2.2 EARLYPAINTING-ROCKART
•
Rock Art belongs to the Stone Age which is generally assigned to the pre-historic
period (the period for which there are no written records). Men in the Stone Age
(

primarily depended on hunting, and gathering fruits, edible roots, honey and other things
for their food. The Pre-historic men lived in natural shelters and caves. Their art was the
representation of life around them. They painted the hunting scenes, wild and
domesticated animals on the walls of their caves, rock shelters and boulders. Geometric
forms, floral motifs and the imprint of the palm are other representations.

Rock Art is found in many parts of the world such as Europe, Africa, Australia, Russia
and other parts of Asia including India. Many studies are being conducted in the field of
'RockArt' all over the world. In India, scholars like VS.Wakankar, S.K. Pande, Jagadish
Gupta and others have discovered rock art primarily in the caves and rock shelters of
N armada Valley and Kaimur mountain ranges in central India. Later the painting of this
period was discovered in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Gujarat, and Kerala.
Among these UNESCO has recognised Bhimbetka as a World Heritage Site. These
paintings are dated to 10,000-1,000 BC but the tribes of this area continued to paint till
the eighteenth century.

The paintings are done in the style of line drawings; sometimes only the outline is heavily
drawn. Otherwise hatched lines in different patterns are used to fill the figure. Colours
were prepared out of mineral and natural vegetable substance mixed with animal fat or
gum from trees. They directly applied this mixture of colours on the rock face to allow
it to get into the pores of the rock. After a period of time the paintings become permanent,
These paintings sometimes have a religious or magic purpose and sometimes is a natural
expression of the world around them. Whatever the purpose of these paintings, the
'Rock Art' is the record of early man and his life. It is important to know that the instinct
to paint is not just in modem man but was also very much with the caveman.

2.3 mSTORICALPAINTING
With the establishment of Mauryan rule the historical period commences in India. Since
then the dates and events have been recorded in the form of stone and copper plate
inscriptions. But the paintings ofMauryan and Shung period are not yet discovered.
Thus the earliest historical painting in India is attributed to the period of Satavahanas
who ruled from 200 BC to 224 BC. In the historical period painting was used as a
means of communicating religious principles and also to narrate a story or incident. In
the medieval times painting acquired a very important position as an independent art.

The world famous Ajanta paintings have a long history. The earliest paintings at Ajanta
•
in the Cave 9 and 10 are considered to belong to the time of Satavahanas. The Brahmi
inscriptions of that period in these caves inform us about their rule over this area. Jataka
stories concerning the life of Buddha are the subject matter of these paintings. Further
during Gupta, Pallava, Chalukyan, Chola and Vijayanagarperiod the art of mural painting
flourished. You will study mural paintings in detail in the second unit and about miniature
schools of painting in the third unit.

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 Painting
2.4 ANCIENTTEXTSONINDIANPAINTING
Indian tradition attributes the origin of art to sage Narayana. He created the beautiful
apsara Urvasi and also drew the beautiful picture ofUrvashi. Then Narayana taught
the visual arts to Vishvakanna, the celestial architect. He painted beautifully the entire
universe. The first pictures were created by such painters. Further Vishvakarma created
three-dimensional images - the sculptures and architecture. So Vishvakarma is
considered the pioneer of Indian visual arts.
In India art has been handed down as a practising tradition from the most ancient times.
The techniques and methods of art are found in written form in ancient texts. There are
independent texts from early times for dance, music, sculpture and architecture. But we
do not get an independent text on painting. However several texts contain a chapter on
painting.

The texts which give information on the art of painting are:

Chitrasutra a chapter from Yishnudharmottara

Naradiya shilpa

Abhilashitarthacintamani

Saraswatishilpa

Chitralakshana, a section from the 16th century text known as Shilparatna.

Even the.episodes from Sanskrit literature provide a good deal of information on the art
of painting. All information on drawing or sketching, colouring and making of a picture
is given in these ancient texts. The oldest text is Vishnudharmottara Puran which
belongs to 4th to 5th century AD. It contains an independent chapter on all art forms
practised in India. The chapter on painting is known as Chitrasutra. This chapter is
very valuable because it gives information on the classification of pictures, painting
materials, merits and defects in painting etc.

