Received Date : 01-Feb-2016

Revised Date : 02-Apr-2016

Accepted Date : 06-Apr-2016
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Article type : Article

Beyond Cognition:
Reading Motivation and Reading Comprehension

Allan Wigfield
Jessica Gladstone
Lara Turci
University of Maryland

Key words: reading, motivation, comprehension, reading cognition

This is the author manuscript accepted for publication and has undergone full peer review but has
not been through the copyediting, typesetting, pagination and proofreading process, which may
lead to differences between this version and the Version of Record. Please cite this article as doi:
10.1111/CDEP.12184
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 Abstract

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In this article, we review research on children’s motivation to read and its relation to their
reading comprehension. We begin by discussing work on the development of school motivation
in general and reading motivation in particular, reviewing studies showing that many children’s
motivation to read declines over the school years. Motivation to read tends to differ by gender—
with girls motivated more positively to read than boys. It also differs by ethnicity, in more
complex ways. Over the last 15 years, researchers have identified instructional practices that
boost students’ motivation to read and their reading comprehension. Researchers should build on
this work by developing and studying programs among children of different ages to identify
effective classroom-based instructional approaches that motivate reading and use a variety of
narrative and informational materials.

“[L]earning to read is a key objective of early education and difficulties in learning to

read can have serious adverse consequences” (1, p. 1), according to Hulme and Snowling, who
describe the cognitive processes involved in early reading development. In this article, we build
on their work by discussing reading motivation and its relation to children’s skills in reading
comprehension across the school years. Proficient reading comprehension is crucial for success
in every academic domain, particularly in courses focused on reading and literature (2). As
students advance in their education, they are expected to read and write across disciplines with
increasing skill, flexibility, and insight (3). Because reading materials become increasingly
demanding in later childhood and adolescence, readers must be fluent in decoding and
recognizing words, continually expand their vocabularies and knowledge base, and learn to use
elaborate cognitive strategies to make inferences and analyze text critically (4). The fluency of
these skills depends on the development of earlier foundational reading abilities such as
phoneme awareness and letter knowledge in early childhood, two essential components of
reading words and sentences (1). Because of the hierarchical nature of developing reading skills,
slow growth along any of these dimensions can result in significant difficulty, as well as negative

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consequences, for students’ reading comprehension and achievement more generally as they
progress through school (1). To master the necessary skills and strategies, children must commit
time and effort to learn them; thus students must be motivated to learn and then use these skills
and strategies fully.
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Many children struggle with reading early in their education and continue to have
difficulty through their school years. In 2015, the National Assessment of Educational Progress
(NAEP) found that only 36% of fourth-grade and 34% of eighth-grade students were at or above
proficiency (defined by NAEP as solid academic performance) for reading performance (5).
Furthermore, 31% of fourth-grade and 24% of eighth-grade students were below basic reading
level (they had mastered only partially the prerequisite knowledge and skills needed for
successful academic performance). These statistics are troubling, particularly because reading
below grade level in third grade is among the strongest predictors of dropping out of school later
(6).
Reading performance and other achievement outcomes are even bleaker for students of
color; African American students achieve at lower levels than their European American peers,
and this gap has narrowed only slightly in the past 25 years (5). Students of color who have
fallen behind grade level in reading comprehension are especially susceptible to later dropping
out of school (7). Paired with findings indicating that students of color are disproportionately
affected by poverty, unemployment, and inadequate educational opportunities (8), the
vulnerability of students of color for low reading comprehension and its negative outcomes is
particularly troubling. Thus, poor reading comprehension is an integrated component of the
structural inequalities that can block access to fruitful careers and higher education.
Because efforts focused primarily on building skills and instructing about strategies have
failed to improve students’ performance and narrow academic gaps in achievement, some
researchers have begun to explore how children’s motivation to read relates to reading
comprehension. In this article, we discuss this work, beginning with how we and others define
reading motivation. We then address how reading motivation develops and relates to different
achievement outcomes. We focus next on gender and ethnic differences in reading motivation
and comprehension, then review instructional programs designed to enhance children’s reading
motivation and comprehension. We close with suggestions for research.

