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Acculturation Profiles of Expatriates Managers: Implications for Cross-

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Article  in  The Columbia Journal of World Business · January 1986

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Acculturation Profiles of Expatriate
Managers: Implications for Cross-
Cultural Training Programs
Mark Mendenhall
Gary Oddou

A taxonomy of expatriate acculturation profiles is delin-

eated and its implications for overseas personnel selection
and training policies are examined.

THE NEED FOR multinational cor- Tung, 1981). One significant factor of the acculturation process (e.g.,
porations (MNCs) to focus more delaying human resource divisions of "Culture Shock" (Hall, 1959; Oberg,
concerted efforts into the design and MNCs in addressing this issue is the 1960; Smalley, 1963), "Role Shock"
implementation of their overseas per- belief among many personnel admin- (Byrnes, 1966; Higbee, 1969), "Cul-
sonnel selection, training and support istrators that the acculturation process ture Fatigue" (Guthrie, 1967), the
programs is well documented in the is not understood well enough to "Blue Loop/Red Loop Leaming
intemational human resource manage- create valid selection and training pro- Cycle" (Ratiu, 1983) and the "Sub-
ment literature (Casse, 1982; Harvey, grams. (Adler, 1983a; 1983b; Baker jective Adjustment Model" (Torbiom,
1983; Kohls, 1984; 1985; Mendenhall & Ivancevich, 1971; Mendenhall & 1982)).
& Oddou, 1985; Schwind, 1985; Oddou, 1985; Schwind, 1985).
To date, the research literature
This concern of human resource addresses expatriate acculturation in a
Gary Oddou is an Associate Professor of managers is not entirely unwarranted. post hoc manner; that is, behaviors
Marketing and Management at the San Jose that aid or hinder acculturation are
State University. He is currently involved in Research in expatriate acculturation
research on international human resources has tended to address the phenomenon observed in the field or derived after
and the evaluation of unconventional man- in a one-dimensional fashion, often the fact via interviews, surveys, etc.
agement and organizational development While this approach has aided the
programs. ignoring other variables that may af-
fect acculturation (Mendenhall & field significantly by outlining the
Mark Mendenhall is an Assistant Professor Oddou, 1985; Schwind, 1985). In- dimensions of acculturation (for a re-
of International Management at Loyola
Marymount University. His research and deed, most of the conceptual models view see Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985;
consulting interests are in the areas of inter- created to explain and predict accul- Oddou & Mendenhall, 1984), it does
national human resources, Japanese man- turation have themselves been narrow not address issues of causation
agement practices, and expatriate accultura-
tion. in scope, focusing on discrete aspects (i.e., why the expatriate in question