2.5 INFORMATION IN THE LITERATURE

The above mentioned texts provide a good deal of information about the process and
techniques in painting, preparation of colours and brushes.

2.5.1 Shadangas - the six limbs of the art of Painting.

a. Rupabedha - variety of form

b. Pramana - Proportion and size

c. Bhavayojana - the infusion of different emotions

d. Lavanyayojana ~ creating the lustre and retaining the freshness of colours

e. Sadrusya - bringing likeness in the form

.f. Varnikabhanga - creating colour effects to bring the depth in the work.

A painting is created by using these six procedures. Once the subject is decided the
artist starts thinking about how to put that in a figure, what types of forms (Rupa) are
suitable for the subject. The forms are drawn on the surface with a proper understanding
of the space. The forms are to be proportionate to the size of the given space. Then the
.forms are infused with the different emotions depending on the rasa of the picture. 11

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Introduction to Visual Arts What is conceived has to be in likeness to the image around us. For example when you
draw a chair and table as kept in a room they should look like a chair and table and not
something else. After drawing the sketches the different colours are mixed and painted.
While painting, care is to be taken not to create muddy patches but retain the freshness
of the colours. •

2.5.2 Techniques of Colouring

The ancient texts give details on the ways of colouring a picture. There are three ways
of applying colours to the form drawn. .
a. binduvartana - Vartanais shading, bindu is dot, so when the space is filled in
dots of different colours different shades are created.
b. raikhikavartana - rekhais line, filling the form with fine-line shading, this is
known as silver point.
c. patravanana- applying different colours with wider brush work in cross-hatching
manner.

2.5.3 Colours and Emotions

Emotion is the soul of painting. illa figure painting the emotions give life to the portraiture.
For example in a scene where Buddha comes to his own house for alms (bhiksha),the
emotion in his face is serene filled with compassion and detachment. His wife with her
child Rahul on the door-step lo~ks at him with a sense of pathos and Rahullooks at
Buddha in wonder. The artist has brought the emotions concerned to the subject in this
painting. ill this way colours help in expressing the proper emotions in painting.

2.6 SUMMARY
. In this unit, we have tried to view the development of painting as an art in various
periods of Indian history. So far we have learnt that, there were several texts which ~
I
I

discuss the techniques of painting, how a picture is to be painted. We also explored

how the painting was done in the very early stage of human development, the various
locations where rock art was executed, and the subjects of interest for the cave-men to
paint. In the historical phase we have many schools in murai painting and miniature
painting and manuscript painting.

2.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Self Assessment Questions 1
State whether the following statements are true or false. Write either T or Fin
the boxes provided.
a) . The literary references state that art was not patronised by the royal courts.
b) ill the Indus period the painted pottery had colourful patterns and designs.

c) The rock shelters had the paintings of kings and queens.

d) The Brahmi inscriptions of that period in which tell us about the rule of Shatavahanas
over this area.
e) Indian tradition attributes the origin of painting to Raja Ravi Verma.
12

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Self Assessment Questions 2 Painting

Match the items of the fist column with those of the second. Write the number of the
appropriate match in the bracket given in the first column.
Column I Column IT
a) Rupabedha
• i) fillingthe form with fine-lineshading,this
is known as silver point.
b) Pramana il) applying different colours with wider
brush work in cross-hatching manner.
c) Bhavayojana iii) variety ofform

d) Raikhikavartana iv) the infusion of different emotions

e) Patravartana . v) proportion and size

2.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Write briefly on rock art painting .

........................................................................................................................
. -

2. Write a brief note on shadangas, the six limbs of Indian painting .

........................................................................................................................

2.9 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions 1

1. a)F,b)T,c)F,d)T,e)F.
Self Assessment Questions 2

2. a) iii, b) v, c) iv, d) I, e) ii.

