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Differences in Motivational Perceptions among
U.S., Japanese, and Korean Sales Personnel
Alan J. Dubinsky
METROPOLITAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Masaa ki Kotabe
THE UNIVERSITYOF TEXAS AT AUSTIN

Chae Un Lim
KOOKMIN UNIVERSITY

Ronald E. Michaels
INDIANA urwmsiTY

tlonal, management and personnel practices and policies. This

could occur, for instance, when a multinational corporation
imposes its domestic-based motivational program on foreign
nationals. As Kim and Kim (1989, p 2 15) state:

foreign firms that attempt to do business in a for-

eign country, by mslsting on their own managerial prac-
tices or by treating people as they would at home [find]
themselves constantly embroiled in disputes with their
workers abroad. lF]oreign investors who are from
quite different cultures need to have some understanding
and sympathetic recognition that profound differences EX-
ist [between the countries].

Adler, Doktor, and Reddmg (1986) espouse, in fact, that the

A
plethora of empirical work has examined antecedents, culture employees bring to an organization can limit mana-
consequences, and moderators of U.S. sales force mo- gement’s influence Also, Schein (198 I) argues against whole-
tivation (see Comer and Dubmsky, 1985; and Evans, sale transfer of effective management methods from one
hlargheim, and Schlachter 1982 for reviews). A question re- country to another because of risk associated with assuming
mams, though, whether motivational perceptions of industrial methods that work in one nation will be successful m another.
salespeople vary across countries in degree, if not in hind. Furthermore, Still (1981) specifically cautions sales managers
Exploring salesperson motivation from a cross-natlonal per- against adopting an ethnocentric posture when managing host
spective appears warranted for at least three reasons. First, country sales forces.
previous studies in non-selling situations have found that var- One other reason for conducting a cross-national study of
ious aspects of employee motivation differ across countries sales force motivation is because by ignoring the potential im-
(e.g., Alpander, 1984; Cole, 1979; Howard, Shudo, and Ume- pact of country, a serious omission in existing motivation the-
shlma, 1983). Although prior work has exammed the effect ories 1s perpetuated. Staw (1984) asserts that people’s cultural
of country on work motivation, doing so m a selling context milieu (e.g., a group-oriented versus an mdividualistic-
is critical because research suggests that findings may not be oriented culture-h la Japan and the United States, respec-
generalizable across different occupational groups (e.g., De- tively) might affect their cognitive and affective processes
Cotiis and Summers, 1987; Robinson, Athanasiou, and Ken- vis-ti-vis motivation. Consequently, incorporating country
dra. 1969). into a motivational study of salespeople seems logical emplr-
second, failure to consider potentially unique motivational ically. Doing so should conceivably afford researchers and
needs and concerns of host country national sales personnel practitioners an enhanced understanding regarding how in-
rnlght lead to implementation of ineffectlve, or even dysfunc- dividuals from various nations view the world (Adler, Doktor,
and Redding, 1986) vis-a-vls employee motivation.
The purpose of the present mvestigatlon is to extend pre-
Address correspondence to Masaaki Kotabe, Associate Professor of Market- vious empirical work by using industrial sales personnel from
ing and International Business, Graduate School of Business, The University
of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712. the United States, Japan, and South Korea (hereafter, “Korea”)

Journal of Business Research 30, 175-185 (1994) 0148-2963/94/$7.00

C 1994 Elsevier Science Inc.
655 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10010
176 J Busn Res A. 1. Dubinsky et al.
1994:30:175-185

Table 1. Personnel Management Characteristics of the Three Countries

Country
Factor of Interest Japan U.S. Korea
Job descrrption Not provtded Usually specific Usually not provided
Performance evaluation Continuous, long-run Systematrc Unstructured
Degree of formalization Relatively low Relattvely high Relattvely low
Degree of job-related Relatrvely low Relatively high Relattvely low
informatton available
Work ortentatton Group-oriented Individuahstic Combined mdividuahstic and
group-oriented
Reward system crtterra Performance- and semortty- Performance-based and Generally seniority-based
based, education level, and age education level
Management ortentation Paternahstic Non-paternalistic Authornarian

to examine components of then motivational processes. More orders could lead to receipt of increased incentive pay (e.g.,
specifically, using relevant conceptual and empirical work, hy- commissions). Vafence refers to a salesperson’s desire to obtain
potheses will be developed regarding potential differences in additional amounts of a given reward. For example, aug-
motivational perceptions across the three countrres. menting a salesperson’s salary may be viewed favorably (or
First, this paper briefly presents a model of salesperson mo- even unfavorably) by the salesperson. Rewards can be cate-
tivation. Second, hypotheses are developed. Third, the gorized as either intrmsic (internally generated by the sales-
method used in the investigation is described. Fourth, find- person, such as personal growth or feeling of accomplish-
mgs from the study are discussed. Finally, implications of the ment) or extrmsic (externally generated, such as fringe
results are offered. benefits or job security).