WINTER 1986 73
behaves the way he/she does in spe-
cific situations).
The variation of behavioral patterns
of expatriates—and the relationship
of those patterns to subsequent accul-
turation, productivity and failure—
has remained largely uncharted in the
literature. The creation of a taxonomy
of expatriate acculturation profiles,
based upon inherent behavioral ten-
dencies of overseas candidates, would
aid the field in a number of ways.
A taxonomy that links specific be-
havioral tendencies to probable level
of overseas productivity would be a
useful tool in validating the selection
process of expatriate employees.
MNCs currently utilize narrow cri-
teria in the selection of expatriate
employees (Mendenhall & Oddou,
1985; Tung, 1981). For additional
valid criteria to begin to be seen as
viable by top management, the impli-
cations of those criteria on the over-
seas productivity of specific expatri-
ates need to be delineated. Thus, as
instruments are developed to measure
the behavioral factors that are impor-
tant to acculturation and productivity,
candidates with higher probabilities of
overseas success (as defined by the
taxonomy) can be found and expatri-
ated.
A taxonomic knowledge of how
trainees rate on measures of accul-
turation would also allow cross-cul-
tural trainers to significantly enhance
pre-departure cross-cultural training
programs for expatriates. Cross-
cultural training program design has
tended to showcase methods that ad-
dress specific factors or skills while
downplaying and/or ignoring others
(Brislin, 1979; Gudykunst, Hammer
& Wiseman, 1977; Mendenhall &
Oddou, 1985; Sehwind, 1985). Know-
ing each trainee's strengths and weak-
nesses in behavioral tendencies critical
to overseas success would allow the
trainer to "individualize" the training
program, developing skills trainees
are deficient in and reinforcing exist-
ing strengths. Also, knowing specific
weaknesses of trainees would allow
the trainer to help the expatriate pre-
pare to deal with specific kinds of
cross-cultural experiences most likely
to cause them stress. Currently, there
is no conceptual guide that facilitates
74
such an "individual-oriented" ap- more suited to certain types of cul-
proach to cross-cultural training, so tures/countries than others. The re-
trainers generally design programs that search design permutations of such a
are aimed at teaching groups, not indi- taxonomy seem to be numerous.
viduals.
Such a taxonomy of behavioral pro-
Third, a taxonomy of acculturation files can be based on Mendenhall &
profiles would be of heuristic value to Oddou's 1985 review of the accul-
researchers in the field as well as to turation literature. Based on their re-
MNCs. By classifying expatriates view, a variety of variables (see Table
into behavioral profiles before de- 1) were found to have significant
parture, a reference point exists by impact on the acculturation process.
which subsequent measures can be They hypothesized that the variables
statistically compared. Thus, expatri- given in Table 1 can be subsumed
ates can be more easily tracked within three dimensions: the Self-
throughout their overseas stay in order Orientation dimension, the Others-
to study how and in what areas they Orientation dimensions and the Per-
change, what causes significant ceptual-Orientation dimension.
change, what does not, and whether
continued cross-cultural training while
overseas has a positive impact (e.g., Self-Orientation
do their scores increase in all the
The orientation refers to the de-
behavioral factors, thus shifting them gree to which the expatriate expresses
into a more favorable taxonomic cate-
an adaptive concern for self-preserva-
gorization or profile?). The taxonomic tion, self-enjoyment, and mental hy-
categories have been linked to subse-
giene. An expatriate with a healthy
quent acculturation outcomes (this Self-Orientation (SO) tends to engage
will be discussed in more detail later
in reinforcement substitution (replac-
in the paper); thus, the profiles can ing activities that bring pleasure in the
act as research hypotheses. The pro-
home culture with similar—yet dif-
files posited to be more facilitative of ferent—activities that exist in the host
acculturation can be empirically tested
culture) in order to enjoy more fully
and compared to the other profiles to his/her experience in the host culture.
ascertain the validity of the taxonomy.
Also, expatriates with a strong SO
Also, the relationship between specific consistently use specific stress reduc-
acculturation profiles and specific tion techniques in order to reduce the
countries/cultures can be investigated.
pressures that result from an overseas
It may be that some profiles are assignment. Expatriates with a high
TABLE 1
A Three Dimensional Approach to Understanding
Expatriate Acculturation
Factor 3
Factor 1 Factor 2 PERCEPTUAL-
SELF-ORIENTATION OTHERS-ORIENTATION ORIENTATION
Stress Reduction Relationship Skills Flexible Attributions
Reinforcement Willingness to Broad Category Width
Substitution Communicate High Tolerance for
Physical Mobility Non-verbal Ambiguity
Technical Competence Communication Being Non-judgmental
Dealing with Alienation Respect for Others Being Open-Minded
Dealing with Isolation Empathy for Others Field-Independence
Realistic Expectations
prior to departure
Note: For a more in-depth discussion of these variables, see Mendenhall & Oddou,
(1985); Oddou & Mendenhall (1984).
COLUMBIA JOURNAL OF WORLD BUSINESS
s o also are self-confident about their The following taxonomy of ex- mentally healthy individual who is
technical expertise in terms of the patriate acculturation styles categorize truly interested in doing a good job
primary task of their assignment. how expatriates with specific skill for his/her organization. However,
These behavioral factors have as their combinations will fare in terms of due to a naivete concerning the host-
goal the preservation of the "self" and future acculturation. The levels of at- culture's values and norms, he/she
its varied interests, which allows ex- tainment of the three dimensions of can often—despite good intentions—
patriates to feel secure as they go acculturation have been compart- snatch defeat out of the jaws of vic-
about their work overseas. mentalized into two categories: strong tory by misinterpreting confusing
(-I-) and weak (—), reffecting levels situations.
Others-Orientation of expertise that are above or below This cluster is termed the "Well-
the norm; in reality, these dimensions intentioned Missionary" because it
The Others-Orientation (OO) re- are to be viewed as continuums of
fers to the degree to which the expatri- ability ranging from virtually non- reffects behavior that is often exhibited
ate is concerned about host-national existant to very strong. They have by well-meaning "brand-new" mis-
co-workers and desires to affiliate been compartmentalized, at this point, sionaries when they first confront
with them. The factors of relationship for illustrative purposes. The delinea- behavior that is acceptable in the host
development and willingness to com- tion of the taxonomic behavioral pro- culture but violates their personal
municate make up this orientation. files are given below: value and belief systems (e.g., spouse-
The well-adjusted expatriate is not abuse, immorality, etc.). They truly
an iconoclast, but desires to help, want to be effective, yet they evaluate
teach, and learn from his/her host- The "Ideal Expatriate" the host-nationals' behavior and be-
national counterparts. liefs from their own value systems and
-f SO -I- OO -1- PO immediately take culturally inappro-
An individual who is perceptive priate actions to "correct" the prob-
Perceptnal-Orientation of the underlying reasons of host- lem. Such behavior often leads to
This orientation refiects the exper- national behavior, who is genuinely alienation from the host-nationals.
tise the expatriate possesses in accu- concerned with helping develop host- Similarly, until an expatriate manager
rately understanding why host-na- nationals in an unassuming and na- with this cluster can become more
tionals engage in seemingly "inappro- tural way, and can relax and provide sophisticated in his/her PO, the host-
priate" or "strange" behaviors. The him-/herself with reinforcing outside national subordinates will likely not
well-adjusted expatriate tends to be activities. Such an individual is likely perform up to expectations at work.
open-minded, more able and willing to be a well-adjusted expatriate.
to be non-judgemental in his/her The "Type A Expatriate"
worldview, exhibits fiexible or "loose" — SO -1- OO + PO
attributions, and has a high tolerance The "Academic Observer"
for ambiguity. -1- SO — OO -f PO This combination reveals a per-
ceptive and team-oriented expatriate
An expatriate with this combi- who possesses good intercultural
A TAXONOMY OF EXPATRIATE nation is likely to be very perceptive skills, yet either has low self-esteem
ACCULTURATION PROFILES and accurate in his/her understanding or cannot deal with stress very well;
and appraisals of host-nationals' be- the result: A potentially effective ex-
Managers already possess distinct havior and their culture. Also, he/she patriate performing below capability.
levels of expertise in acculturation is able to find aspects of the host- No matter how perceptive and caring
skills—and it is likely that they al- culture rewarding, and deals with an expatriate is, situations arise in a
ready are skilled in at least one of the stress effectively. However, such an new culture that are emotionally,
three general orientations of expatriate individual is somewhat detached from socially, and psychologically stressful.
acculturation. An ideal candidate for others—^both host-nationals and their Individuals in this category also are
overseas assignment would be strong fellow expatriates. They are in their less able to deal with homesickness
in all three orientations and their own ivory-tower, happy and content, and feelings of isolation than are other
attendant skills before relocating over- yet aloof. They enjoy their overseas expatriates, as they do not have well-
seas; however, such individuals are stay and do fairly well in their assign- developed skills in dealing with stress
the exception; most expatriates mark- ment, yet they are not as effective as and change. Until this type of indivi-
edly differ in their degrees of ability they could be due to their reticence dual can learn to deal with stress or
in each orientation. in developing friendships and mentor- feel more confident in his/her job, the
ing—or being mentored by—^host- extent of their acculturation and effec-
The likelihood of successful accul- nationals.
turation can be predicted based on tiveness is limited.
the degree to which the overseas can-
didate already possesses skills in the The "Well-intentioned Missionary" The "Introvert"
key factors that contribute to accul- -f SO -t- OO — PO + SO — OO-H PO
turation. Each overseas candidate has
a unique "profile" of existing cross- The expatriate with this com- This combination is very sim-
cultural skills. bination is a sincere, responsible and ilar to that of the "Academic Ob-