Terminal Questions

1. Rock Art belongs to the Stone Age which is a pre-historic period. The Pre-historic
men lived in natural shelters and caves. Their art is the representation of life around
them. They painted hunting scenes, wild and domesticated animals on the walls of
their caves, rock shelters and boulders. Geometric form, floral motifs, the imprint
of the palm are other representations. Rock art found in many parts of the world
such as Europe, Africa, Australia, Russia and other parts of Asia including India.
13

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/
Introduction to Visual Arts UNESCO has recognised Bhimbetka as a World Heritage Site. These paintings
are dated to 10,000-1,000 BC but the tribes of this area continued to paint till the
.eighteenth century.
2. Shadangas are the six limbs of the art of Painting •
•
a. Rupabedha - variety of form,

b. Pramana - Proportion and size

c. Bhavayojana - the infusion of different emotions

d. Lavanyayojana - creating the lustre and retaining the freshness of colours

e. Sadrusya - bringing likeness in the form

f. Varnikabhanga - creating colour effects to bring the depth in the work.

A painting is created by using these six procedures. Once the subject is decided the
artist starts thinking about how to put that in figure, what types of forms (Rupa) are
suitable for the subject. The forms are drawn on the surface with a proper understanding
of the space. The forms are to be proportionate to the size of the given space. Then the
forms are infused with the different emotions depending on the rasa of the picture.
What is conceived has to be in likeness to the image around us. For example when you
draw a chair and table as kept in a room they should look like a chair and table and not
something else. After drawing the sketches the different colours are mixed and painted.
While pairiting, care is to be taken not to create muddy patches but retain the freshness
of the colours.

14

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UNIT 3 SCULPTURE
Structure

3.0 Introduction
.•.
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Early stages
3.3 Basic elements
3.4 Basic Techniques
3.5 Ancient texts on Indian sculpture
3.6 Summary
3.7 Self-Assessment Questions
3.8 Terminal Questions
3.9 Answers

3.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units you have studied about painting. Similarly we find different styles in
sculpture. In this unit we discuss the techniques and materials used in creating sculpture.
We will study the salient features of sculptures in different periods. We will also study
the principles and techniques that were followed to create them.

3.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
• understand the evolution and development of Indian sculpture;
• discuss the iconography and techniques;
• know the history of Indian sculpture; and
• know about the trends and approaches in sculpture.

3.2 EARLYSTAGES
You might have visited a temple or a chaitya, where you might have seen some
sculptures. You were able to understand some of them but not everything. The sculptural
art: in India developed with a divine background. Let us try to know the significant
features and the development of sculpture in India.
Indian sculpture is the product ofIndian culture. The sculptural tradition emerges from
folk level in villages. The potter's wheel is the first instrument which turned the clay and
created different shapes of pots and dishes. In the beginning images were created in
clay on a small scale. Later it progressed into the terracotta art. The images were made
out of fme clay and then baked in the kiln so that the images did not melt when it came
into contact with water. We will learn more about terracotta art in the next unit on Indus
valley. Sculpture as an art form progressed into many styles during the historical period.
We get to see many sculptures of gods and goddesses' created in sculpture, metal,
15

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Introduction to Visual Arts wood and ivory for the purpose of worship. The sculptures were also created to decorate
the different parts of the Buddhist, Jaina and Hindu architecture.

3.3 BASICELEMENTS
There have been two streams of sculpture traditions:
•
1. Folk level in villages, which is natural and functional, which is also known as Lower
Tradition or Little Tradition. Sculptures produced at this level are for different
seasons, festivals or ancestral worship.
2. Classical level based on the principles and texts, which is also known as Higher
Tradition. The sculptors have to follow certain texts to create the sculptures.
These two traditions are not exclusive to each other. The roots of Higher Tradition are
in the Lower Tradition. For example the worship of snake or tree is basically part of
village beliefs. But the Higher Tradition picked up the practice from such beliefs and
added their value system based on texts and literature. These later became major religious
symbols with their own meanings in Buddhist, Jaina and Hindu traditions.