Model of Salesperson Motivation Background and Hypotheses

Motivation is the amount of effort a salesperson desires to
expend on each job activity (Walker, Churchill, and Ford,
1977). Most research (like the present study) regarding sales-
person motivation has been predicated on a model developed
by Walker, Churchill, and Ford (1977, 1979). Their model is
based on the expectancy theory of motivation (e.g., Vroom,
1964), which has received considerable attention in a variety
of work settmgs (see Campbell and Pritchard, 1976 for a re-
view), including mdustrial selling (Evans, Margheim, and
Schlachter, 1982). Moreover, the model’s concepts are re-
garded as havmg both theoretical and pragmatic appeal (Ilgen
and Klem, 1988). According to Walker, Churchill, and Ford
(1979), salesperson motivatron is a function of three percep-
tions-expectancies, instrumentalities, and valence for re-
wards.
Expectancy is a salesperson’s estimate of the probability that
increased effort on some job activity will lead to higher levels
of performance; in essence, it is a salesperson’s perception of
the lmkage between effort and performance. For example, in-
creasing the number of sales calls might be perceived by a
salesperson as leading to more customer orders. Instrumental-
ity is a salesperson’s estimate of the likehhood that higher
levels of performance lead to greater rewards; it is basically a
salesperson’s perceptions of the linkage between job perform-
ance and attainment of various rewards. For instance, a sales-
person might believe that his or her obtaining additional
As noted above, salesperson motivation comprrses three com-
ponents-expectancy, instrumentality, and reward valence.
Hypotheses concermng differences across U.S., Japanese, and
Korean sales personnel for each of these motivational dimen-
sions will now be offered. The respective managerial styles and
personnel practices (depicted in Table 1) found within each
of these countries are the bases by which these hypotheses
will be formulated.
Expectancy Hypotheses
In the United States, organizations generally provide specific
job descriptions and systematic evaluations (Yoo and Lee,
1987). Also, a relatively high degree of formalization (detailed
specification of company procedures and practices) tends to
be employed (Chung and Lee, 1989). Teas (1981a) avers that
such formalization should enhance salespersons’ expectancy
estimates. Furthermore, U.S. employees generally have an in-
dividualistic orientation toward work (Chung and Lee, 1989;
Hofstede, 1983), whereby they place their own self-interest
ahead of the company.
In Japanese organizations, job assignments are not accom-
panied with clear job descriptions, and performance evalua-
tions are continuous but focus on the long run (Yoo and Lee,
1987). Additionally, Japanese employees adopt a group ori-
entation and thus direct their efforts at achieving group, rather
than individual goals (Alston, 1989; Hofstede, 1983; Ouchi,
Differences in Motivational Perceptions
1981). In Korean firms, positions generally do not have job
descriptrons or specifications and, like performance evalua-
ttons, are unstructured; training is unrelated to assignments
(Yoo and Lee, 1987); and frequently employees are required
to use their own judgment because of unclear management
dnectives (Lee, 1989). Moreover, workers in Korea manifest
a combination of individualistic and group orientation (Hofst-
ede, 1983; Kang, 1989).
U.S. employees seemingly receive more job-related infor-
mation than their Asian counterparts. This information should
provide a relatively clear notion about how they are to perform
their jobs. Such perspicuity should help them determine the
Imkage between the effort they expend and achievement of
good performance (expectancy estimate). In fact, Kohli (1985)
and Tyagi (1985a) espouse that job clarity should be positively
related to salespeople’s expectancy estimates. Also, because
U.S. workers are individualistic, they might feel that they have
almost sole control over the effort they expend and the con-
comitant performance results. This situation may then aug-
ment expectancy perceptions.
In contrast, Japanese and Korean employees do not receive
as much information on the job relative to their U.S. coun-
terparts. Consequently, they might be somewhat uncertain
about how they are to execute their job tasks and responsi-
btlities. Moreover, neither Japanese nor Korean employees
have the strong individualistic orientation found in the United
States. The potential lack of job clarity in concert with the
considerably reduced degree of individualism in Asian em-
ployees could lead to similarly reduced expectancy estimates
for Japanese and Korean sales personnel vis-a-vis U.S. sales-
persons.
The preceding arguments lead to the following hypotheses:
Hla: Salespeople in the United States will have higher ex-
pectancy estimates than will salespeople in Japan or
Korea.
H1 b: There will be no significant difference in expectancy
estimates between salespeople in Japan or Korea.
Znstrumentality Hypotheses
In the United States, contingent-based reward systems tend
to be used, whereby rewards generally are dispensed on merit.
For instance, salary level is predicated on performance and
education; incentive pay, on performance; and promotion, on
performance (Yoo and Lee, 1987). A somewhat similar situ-
ation prevails in Japan. Salary criteria include education, age,
and performance; incentive pay is performance-based; and
promotions are determined on education, age, and perform-
ance (Yoo and Lee, 1987). In Korea, however, salary level is
based on seniority; incentive compensation is uniform; and
promotion is seniority-based (Yoo and Lee, 1987). Addition-
ally, Korean employees have little prospect for long-term re-
wards or promotion, irrespective of performance (Lee, 1989;
Matsuura, 1989). Furthermore, as noted earlier, U.S. employ-
ees tend to receive much job-related information in compar-
J Busn Res 177
1994:30:175-185
ison to their Asian counterparts. This information should
seemingly enhance worker job clarity. Indeed, researchers
have posited that the provision of such information (Teas,
1981a) and job clarity (Kohli, 1985; Tyagi, 1985a) may aug-
ment salespeople’s instrumentality estimates.
Given that the reward system in the United States tends to
be merit-based, employees should be relatively certain that if
they perform well, they will receive job-related rewards. Be-
cause the reward system in Japan is not totally predicated on
performance, Japanese employees are likely to have reduced
instrumentality estimates in comparison to their U.S. coun-
terparts. The basically nonperformance-based reward system
in Korea is likely to result in Koreans’ feeling that a high per-
formance level will not produce job rewards; this situation
will likely lead to diminished instrumentality estimates vis-a-
vis both U.S. and Japanese employees. Moreover, the likeli-
hood of increased job clarity of U.S. employees in comparison
to those in Japan and Korea may also contribute to higher
instrumentality perceptions in the United States.
Based on the foregoing rationales, the following hypotheses
are offered:
H2a: Salespeople in the United States will have higher in-
strumentality estimates than will salespeople in Japan
or Korea.
H2b: Salespeople in Japan will have higher instrumentality
estimates than will salespeople in Korea.
Valence Hypotheses
This study examined salespeople’s valences for the following
rewards: a 10% increase in pay; a 10% increase in job security;
a promotion to a higher-level job, a better sales territory, or
larger account responsibility; formal recognition for achieve-
ments; an increase in the amount of liking and respect on the
job; an increase in the opportunities for personal growth and
development; and an increase in feelings of worthwhile ac-
complishment. These seven rewards were selected because
they represent a generalized set of rewards common to many
sales organizations and because they have been utilized in
prior sales force research (e.g., Churchill, Ford, and Walker,
1979; Cron, Dubinsky, and Michaels, 1988; Ingram and Bel-
lenger, 1983). Hypotheses concerning the valence for each of
these rewards now follow.
PAY INCREASE. As noted earlier, employees in the United
States have an individualistic orientation (Hofstede, 1983) and
thus emphasize personal goals. Conventional wisdom suggests
that pecuniary interest is a driving force in the United States,
as evidenced by individuals’ efforts at accumulation of wealth
and status seeking. In Japan, however, group harmony and
unity prevail, thus resulting in employees’ subordinating per-
sonal needs and concerns to those of the group (Ouchi, 1981).
This personal subordination leads to an emphasis on equality
among individuals. In fact, a recent study found that Japanese
salespeople place a higher value on “equality” than do their
U.S. counterparts (Apasu, Ichikawa, and Graham, 1987). In
178 J Bum Res A. J. Dubinsky et al.
1994:30:175-185