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 Defining Reading Motivation
Prominent theoretical models of achievement motivation focus on children’s beliefs,
values, and goals as the primary drivers of their motivation (see 9, 10). Central motivational
beliefs include competence-related beliefs such as self-efficacy, or confidence in one’s ability to
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accomplish different tasks (11), and the sense of control and autonomy individuals have over
their learning (12). When students believe they are efficacious at a given activity such as reading,
they perform more optimally, even when controlling for previous performance (11). Researchers
also have considered ways individuals value activities, including how important they are to the
individual, how useful they might be, and whether the activity interests the individual (13).
Students’ valuing of activities such as reading is an important influence on their choice to engage
in such activities. Researchers distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for different
activities, with intrinsic motivation arising from the individual’s self-expressed interests, and
extrinsic motivation based on outside influences such as rewards and grades. Intrinsic motivation
relates to longer-term engagement in academic achievement activities (activities such as reading
in school that lead to academic outcomes; 12). Individuals have different kinds of goals and goal
orientations for the achievement activities in which they engage, such as increasing one’s
knowledge (mastery goal orientation), or outperforming others (performance goal orientation;
14). These orientations relate systematically to different achievement outcomes (15), and many
students hold both goals. Finally, although motivation often is considered an individual variable
or characteristic, social context and social relations affect students’ motivation as well,
particularly during early adolescence (2).

Development of Reading Motivation

Many young children tend to have a strong sense of their competence for the different
activities they do in school (10). Children also initially find most school activities to be
interesting and exciting, resulting in enthusiasm and valuing of academic activities, but for many
children, this optimistic beginning does not last. Children’s competence beliefs, intrinsic
motivation, and valuing of academic subjects decrease across the school years (16). In research
on the development of reading motivation in particular, children become less positive and less
enthusiastic about reading as they grow older (see 17 for a review). For instance, in a study (18)
on attitudes toward reading, children reported liking reading less across the elementary years.

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The 2015 NAEP report supports these findings and indicates that many children in middle school
actively resist engaging in reading (5). In another study (8), middle school students
overwhelmingly described the texts they read in science classes as boring, irrelevant, and
difficult to understand—hardly a recipe for positive motivation to read.
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These changes in students’ competence beliefs, values, and intrinsic motivation have
been explained in two ways: intrapersonal change and changes in instructional and evaluative
practices. Through the school years, children’s capacity to understand their own performance
increases (see 10). They receive more feedback about their performance in school and
understand its meaning more clearly. Evaluative information such as report cards and feedback
about performance on academic projects and tests can lead some children to realize that they are
not as capable as their peers, which can cause their competence beliefs and intrinsic motivation
to learn to drop.
The second (and related) explanation corresponds to how certain evaluation practices
contribute to some children’s declining motivation (see 19 for a detailed review). Because
educational accountability has increased at different levels, school administrators now require
teachers to evaluate their students more formally and frequently. Practices that emphasize social
comparison and encourage excessive competition among children (e.g., class ranking, spelling
bees) may lead them to focus on how their skills compare to others, which can deflate children’s
competence beliefs, particularly those of children who perform less optimally (see 20). Certain
instructional practices can undermine children’s intrinsic motivation for learning as well.
Instruction that makes few attempts to spark children’s interest and features unappealing texts
can decrease intrinsic motivation. If teachers restrict students’ choice of reading topics or
materials too much, they risk stifling intrinsic motivation and autonomy (12). Finally, when
students do not believe that what they are learning is relevant to their values and goals, they
engage less in learning (21).

Relations of Reading Motivation to Differ ent Reading Outcomes

Why should we be concerned about these declines? One reason is that reading motivation
is associated strongly with reading outcomes, such as students’ reading comprehension, use of
effective strategies, and grades (22). In this section, we discuss how the motivational belief,
value, and goal variables defined earlier relate to children’s reading outcomes.