3.4 BASICTECHNIQUES
The techniques discussed below are basically used for stone carving. Minute carvings
and inlay work (fixing the required piece by carving the spot) are used in wood and
ivory carvings. The techniques used for metal sculpture are entirely different.
a) Engraving: The figures were carved on rocks in the beginning. Such line carving
011 the surface of the rock is known as engraving. Good examples are the engravings
in the rock art phase.
b)· Low relief: Compared to engraving the low relief sculptures are deeply carved.
The images and motifs appear as the embossed ones. The stories of the epics
(Hindu) andjataka (Buddhist) stories were created in low-relief technique.
Examples are the narrative panels from Buddhist chaityas such as Sanchi and
Barhut,
c) Middle relief: The middle relief sculptures are more deeply carved than the low-
relief sculptures. These sculptures create the illusion of movement. Such high relief
are seen on the walls of many temples.
d) High-relief: The figures emerge out of the wall but the rear portion of the figure
cannot be seen. The sculptures found in the rock -cut architecture are examples of
high relief.
e) Imagesin-the-round: The sculptures that are seen all round belong to this category.
An entire stone is carved in the.form of an image for the purpose of worship or to
.place in the required positions of the temple units. An example is the images
worshipped in the garbhagriha of the temple.
t) Stencil style: Carvings on temples has one more style, called 'stencil style'; In
this technique the entire surface remains plain but the cutting of figures and designs
is done deep into stone. The carvings on the shikharas (the tower) of the Hindu
temples are done in this style. Later we find abundant use of this technique in
Islamic art.
Metal sculptures: They are popularly identified as bronzes. This is an important branch
16 of Indian sculpture. The art of metal casting always received great attention and is of the

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highest antiquity. The metal sculptures are found even in the Indus valley period dated Sculpture

around 3000 BC.

There are two basic techniques in metal casting -
1. Lost-wax method: Metal images werepast by the cire perdue or lost-wax process.
The steps to be followed in this method are:
i) The image is conceived and modelled first using only wax.
D.) This model is coated with layers of fine clay. Now wax cannot be seen and
the model looks like a clay image with an opening at the top and bottom.
iii) The liquid metal is poured into this hole and the wax melts and flows out
through the other hole. Thus the wax is lost and the hot metal liquid flows into
the clay image.

iv) It should be allowed to cool down.

v) Then the clay covering is to be broke open. The metal image is seen. The
sculptors give final touches by chiselling unnecessary parts, carving the
decorations and polishing the image. The sculpture of the dancing girl from
Indus valley is the earliest example of metal sculpture in India. Large numbers
of metal sculptures are found in the archaeological excavations of all historical
periods. But the finest examples are the Nataraja sculptures from the Chola
period.
2. .Hollow-wax method: The other method followed was to create a model in clay
with all the details and then pour the liquid metal thinly all over the model. After
cooling the clay part is removed and the mould would be hollow. Such sculptures
come from many folk traditions.

3.5 ANCIENT TEXTS ON INDIAN SCULPTURE

The word for sculpture is 'shilpa' which means to 'create' . Several texts were written
which can be brought under the category of shilpa texts. The development of Hindu
temple architecture is closely associated with the rituals. There are many texts known
as 'agamas' , which are like manuals for performing rituals in the system of worship.
There are separate texts for Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina sculptures. In Hinduism itself
there are texts on Shaiva (on Shiva), Vaishnava (on Vishnu), Shakta (on Shakti
goddess) and other deities. These texts give the details of iconography: the seating,
standing postures, hand postures, the dress they should wear, the attributes they hold in
hands, the type of head dress, jewellery they have to wear, the vehicles they use and
such other things.

3.6 SUMMARY
In this unit we have discussed Indian sculptural heritage. We have tried to understand
the basic elements that are to be known while considering Indian sculptures, the various
techniques of chiselling stone sculptures and the way the metal sculptures were produced.
With the techniques known to our people they have produced great artistic bronze
sculptures from very early times. We have also realised that the Indian sculptors created
the sculptures not merely by trial and error methods but by following the rules and
measurements laid down by the shilpa texts. They created perfect images with artistic
merits in stone, metal and wood.
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Introduction to Visual Arts
3.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Self Assessment Questions 1

Which of the following are correct:

a) The sculptural tradition emerges from folk level in villages.

b) The sculptural art in India developed with a divine background.

c) We do not get to see much terracotta art in the Indus valley.

d) In the beginning images were created in clay in a small way.

e) Sculpture as an art form did not made progress during the historical period.