Korea, although harmony and unity are of concern to em- 1989; Matsuura, 1989). Also, promotion from within tends to
ployees, these two dimensions are of less significance than in be less prevalent in U.S. or Korean companies than in Japanese
the past. Moreover, high pay is a strong motivational factor organizations (Chung and Lee, 1989).
for those in the lower levels of an organization (Lee, 1989). The preceding rationales lead to the following hypotheses:
The above discussion leads to the following hypotheses:
H5a: Salespeople in the United States will have a higher
H3a: Salespeople in the United States will have a higher
valence for a promotion than will salespeople in Ja-
valence for a pay increase than will salespeople in
pan or Korea.
Japan or Korea.
H5b: Salespeople in Korea will have a higher valence for a
H3b: Salespeople in Korea will have a higher valence for a
promotion than will salespeople in Japan.
pay increase than will salespeople in Japan.

JOB SECURITY. Although some form of lifetime employment FORMAL RECOGNITION. U.S. employees’ individualistic ori-
tends to be the hallmark of Asian firms (Abegglen and Stalk, entation is likely to create aspirations to be publicly acknowl-
1985; Kang, 1989), it is incompatible in U.S. organizations. edged for job success. Such recognition proclaims to
In fact, U.S. employees place a greater importance on job se- organizattonal members that an individual has performed
curity than do their Japanese counterparts (Cole, 1979). Char- meritoriously. In Japan, striving for group harmony, unity,
acteristic of Japanese companies, then, is a paternalistic and equality could reduce employee ardor for formal recog-
management which focuses on employee retention (Yoo and nition. Although Korean employees seek some degree of unity
Lee, 1987). Korean firms are somewhat paternahstic (Kim and and harmony (Lee, 1989), they are less group-oriented than
Kim, 1989; Yoo and Lee, 1987) but less so than those in Japan the Japanese (Chung and Lee, 1989).
(Kim and Kim, 1989). In Korea, managers tend to adopt an Based on the above assertions, the followmg hypotheses are
authoritarian posture; this produces a large number of prompt proffered:
terminations and continual job search (Doktor, 1990; Lee,
1989). Moreover, Korean companies and employees do not H6a: Salespeople in the Umted States will have a higher
share a common bond between each other (Chung and Lee, valence for formal recognition than will salespeople
1989). Perhaps this situation explains why Korean workers in Japan or Korea.
regard job security to be an important motivational factor H6b: Salespeople m Korea will have a higher valence for
(Lee, 1989). formal recognition than will salespeople in Japan.
Based on the above analysis, the following hypotheses are
posited: LIKING AND RESPECT. Conventional wisdom suggests that
family and personal ties in the United States are eroding. This
H4a: Salespeople in the United States will have a higher
situation may exist primarily because of U.S. preoccupation
valence for job security than will salespeople in Japan
with employment mobihty and lob relocation. As a result, a
or Korea.
nuclear family frequently lives at a distance from the extended
H4b: Salespeople in Korea will have a higher valence for
family, and collegial and social relationships often are ephem-
job security than will salespeople m Japan.
eral. U.S. workers, then, are likely to feel affihative estrange-
PROMOTION. The individualistic orientation prevailing in U.S. ment. In Japan, strong personal ties and paternalistic man-
companies results in employees emphasizmg personal needs agement prevail (Ouchl, 1981). These ties, both socially and
(Hofstede, 1983). A reward that many U.S. employees aspire in business, may assist Japanese m their feeling connected to
to achieve is a promotion; after all, being promoted dem- individuals who can provide needed support and encourage-
onstrates to others an employee’s success, can generate ment. Prior work indicates that Japanese sales personnel place
additional extrinsic rewards, and can be a source of self- a greater value on friendship than do their U.S. counterparts
satisfaction. Indeed, previous research has found that U.S. (Apasu, Ichikawa, and Graham, 1987). In Korea, strong family
sales personnel are desirous of being promoted (Churchill, ties exist (Kang, 1989), personal connections are essential
Ford, and Walker, 1979; Ingram and Bellenger, 1983). With (Yoo and Lee, 1987), and informal relationships develop
Japanese employees’ focus on group harmony and unity, re- within organizations (Kang, 1989; Lee, 1989). This context
ceiving a promotion could signify inequality among work may afford Korean employees with sufficient affiliatlve need
peers; this perceived inequality could leopardlze harmony, satisfaction. Perhaps the close ties in Japan and Korea mm-
unity, and good relations in the group. Prior work has found mize intra-group competltion, thus abettlng group harmony
that Japanese employees feel that obtaining a promotion is less and unity.
important than do their U.S. counterparts (Cole, 1979). As The foregoing discussion leads to the followmg hypotheses:
noted earlier, group harmony IS important m Korea, but less
so than in Japan; thus, Koreans tend to be less group oriented H7a: Salespeople in the United States will have a higher
than the Japanese’(Hofstede, 1983). Moreover, there 1s little valence for liking and respect than will salespeople
opportunity for long-term promotlon in Korean firms (Lee, in Japan or Korea.
Differences in Motivational Perceptions
H7b: There will be no significant difference in the valence
for liking and respect between salespeople in Japan