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 C B S -E
In one study (11), students reporting higher levels of self-efficacy and perceived
competence scored higher on tests of reading comprehension than students reporting lower levels
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of perceived competence, even when previous performance was controlled. Furthermore,
students with greater self-efficacy see difficult reading tasks as challenging and work toward
mastering them, productively using cognitive strategies in the process (11). Greater self-efficacy
also improves middle school students’ performance on standardized reading tests (23).

Autonomy
The relationship between perceived autonomy and reading achievement has been well
documented, particularly in elementary school students (24). Elementary school students’
perceived autonomy—being allowed to select books to read and valuing book selection—
predicted their growth in reading comprehension across four months (24). Children who valued
choosing their own books subsequently developed elaborate strategies for selecting books and
reported being more intrinsically motivated readers than peers who did not value selecting books.

V R
As noted earlier, students’ valuing of reading and other subjects predicts their choice of
activities (13). In one study (25), children’s valuing of reading in fourth grade predicted their
leisure time reading activities in tenth grade, and tenth-grade students who valued reading read to
learn more about possible careers. Children’s valuing of reading also correlates with their
reading achievement and engagement in school reading tasks at the primary and secondary
school levels (26).

I E R Motivation
Student’s intrinsic motivation correlates positively with their reading achievement and
predicts their reading achievement over time (27, 28). By contrast, in one study (29), students’
extrinsic motivation related to the use of surface strategies (e.g., simple rehearsal or
memorization) for reading and the desire to complete a task for a grade rather than to understand

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the task. These findings suggest that although extrinsic motivation is associated positively with
grades in reading, it is less likely to positively influence reading comprehension (28).

Goal O
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Students with mastery goals engage in more metacognitive strategies (e.g., “I need to
highlight this phrase because it is a key point in the story.”), paraphrase text more often, and
make more inferences than students who are oriented toward performance goals (28); however,
mastery goals often do not relate to indicators of performance like grades. By contrast, students’
performance goals relate to their reading grades (28).

Motivation
Children who like to participate in a group of learners by completing tasks are likely
intrinsically motivated readers and subsequently have more positive reading outcomes (30).
Social motivation also leads to more reading, more effort, and greater levels of achievement in
reading (31).
In summary, students’ reading motivation correlates with their reading comprehension in
important ways. Do these results apply to different kinds of students? We turn to that topic next.

Researchers see important group-level differences in the patterns just discussed. In this
section, we focus on gender and ethnic differences in children’s reading motivation and
comprehension because they have been researched the most.

D
Throughout elementary and secondary school, females outperform males on various
measures of reading achievement both in the United States (32) and in international comparison
studies (33). Girls also report greater reading motivation than boys (27, 34). In one study (16),
boys and girls had similar beliefs about their competence in ready early in elementary school, but
boys’ beliefs in their competence and their value of reading subsequently declined more rapidly
than girls’. These findings may reflect cultural expectations that females hold more positive
views about reading than males (35). Researchers and educators should focus on improving male

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students’ competence beliefs and value of reading—as they do in fostering female students’
involvement in the sciences.

D
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Research on ethnic differences in reading is limited. African American students often
report greater self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and valuing of reading than their European
American peers (27, 36), despite often performing less optimally on measures of reading
outcomes. In addition, the relation of children’s reading motivation to their performance varies
across ethnic groups (27, 28, 37). In one study (37), intrinsic motivation related more positively
to reading achievement for Asian American students than for Latino students. In another study
(27), European American students’ reading motivation related more strongly to their reading
achievement than that of African American students, and in yet another study (28), intrinsic
motivation related positively and extrinsic motivation related negatively to text comprehension at
similar levels for both American and Chinese students. These variations suggest that ethnicity
shapes students’ motivation to read and the extent to which it affects academic performance. But
these variations are not well understood and warrant further study.