Self Assessment Questions 2

Fill in the blanks with the list given below:

i)HigherTradition, ii) stencilstyle,ill)Buddhist, Jaina and Hindu architecture,iv)bronzes,

v) Shaiva (on Shiva), Vaishnava (on Vishnu), Shakta (on Shakti goddess)

a) In Hinduism itself there are texts on--- --- ---, and other deities.

b) The carvings on the shikharas of the Hindu temples are done in ---

c) Classical level based on the principles and texts, is also known as ---

d) The sculptures were created to decorate the different parts of ------

e) Metal sculptures are popularly identified as ------

Self Assessment Questions 3

Make a list of different techniques

.
in the Indian sculptural tradition. .

3.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Which are the basic elements of Indian sculptures?

2. Write a note on the stages of 'lost-wax' method of sculpture.

3. What were the early types in Indian sculpture?

3.9 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions 1

The correct ones are - a), b) and d)

Self Assessment Questions 2

a) v, b) ii, c) i, d) iii, e) iv

Self Assessment Questions 3

The techniques in Indian sculptural tradition are 1. Engraving 2. Low relief 3. High
relief 4. Bas-relief 5. Images in round 6. Stencil style.

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Terminal Questions Sculpture

1. The basic elements of Indian sculptures are found in two levels.

Folk level in villages, which is natural and functional is also known as Lower
Tradition or Little Tradition. Sculptures produced at this level are for different
seasons, festivals or ancestral worship. The classical level is based on the principles
and texts, which is also known as Higher Tradition, The sculptors follow certain
texts to create the sculptures.

These two traditions are not exclusive to each other. The roots of the Higher
Tradition are in the Lower Tradition. For example the worship of snake or tree is
basically part of village beliefs. But the Higher Tradition picked up the practice
from such beliefs and added to their value system based on texts and literature.
These became major religious symbols with their own meanings in Buddhist, Jaina
and Hindu traditions.

2. Stages in the 'Lost Wax' method - Metal images were cast by the cire perdue or
lost-wax process. The steps to be followed in this method:

i) The image is conceived and modelled first using only wax.

ii) This model is coated with layers of fine clay. Now wax can not be seen and
the model looks like a day image with an opening at the top and bottom.

iii) The liquid metal is poured into this hole and the wax melts and flows out
through the other hole. Thus the wax is lost and the hot metal liquid flows into
the clay image.

iv) It should be allowed to cool down.

v) Then the clay covering is to be break open. The metal image is seen. The
sculptors give final touches by chiselling out unnecessary parts, carving the
decorations and polishing the image .. ,.

3. Indian sculpture is the product of Indian culture. The sculptural tradition emerges
from folk level in villages. The potter's wheel is the first instrument which turned
the clay and created different shapes of pots and dishes. In the beginning images
were created in clay in a small way. Later it progressed into the terracotta art. The
images were made out of fine clay and then baked in the kiln so that the images did
not melt when it came in contact with water. Sculpture as an art form progressed
into many styles during the historical period. We get to see many sculptures of
gods and goddesses created in sculpture, metal, wood and ivory for the purpose
of worship. The sculptures were also created to decorate the different parts of the
Buddhist, Jaina and Hindu architecture.

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 UNIT 4 ARCHITECTURE
Structure

4.0 Introduction

4.1 Objectives
4.2 Evolution of Architecture
4.3 Principle elements of Architecture
4.4 Nature of Architecture
4.5 Different Types of Architecture
4.6 Sunnnary
4.7 Self-Assessment Questions
4.8 Terminal Questions
4.9 Answers

4.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units of this block we have studied about the different aspects of visual
arts and especially painting and sculpture. In this unit we will learn about the way a
dwelling place can be transformed by using the elements of design. Among all art forms
that have been evolved, architecture by itself is functional. It is useful from the point of
view of providing basic needs for a man in the form of providing shelter. With the
development of civilization, man's needs to live in a better house became a priority. He
also felt the need to construct a better place to worship God. To make the place worthy
enough to live or worship man discovered and used many kinds of materials in
construction. Since architecture is not a pure art like sculpture and painting more is
attention paid to create a plan and use of materials and also procuring materials. It is
essential to know the development of architecture to understand the history and culture
ofaplace.