and Korea.
PERSONAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT. Being individualistic
in orientation (Hofstede, 1983), U.S. employees may have a
need for development and growth on the job. Satisfying this
need could assist in their achieving self-actualization. As they
develop and grow in the job, employees may well experience
enhanced job discretion. Tyagi (1985b) found that autonomy
can augment salesperson motivation. Because Japanese sub-
ordinate their needs and goals to those of the group (Ouchi,
1981), their efforts are primarily directed at fostering group
success. In all likelihood, they may well see themselves as an
extension of the group rather than as individual employees.
Consequently, intrinsic personal enhancement might be of rel-
atwe insignificance to them. In fact, research suggests that
Japanese salespersons place a lower value on self-respect than
do U.S. sales personnel (Apasu, Ichikawa, and Graham,
1987). In Korea, “change and development” is a major value
in large firms (Lee, 1989). Yet, Korean employees are closely
controlled (Lee, 1989; Yoo and Lee, 1987). which could stifle
opportunities for personal growth. Although growth oppor-
tunities might be diminished, Koreans may still aspire to per-
sonal growth and development given their more individual-
istic orientation relative to the Japanese.
Based on the above argument, the following hypotheses are
posited:
H8a: Salespeople in the United States will have a higher
valence for personal growth and development than
will salespeople in Japan or Korea.
H8b: Salespeople in Korea will have a higher valence for
personal growth and development than will sales-
people in Japan.
WORTHWHILE ACCOMPLISHMENT. Being individualistic (Hof-
stede, 1983), U.S. workers may strive to feel as if they have
actually achieved something of significance on the job. More-
over, they might perceive that they have control and power
to determine to a great extent whether they will indeed realize
these feelings of accomplishment. In Japan, the group orien-
tation may reduce the need to feel that one must personally
accomplish something. That is, if the group has achieved its
goals, feelings of group success may be sufficient for Japanese
employees. Indeed, Japanese salespersons have been found to
place a lower value on accomplishment than their U.S. coun-
terparts (Apasu, Ichikawa, and Graham, 1987). In Korea,
group harmony can assist in satisfying employees’ achieve-
ment needs (Lee, 1989). Nonetheless, being somewhat indi-
vidualistic in orientation (Hofstede, 1983), Korean employees
might still place a modicum of emphasis on their personal
feelings of accomplishment.
The foregoing analysis leads to the following hypotheses:
H9a: Salespeople in the United States will have a higher
valence for feelings of worthwhile accomplishment
than will salespeople in Japan or Korea.
J Busn Res 179
1994:30:175-185
H9b: Salespeople in Korea will have a higher valence for
feelings of worthwhile accomplishment than will
salespeople in Japan.
Method
Sample
The sample consisted of sales personnel from the electronics
industry in the United States, Japan, and Korea. Salespeople
from only one industry were surveyed to hold constant the
type of product sold. Prior research has found that work out-
comes can vary across sales settings (e.g., Churchill et al.,
1985; Comer and Dubinsky, 1985).
Questionnaires were distributed through company mail to
salespeople in cooperating multinational organizations in the
United States (three firms), Japan (three firms), and Korea
(five firms). A total of 340 questionnaires were distributed to
the U.S. sample; 218 usable questionnaires were returned for
a response rate of 64.1%. In the Japanese sample, 220 out of
possible 350 questionnaires were returned for a response rate
of 62.9%. Four hundred fifty questionnaires were mailed to
Korean sales personnel, and 156 were returned for a response
rate of 34.7 percent. Descriptive statistics for the three samples
are shown in Table 2.
Measures
The original questionnaire was developed in English. The
questionnaire was translated into Japanese and Korean and
back translated into English by Japanese and Korean nationals,
respectively, to maintain consistency in meaning and content
(Adler, 1983; Sekaran, 1983). Questionnaire items will now
be described.
i%pectancy was assessed using a three-item scale developed
by Teas (1981a). The items asked salespeople the likelihood
(1 = “no chance” and 5 = “certain to occur”) of their realizing
q
improved performance if they augmented their selling efforts.
Salesperson instrumentality was obtained by asking sales-
persons what the likelihood (1 = “no chance” and 5 = “cer-
tain to occur”) was that good performance would lead to the
seven previously mentioned rewards. This approach is con-
sistent with prior sales force motivation research (e.g., Tyagi,
1982, 1985b; Teas, 1981a).
Instrumentalities, like rewards, can be categorized mto in-
trinsic and extrinsic dimensions (e.g., Teas, 198Ia; Tyagi,
1982). Compatible with prior sales force motivation research
(e.g., Cron, Dubinsky, and Michaels, 1988; Teas, 1981a; Ty-
agi, 1982), factor analysis (using varimax rotation) was con-
ducted on the instrumentality measures to examine their
dimensionality. Identical intrinsic (liking and respect, per-
sonal growth and development, and worthwhile accomplish-
ment) and extrinsic (pay increase, job security, a promotion,
and formal recognition) dimensions emerged across the three
samples. These two factors were used in subsequent data anal-
yses,.
Valence was measured by asking salespeople how desirable
180 J Busn Res A. J. Dubinsky et al.
1994:30:175-185