Instr uctional Pr ogr ams T

Given that many students’ motivation to read declines over their school years and that
reading motivation relates to comprehension, teachers and other educators should work to
enhance students’ motivation to read. Researchers have identified instructional practices that can
foster students’ reading motivation and engagement, focusing on the motivation constructs
discussed earlier (see 38 for a review). These practices include facilitating students’ success to
build their self-efficacy, helping them see the importance and relevance of what they are
learning, giving them some autonomy over their learning, and allowing many social interactions
around reading.
These types of practices improve students’ reading motivation and comprehension in
laboratory studies (22, 38). We know of only one large-scale classroom-based instruction
program that has examined how a focus on reading motivation in classroom instructional
practices affects students’ reading motivation and comprehension: Concept Oriented Reading
Instruction (CORI; 39, 40). The instructional practices in CORI focus on enhancing children’s

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reading motivation and comprehension within a content domain—usually science or social
studies. In CORI, teachers instruct on reading strategy and focus on enhancing the motivation
variables just described: students’ self-efficacy, autonomy, value of reading, intrinsic motivation,
and collaboration in reading. For instance, to enhance students’ perceived autonomy in reading,
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students are given many choices regarding what they read. To enhance their self-efficacy,
students at all reading levels experience success with the materials they read.
At both the elementary and middle school levels, students in CORI had greater reading
motivation, greater engagement in reading, and greater reading comprehension for different
reading activities than students who were taught reading strategies but did not experience
practices to enhance their motivation to read (41-43). Why is CORI effective? The program’s
motivation and strategy instruction practices likely interacted to influence students’ motivation
and comprehension in positive ways (42). As students became more motivated, they likely used
the reading strategies more, which in turn improved their comprehension. The use of reading
strategy of students in classes that featured CORI was greater than that of students in the strategy
instruction condition, further showing the potential power of motivation in changing students’
cognitive approach to reading. Researchers should continue to explore the complex relations and
interactions of students’ motivation and cognitions as they engage in reading.

Summary and Conclusions

For many years, the scientific study of reading was dominated by a focus on the cognitive
processes and strategies involved in learning to read (41). As important as this work was and is
to our understanding of the development of reading comprehension, it did not focus enough
attention on children’s motivation to read. Teachers with extensive knowledge of the most
effective reading strategies to instruct their children will succeed only to the extent that their
students are motivated to learn and use those strategies.
Over the last 20 years, we have learned much about the nature of children’s motivation to
read and how it relates to the amount and types of reading children do, and their reading
comprehension. We also have learned much about effective instructional practices that lead to
improvements in elementary and middle school children’s motivation to read. Yet much research
remains to be done on the development of children’s reading motivation and what kinds of
interventions improve it. For example, most of the work on reading motivation has involved self-

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report measures that have limits, especially when used with young children. One alternative is
for teachers to rate their students’ motivation and engagement; such ratings are reliable and relate
to different outcomes (19). However, researchers should also explore observational and other
types of measures of motivation, in reading and other areas.
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Regarding interventions, CORI remains the only broad-scale, classroom-based
instructional program that systematically incorporates teaching practices focused on motivation.
Its effectiveness needs to be assessed in larger, randomized-control trial studies. Also,
researchers should examine whether a core subset of the motivation practices used in CORI
would be as effective as the entire set. In a review of research on brief, social-psychological
motivation interventions that focus on students’ thoughts, feelings, and beliefs about school (44),
such interventions improved students’ motivation and achievement in different areas—and they
should be assessed in reading as well. Finally, in research on the success of different intervention
programs, effects are sometimes moderated by different children’s characteristics, including
gender, ethnicity, and achievement level (45); such effects should be examined in intervention
studies of reading motivation.

Authors’ Note

Support for the research on CORI discussed in this article came rom the Eunice Kennedy
Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and the National Science
Foundation.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Allan Wigfield,
Department of Human Development and Quantitative Methodology, University of Maryland,
College Park, MD 20742; e-mail: awigfiel@umd.edu.

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 Author Manuscript

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