4.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:

• understand clearly the significance of architecture;

• explain the different types of architecture;

• know the different elements and techniques in architecture; and

• know the materials used for architecture.

4.2 EVOLUTION OFARCIDTECTURE

You must have seen around you the houses, mansions, market centres, shopping
complexes, temples, churches or mosques. You also must have seen at least in
photographs or television many great grand structures built in early times. They are all
classed as architecture. When you really see them yourself you realise the greatness of
20 these structures and the skills with which they were built.

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 Architecture began when man looked for better protection then a cave and then began Architecture
to think of a shelter for him to live. After man learnt to make working tools for agriculture
or household use his dwelling place never remained a mere hole or a nest. It became a
utilitarian structure that gradually acquired an aesthetic aspect. This marked the beginning
of architecture.
••
Architecture is the shaping of reality according to the laws of beauty in the building of
, I

houses and structures designed to cater to man's heeds for housing and public premises.
I
Architecture creates an enclosed utilitarian-artisfic environment distinct from nature and
the elemental environment and enabling people to use the humanized space in accordance
.with material and cultural requirements.

4.3 . PRINCIPLE ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE

Line, plane, surface, colour, material, space and time are the elements of architectural
design. The common task for an architect and a designer is to give structure and meaning
to the human environment. Many of the ideas are inherited from the pioneers of
architecture and design. Architecture is expressive than representational. The rhythm of
spatial relationships and lines is an important expressive means.

Design is the essential element of architecture. It is also a creative exercise. It needs a

clear understanding of the space where the architecture is to be executed. It also needs
a clear understanding of the climatic conditions and the directions of sun and light. Soil
testing is also an essential element and the technical knowledge which is to be obtained
by engineering skills. A clear plan will solve many problems. The building has to be
designed to suit the needs and taste of the builder.

4.4 NATURE OFARCHITECTURE

Architecture is the art of erecting buildings that are comfortable to live in, beautiful to
the eye and durable. It creates the material man-made environment in which he lives
and works. It is important that the work of architecture should fit into the natural and
urban landscape. The architectural image is inseparable from the function of the structure
and originally expresses its purpo~e.

The forms of architectural structure depend on geographical and climatic conditions,

particularly on the intensity of sunlight, rains or even earthquakes. The architects design
the structure according to their taste and principles of work which are socially conditioned.
The development of architecture depends on the social system, aesthetic ideals, utilitarian
and artistic requirements of the society. It is also linked with the available technology. It
combines art; engineering and construction. Perhaps no other kind of art requires such
. a concentration of effort and material resources as architecture.

Architecture may be combined with monumental painting, sculpture and decorative

arts. The architectural composition is based oIJ.a three dimensional structure and organic
interconnection of the elements of the buildings. The scope of the work determines the
artistic image and monumental character.

4.5 DIFFERENT TYPES OF ARCHITECTURE

Egyptian architecture: In ancient Egypt they built huge tombs in the shape of pyramids.
For example the Great Pyramid in Giza is 150 metres high. This kind of architecture is
marked by early understanding of geometrical shapes and lines. It is also to be noticed
that these structures are constructed without any joints. These grand structures were
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Introduction to Visual Arts created not to satisfy the worldly needs of the people but for religious purposes. This
was to firmly establish the political power of the rulers who were known as Pharaohs.

Indus Civilization: The very early material for architecture was timber, i.e., wood.
Later the bricks made of mud were used for architecture. A very early and fme example
of houses constructed with mud-bricks was found in the cities of Indus civilization such
•
as Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Lothal and others. Public buildings were also constructed
in other places using wood and mud-bricks. Early temples in European cultures were
I
built with sun-burnt bricks and decorated with mosaics (using coloured stones or tiles
of small sizes and creating a motif or design) and mural paintings. Later stone became I
the common material for architecture. Because of the use of stone the size of the building
enlarged, they became long-lasting, permanent and looked grand.
I
GreekArchitecture: The architecture of ancient Greece was the foundation of many
subsequent styles in different parts of the world. The concept was democratic not
imperialistic like the Egyptian Pharaohs ..The entire city was full of well-planned structures.
I
The temples, palaces, market squares, landscaped gardens, houses, swimming pools,
open-air theatres, stadiums, gymnasiums were the architectural achievements of the
Greeks. It reflected the cultural blossoming of the Greek society as early as 8th to 2nd
century BC.