Table 2. Sample Characteristics

Japan U.S. Korea

(n = 220) (n = 218) (n = 156)
Characteristics Mean SD Range Mean SD Range Mean SD Range

Age” 29.2 6.9 19-51 37.6 9.8 22-67 30.9 3.3 26-54
Job tenure” 4.8 5.5 1-36 4.0 3.7 1-21 2.5 1.4 l-7

Percent of Total SalespeoJe

Japan U.S. Korea

Education
Grade school 0.5 - 0.6
Some high school 0.5 -
High school graduate 23.6 2.3 3.9
Some college 3.4 22.1 9.1
College graduate 66.3 48.8 81.8
Some graduate/professional 1.4 13.6 1.9
education
Graduate/professional degree 4.3 13.1 2.6

Sex
Male 91.9 72.3 96.8
Female 8.1 27.7 3.2

Marital status
Single 60.9 23.6 43.2
Married 39.1 71.2 56.8
Other - 5.2
“The umt of measure LS years

(1 = “very undesirable” and 7 = “very desirable”)
aforementioned rewards is. This format is similar
to that used
in previous sales force research (Tyagi, 1985a). As in prior
salesperson motivation work (e.g., Cron, Dubinsky, and Mi-
chaels, 1988; Tyagi, 19821, valence measures were factor-
analyzed (using varimax rotation) to discern whether the
reward valences contained both extrinsic and intrinsic com-
ponents (as posited by Walker, Churchill, and Ford, 1977,
1979). All seven valences loaded on one dimension in the U.S.
each of the and Japanese samples; in the Korean sample, however, no
clear factor structure emerged. Consequently, the seven va-
lences were used individually within each sample in subse-
quent data analyses. This approach is compatible with some
previous work that has examined salesperson reward valences
(Churchill, Ford, and Walker, 1979; Ford, Walker, and Chur-
chill, 1985; Dubinsky and Ingram, 1984; Ingram and Bellen-
ger, 1983). The inconsistent factor analysis results obtained
for the reward valences are not surprising given that previous

Table 3. Motivation Component Means, Hypothesized Relationships, and Significance Tests

Japan U.S. Korea Hypothesized Significant Contrasts

Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Relationships F-Ratio (p s 0.05)

Expectancy 2.87 (84) 3.58 (.97) 3.02 (.93) U.S. > J,K; J = K 29.46” U.S. > J; U.S. > K
Instrumentalities
Intrinsic 3.58 (.74) 3.49 (.87) 3.31 (.81) U.S. > J,K; J > K 0.71 -
Extrinsic 2.88 (93) 3.17 (.87) 2.60 (.79) U.S. > J,K; J > K 12.29” U.S. > J; U.S. > K; J > K
Valences
Pay Increase 5.15 (1.48) 6.51 (1.07) 4.90 (1.26) U.S. > J,K; K > J 50.56” U.S. > J; U.S. > K
Job Security 4.83 (1.26) 5.78 (1.34) 4.99 (1.26) U.S. > J,K; K > J 27.81” U.S. > J; U.S. > K
Promotion 5.04 (1.30) 5.81 (1.38) 5.13 (1.23) U.S. > J,K; K > J 19.92” U.S. > J; U.S. > K
Formal Recognition 4.53 (1.33) 5.73 (1.32) 5.06 (1.07) U.S. > J,K; K > J 27.23 U.S. > J; U.S. > K; K > J
Liking/Respect 5.43 (1.25) 5.56 (1.27) 5.41 (1.15) U.S. > J,K; J = K 1.96 -
Personal Growth 5.64 (1.24) 6.11 (1.05) 5.64 (1.23) U.S. > J,K; K > J 10.72” U.S. > J; U.S. > K
Accomplishment 5.52 (1.21) 6.21 (1.02) 5.44 (1.32) U.S. > J,K; K > J 15.13” U.S. > J; U.S. > K
Expectancy and ~ntnn~lcand extnns~c~nstrumentaht~es
are scored from 1 = low to 5 = high. Valences are scored from 1 = low to 7 = high. U.S. = UnitedStates, J = Japan, K =
KOX?_
=p< 0001.
Differences in Motivational Perceptions J Busn Res 181
1994:30:175-185

research has determined that there is no consensus regarding salesperson means, Consequently, H3a, H4a, H5a, H6a, H8a,
the definitions of extrinsic and intrinsic reward (Dyer and Par- and H9a are supported.
ker, 1975). As anticipated, Korean sales personnel had a higher mean
Respective scale reliabilities (coefficient alpha) for all multi- valence for formal recognition, thus offering support for H6b.
Item scales were calculated for each country. All scales dem- Unexpectedly, though, no significant difference was found be-
onstrated reasonably adequate levels of reliability, as their tween Japanese and Korean salespeople’s valence means for a
respective coefficient alpha exceeded. 70 (Nunnally, 1978). pay increase, job security, promotion, personal growth and
development, or worthwhile accomplishment. So, H3b, H4b,
Data Analysis H5b, H8b, and H9b are rejected.
TLVOdifferent techniques were used to analyze the data. To
test the hypotheses, analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was
employed. ANCOVA was conducted to examme the impact Discussion
of country on each of the motivational components while util-
The purpose of the present investigation was to determine
izmg company, age, sex, job tenure, marital status, and edu-
whether components of motivation vary across U.S., Japanese,
cation as covariates, as suggested in prior studies of sales force
and Korean salespersons. The overall finding of the study is
motivation (Churchill, Ford, and Walker, 1979; Dubinsky
that there are indeed differences in motivational perceptions
and Ingram, 1984; Ford, Walker, and Churchill, 1985; In-
and preferences of sales personnel in these three countries.
gram and Bellenger, 1983). Following ANCOVA procedures,
The most consistent and dramatic differences were between
significant differences umong countries on each of the motiva-
U.S. salespersons and both Japanese and Korean salespeople.
tional components were examined using Scheffe contrasts.

Implications
Results
EXPECTANCY ESTIMATES. U.S. sales personnel have higher be-
Hypothesis Tests
liefs relative to their Asian counterparts that if they expend
Frndings for the tests of the hypotheses are reported in Table
additional effort on the job, they will achieve improved job
3 Shown m the table are respective means, standard devia-
performance. In essence, they appear to see a direct link be-
ttons of the motivational components for each country, hy-
tween their personal efforts and attainment of effective per-
pothesized relationships, associated F-values, and Scheffe
formance; Japanese and Korean sales personnel apparently are
contrasts results (“significant contrasts” column).
equally less clear about this linkage. Perhaps dissimilitudes in
EXPECTANCIES. Expectancy estimates were anticipated to be company practices and policies and employee orientations in
higher in the U.S. than m Japan or Korea but comparable in the three nations contribute to this result.
Korea and Japan. The U.S. expectancy mean was indeed Organizational efforts in the U.S. directed at clarifying
greater than the Japanese or Korean mean; thts provtdes sup- employees’ job roles (e.g., use of detailed job descriptions,
port for Hla. Hlb also is confirmed, as no significant differ- systematic evaluations) concervably enhance workers’ percep-
ence between the Japanese and Korean expectancy means was tions of what efforts they need to expend (as well as toward
obtained. what job activities their effort should be directed) to accom-
plish acceptable performance; as a result, enhanced expec-
INSTRUMENTALITIES. There was no significant difference
tancy estimates emerge. Also, given that U.S. employees are
across the three samples on intrinsic instrumentality, but there
relatively individualistic in their orientanon, ample job discre-
was a significant effect of country on extrinsic instrumentality.
tion may well be accorded many workers (especially those in
As expected, U.S. sales personnel had higher extrinsic instru-
field selling). This latitude can essentially allow employees
mentality means than their Japanese or Korean counterparts.
(within reasonable limits) to ascertain how they choose to ex-
In addition, the Japanese extrinsic instrumentality mean was
pend their efforts, which may well be directed at activities
greater than the Korean mean, as anticipated. In total, these
engendering good performance.
findings offer partial support for H2a and H2b.
Because neither Japanese nor Korean firms generally pro-
VALENCES. Six of the seven reward valences exhibited a sig- vide as much detailed job-related information as companies
nificant country effect, The exception was liking and respect in the United States, those Asian employees may be unable to
where valence means were statistically comparable across the identify what levels of effort (and where that effort should be
three samples (thus leading to rejection of H7a but confir- directed) are necessary for good performance. In addition,
mation of H7b). As expected, U.S. salespeople’s valence means Japanese and Korean employees generally are group-oriented
for a pay increase, job security, promotion, formal recognition, (albeit less so in Korea relative to Japan). Through focusing
personal growth and development, and worthwhile accom- on the group rather than on themselves, salespersons might
plishment were greater than both the Japanese and Korean indeed not be able to see how their individual efforts contribute
182 J Bum Res A. J. Dubinsky et al.
1994:30:175-185