Classical Greece set the standard for architecture and had the greatest single influence
on the development of Europeari art. It was the Greeks who laid down the rules of
proportion and who constructed their buildings according to scientific formula. They
translated these rules into living buildings which have timeless value and immortality.
Every line and every shape fulfils a function and contributes to the flow of building and
the astonishing sense of perfection it imparts.

They introduced the Classical Order of pillars and beams. Three major types of pillars I
were Doric, Ionic and Corinthian, which have become the characteristic of European
style of architecture. They have also given the world the concept of ground plan which J
shows all the details of the division and column positions in the building. The Greek ~
architecture moved to Rome and other parts ofItaly and later in the middle ages to
other countries of Europe. All great churches and cathedrals in Europe evolved from
the Greco- Roman tradition and made alterations according to the requirement of their
religion, Christianity.

Indian Architecture: In Asia, Indian and South East Asian architectural tradition is
influenced by two major religions, Hinduism and Buddhism. According to the
requirements of worship temples were built. We will study more about these traditions
in the unit Architectural Heritage in Course I of this programme.

Islamic architecture: Islamic architecture also has its unique characteristics. Islam as
a religion originated in the Arab region but spread rapidly to the Middle East including
Egypt, Africa, Spain and then to Central Asia, India and South-East Asian countries.
The requirements of their religious architecture are interpreted in their holy book Kuran.
Their religious place is known as a mosque which is a prayer hall for the people. They
pray 5 times a day. It is a huge hall with a niche known as mihrab in the wall, delicately
carved screen, directed towards Mecca, with high minarets in the form of column. The
central dome of the mosque is beautifully ornate and the interiors are vast with high
raised columns and arches. Use of marble is an important features oflslamic architecture.
In India we have Jumma Masjid in many cities, which are monumental in character.
They also constructed tombs for the dead. In and around Delhi we have many tombs
like Humayun' s tomb. One of the great pieces ofIslarnic architecture is the Taj Mahal
22
built in fully marble.

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ModemArchitecture: The 2()1h century created new types of buildings like industrial Architecture
buildings, offices, mansions, apartments, public places like bus stations, assembly houses,
museums, galleries, sports complexes, shopping complexes, airports, apartments and
residential colonies, theatre halls, universities etc. The materials used include glass, fibre
glass, wood, steel, stone, brick, cement etc. The new material is used along with the
concept of design. In present days, design decides everything in architecture. It has
become a trend to construct a monumental structure within a short time. So, pre-
fabricated blocks are the preferred materials for architecture. According to the needs
and the time available the architectural project is taken forward and completed. Olympic
Games are now occasions for introducing and creating wonders in architecture; each
country looks forward to create a greater architectural project than ever before carried
out. In the recent Beijing Olympics, the Chinese architects created the Bird's nest, a
grand symbol of modem architecture.

4.6 SUMMARY
We have seen in this unit how architecture can be seen simply as the creation of a
building that satisfies the basic function of living in a shelter, which may be a simple four
walled place with a roof. But if we think in terms of great structures it can result in the
Pyramids, Athens temple, or Kailasa Temple of Ell ora, Taj Mahal or the 'nest' ofBeijing
Olympics. Architecture is regarded as the most important of all visual arts because it is
more functional than painting or sculpture. The other arts like drawing, painting and
sculpture can be used to embellish or beautify architecture. We have also seen how
design is the principle element of arcliitecture. Selection of the materials, and execution
of the work only depends on the design. Today architects who carry out great
architectural projects are in great demand.