to good group performance. Consequently, expectancy esti- utilize more of contingent-reward system-where rewards are
mates are diminished. predicated on merit-than Korean organizations, the greater
As expatriate managers from the United States are placed extrinsic instrumentality estimate for salespeople inJapan was
in sales management positions in Japan and Korea, special anticipated.) If salespeople are accustomed to receiving organ-
attention needs to be focused on illuminating for their sales izational rewards for doing a job well (because of company
forces where salespeople’s efforts should be directed and how practices). they are likely to see a strong linkage between good
much effort 1s needed in those alternative tasks; otherwise, performance and theu- being rewarded for it. As a result, they
motivational levels are hkely to be reduced. In particular, Jap- should have relatively high extrinsic instrumentality estimates.
anese and Korean sales personnel need to be apprised of job When supervising Japanese and Korean sales personnel,
priorities in their unique selling situations, the specifics of task management should seek to design motivational programs
execution, the extent of effort required for the various asslgn- that clearly link effective performance with attainment of de-
ments, and the purported attendant results accruing from sired organizational rewards. Basically, focusing on a perform-
those efforts. This can be done during the recruitment and ance-based reward system may be valuable. In addition,
selection stage, asslmilatlon and training phase, and evalua- special attention should be given to clarifying for Japanese and
tion of performance. Sales managers need to commumcate Korean salespersons contingencies between successful accom-
clearly and m sufficient detail lob duties, responsiblhtles, and plishment of specific task assignments and outcomes of that
expectations of their indlvtdual sales personnel. By providing success. Salespeople need to be apprised of what activities and
requisite job-related information, salespersons should have at what level they must perform the activities to receive valued
enhanced expectancy beliefs. company rewards. Concomitantly, they should also be made
aware of the consequences of unacceptable performance (e.g.,
INSTRUMENTALITY ESTIMATES. ~ntiT&ic instrumentality was failure to be given a pay raise or promotion, management cen-
found to be similar across sales personnel m the United States, sure). Such informatlon could be imparted early In the re-
Japan, and Korea. Intrinsic instrumentality estimates, for this cruiting process, when sales personnel are given their lmtlal
mvestigation, were the likelihood that good performance assignments, when career path milestones have been achieved,
would lead to rewards that are generated from wlthin the sa- during group meetings with the sales force, when salespersons
lesperson (e.g., personal growth and development, feelings of receive performance evaluations, and when changes in the or-
worthwhile accomplishment). The statistical similarity in ganizational reward system are implemented.
these beliefs across the three countries is not necessarily sur-
prising given the intcrnul nature of the construct. VALENCE FOR REWARDS. As expected, U.S. salespeople’s re-
Salespeople‘s beliefs about whether effective .job perform- ward valences generally were found to be higher than the re-
ance will produce internally bestowed rewards are predicated ward valences of their Asian counterparts. In fact, relative to
chiefly on internal (i.e., person), not external, (e.g., company Japanese and Korean salespeople, U.S. sales personnel had
policies), factors. Estimates of the job performance/intrinsic higher preferences for six of seven rewards, and these pro-
rewards linkage entail salespeople’s indlvidctal assessments of clivities were for both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. U.S.
what job aspects enhance their positive affect about themselves. sales personnel apparently find a pay increase, job security,
Because such rewards emanate from within the individual, promotion, formal recogmtion, personal growth and devel-
perhaps organizational policies and practices and employee opment, and worthwhile accomplishment particularly desir-
orientations (which are variable across the three countries) able relative to salespersons m Japan or Korea.
have relatively minor influence on intrinsic instrumentality Two possible explanations can be advanced for the above
estimates of sales personnel. In fact, Kohli (1985) dlscerned findings. One potential rationale is that Japanese and Korean
that certain managerial aspects of a company are essentially salespeople believe that they gcner-ulI_yare receiving a sufficient
unrelated to salespeople’s intrmsic instrumentality. Thus, al- amount of the aforementioned six rewards (although Korean
though various elements in the three countries may differ salespersons have a higher valence for formal recognition than
(e.g., personnel practices), these factors may not be relevant do Japanese sales personnel). Conversely, U.S. sales personnel
in mducmg a country effect on intrinsic instrumentality. may perceive that management IS not attending adequately to
U.S. sales personnel had higher extrinsic instrumentalit) their needs for a pay Increase, lob security, promotion, and
estimates than did their Japanese or Korean counterparts. Ex- formal recogmtlon, and that their sales position does not pro-
trinsic Instrumentality beliefs are salespersons’ assessments of vide a satisfactory level of personal growth and development
whether effectit~e performance will lead to receipt of externally or feelings of worthwhile accomplishment. An alternate ex-
bestowed rewards (e.g., a pay raise, promotion). Because U.S. planation 1s that U.S. sales personnel have a higher predllec-
companies tend to have more of a performance-based reward non for SIX of the seven rewards simply because Japanese and
system in comparison to Japanese and Korean firms, the re- Korean salespeople might be more desirous of receiving re-
duced extrinsic instrumentality estimates in the Asian samples wards that were not included m the present study rather than
were expected. (Similarly, because Japanese firms typically those under investigation. If either or both of these arguments
Differences in Motivational Perceptions J Busn Res 183
1994:30:175-185

are correct, then U.S. salespersons would indeed have higher to expend effort on necessary lob tasks and responsibilities.
valences for the six rewards than would salespeople in Japan Findings pertaining to valences reveal the importance of man-
or Korea. agement’s providing extrinsic rewards (e.g., a pay increase)
The exception in which there was no statistical difference that genuinely attend to the needs and concerns of its sales
among U.S., Japanese, and Korean salespersons’ valences was personnel and that are dispensed at sufficient levels. Addl-
for the reward of liking and respect. Although erosion of fam- tionally, the results highlight the significance of sales manag-
ill. and personal ties and affiliative estrangement were posited ers’ designing the work environment m a fashion that will
as reasons for U.S. salespersons’ being desirous of this reward, allow salespeople to experience relevant intrinsic rewards
salespeople in the United States seemingly do not appear to (e.g., personal growth and development). Whether the sales
be any more concerned with the receipt of this reward than force members are from the Unlted States, Japan, or Korea,
are their Asian counterparts. Perhaps the indlvldualistic ori- special attention should be given to identifying salespersons’
entation of U.S. employees provides a possible explanation for pnmary motivational needs and designing motivational pro-
this finding. U.S. sales personnel typically work alone; thus, grams that satisfy those requirements.
they interact relatively minimally with management and sales
peers. In essence, they operate as “lone wolves” m which they Limitations and Future Research
are left to their own devices to solve problems as they arise in The present investigation is not without certain limitations.
the field. Possibly over time, then, they have become accli- First, data were collected from only three countries, one in-
mated to being quite autonomous, have learned how to cope dustry, and a small number of companies; consequently, find-
with organizational and affiliative estrangement, and even pre- ings may apply only to the contexts employed. Second,
fer this kmd of job context. In fact, previous research in the although care was taken to preserve the intent and meaning
United States has found that autonomy is positively related to of scale items across the three samples, there 1s a possibllit)
salesperson job satisfaction (Becherer, Morgan, and Richard. that questionnaire equivalence was not achieved; thus, to the
1Y82; Teas, 1981b) and that salespeople feel a major moti- extent that such equivalence was reduced, the results would
vating factor is receiving minimal management supervision be biased. Third, owing to the manner m which the survey
(Berry and Abrahamson, 1981). was administered, differences between respondents and non-
Although Korean salespeople’s reward valences were hy- respondents could not be determlned; so, some degree of non-
pothesized to be greater than their Japanese counterparts for response bias may exist.
SIX of seven rewards (with the exception being hkmg and re- Operationalizatlon of the study and its attendant limitations
spect), a significant difference between the two samples was suggest several promlsmg avenues for future research. First,
observed for only one of the rewards-formal recognition. subsequent investigations could utilize samples of sales per-
T\vo possible explanations can be offered for these findings of sonnel different from the industry (electronics) and countries
relative motivational similarity between the two Asian sam- (the United States, Japan, and Korea) used here. Second, the
ples. One potential reason pertains to the cultural milieu m present work employed a limited number (seven) of rewards
both countries. Although Japanese employees are more group- that are generally common to U S. companies; researchers
oriented than their Korean counterparts (e.g., Hofstede, could use alternate kinds of rewards than those found here
1983), both cultures value mamtammg harmony and unity and tailor them spcc$ical~_y to salespeople m each country of
among people (Lee, 1989; Ouchl, 1981). Employees’ receipt interest. Third, longitudinal investigations could be under-
of a reward, be it externally or Internally bestowed, would taken to ascertain whether salesperson motivation changes
denote they are special-or “exceptions’‘-to the work group. over time and, if it does, whether it changes dlfferentlally
In essence, reward recipients would stand apart from em- across countries.
ployees not receiving the rewards. These distinctions across Fourth, expectancy theory was employed in this study as
work group members could conceivably reduce harmony and the underlying framework for salesperson motivation; inves-
unity within the group. To prevent this situation from tran- tigators might incorporate alternate motivational theories
spiring, perhaps Japanese and Korean sales personnel are es- (e.g., two-factor, need, attribution, equity, need achievement
pecially focused on perpetuating equality among sales peers. [Walker, Churchill, and Ford, 19791) when examining cross-
As a result, their preferences for various rewards is quite slm- national differences in sales personnel. Fifth, empirical work
ilar. One other rationale which may explain the relative mo- might be directed at discerning whether a motivational model
tivational comparability between the two Asian samples is, as that is applicable for salespersons in one country is equally
mentioned previously, because both groups are more desirous amenable in other countries. Staw (1984) decries the conceiv-
of receiving rewards that were not considered in this study able inappropriateness of a wholesale imposition of Western-
rather than those that were under investigation. based motivation models in Oriental settings; also, Adler,
Valence for rewards are inextricably linked to salesperson Doktor, and Redding (1986) argue that designing studies
motivation (Walker, Churchill, and Ford, 1977). Specifically, without attending to the unique cognitive maps of respon-
the higher salespeople’s valences are, the more likely they are dents in different countries is likely to reduce an investiga-
184 J Busn Res A. J. Dubinsky et al.
1994:30:?75-185

tion’s reliability and validity. Finally, researchers could control Cron, W.L., Dubinsky, A.J., and Michaels, R.E., The Influence of
Career Stages on Components of Salesperson Motivation. J. Mar-
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(e.g., salesperson need for achievement, locus of control), or-
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