4.7 SELFASSESSMENTQUE~TIONS
Self Assessment Questions 1
Write whether True or False

1. Architecture is the shaping of reality according to the laws of beauty.

2. Architecture creates an enclosed utilitarian-artistic environment distinct from nature.

3. It creates the man-made environment in which man lives and works.

4. The development of architecture does not depend on the social system and aesthetic
ideals.

5. Architecture is linked with technology.

Self Assessment Questions 2

Fill in the blanks with suitable words given below

i) cities of Indus civilization, ii) design decides, iii) in their holy book Kuran,
iv) to satisfy the worldly needs of the people, v) Classical Order

1. The Pyramids were created not but for religious purposes.

2. A very early and fine example of houses constructed with mud-bricks were found
in the _

3. The Greeks have introduced the of pillars and beams.

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Introduction to Visual Arts 4. The Islamic requirements of religious architecture is interpreted _

5. In present days requirement of everything in architecture.

4.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Explaiii the evolution of architecture.

2. What are the principles element of architecture?

3. Write notes on a) Greek architecture and b) Islamic Architecture

4.9 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions 1

1 - T, 2 - F., 3 - F, 4 - F, 5 - T

Self Assessment Questions 2

i) to satisfy the worldly needs of the people, ii) cities of Indus civilization, iii) Classical
Order, iv) ) in their holy book Kuran, v) design decides

Terminal Questions

1. The beginning of the architecture was a just a hole for man to seek protection then
a cave and then a man-made shelter for him to live. After man learnt to make
working tools for agriculture or household use his dwelling place never remained
to be a hole or a nest. It became a utilitarian structure that gradually acquired an
aesthetic aspect. Thus a building became architecture.

Architecture is the shaping of reality according to the laws of beauty in the building
of houses and structures designed to cater to man's needs for housing and public
premises. Architecture creates an enclosed utilitarian-artistic environment distinct
from nature opposing the elemental environment and enabling people to use the
humanized space in accordance with material and cultural requirements.

2. Design is the very essential element of architecture. It is also a creative exercise. It

needs a clear understanding of the space where the architecture is to be executed.
It also needs a clear understanding of the climatic conditions and the directions of
sun and light. Soil testing is also an essential element and the technical knowledge
which is to be obtained by engineering skills. A clear plan will solve many problems.
The building has to be designed to the needs and taste of the builder.

3. GreekArchitecture: The architecture of ancient Greece was the foundation of

many subsequent styles in different parts of the world. The concept was democratic
not imperialistic like the Egyptian Pharaohs. The entire city was treated with well-
. planned structures. The temples, palaces, market squares, landscape gardens,
houses, swimming pools, open-air theatres, stadiums, gymnasiums were the
architectural achievements of Greeks. It reflected the cultural blossoming of the
Greek society as early as 8th to 2nd century BC.

They have introduced the Classical Order of pillars and beams. Three major
types of pillars were Doric, Ionic .and Corinthian, which have become the
characteristic of European style of architecture. They have also given the world
the concept of ground plan which will show all the details of the division and
column positions in the building. The Greek architecture moved to Rome and
24

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 other parts of Italy. Later in the middle ages to other countries of Europe. All great Architecture
churches and cathedrals in Europe evolved from Greco-Roman tradition and made
alterations to the requirement of their religion Christianity.

Islamic architecture: Islamic architecture has its unique characters. Islam as religion
originated in Arabia but spread rapidly to Middle East including Egypt, Africa, Spain
and then to Central Asia, India and South-east Asian countries. The requirements of
theirreligious architecture are interpreted in their holy book Kuran. Their religious
place is known as mosque a prayer hall for the people. They have to pray 5 times a day.
It js a huge hall with a niche known as mihrab in wall, delicately carved screen, directed
towards Mecca, with high minarets in the form of column. The central dome of the
mosque is beautifully ornate and the interiors are vast with high raised columns and
arches. Use of marble is the important features ofIslamic architecture. In India we have
Jumma Masjid in many cities are monumental in character. They also constructed tombs
for the dead. In and around Delhi we have many tombs like Humayun tomb. One of the
great pieces ofIslamic architecture is the Taj Mahal built in complete marble.

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 NOTES

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 OVA-002
Understanding Indian Art Forms
Block 1. INTRODUCTION TO PERFORMING ARTS

Unit 1: Performing Arts

Unit 2: Indian Drama (Inclusive of Dance).
Unit 3: Music
Unit 4: Dance

Block 2. INTRODUCTION TO VISUAL ARTS

Unit 1: Visual Arts

Unit 2: Painting
Unit 3: Sculpture
Unit 4: Architecture

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