WlNTER 1986 75
server" except for a difference in the
valence of the SO. Whereas the
"Academic Observer" has a strong
and healthy ego and chooses not to
socialize and interact with others
more by choice, the "Introvert" can-
not interact with others effectively due
to his/her insecurities. The fact that
the person has a strong PO exacer-
bates the problem, for the "Intro-
vert" perceives the potentials for
acculturation but cannot realize the
opportunities due to fear or a self-
perceived social ineptness. The result
of this combination is intense feelings
of frustration, guilt, and a sense of
feeling socially hamstrung—which in
turn can lead to bitterness and/or
socially inappropriate behavior at
work and in the home.
The "Ugly American"
-)_SO —OO —PO
Characterized by a high degree
of self-confidence and ego-strength
yet low cross-cultural interpersonal
and attributional skills, the "Ugly
American" is maladjusted but does
not know it. When host-nationals
fail to "come-around" to this type of
expatriate's point of view he/she at-
tributes it to their backward culture,
ignorance, or lack of desire to better
themselves. It is beyond credulity
to the "Ugly American" that the host-
nationals would not desire to copy
the American way of doing things,
whether at work or in society gen-
erally, since it is obviously superior
to the methods of the host-nationals.
His/her tendency is to continue to
force Western ways upon the host-
nationals, which unfailingly produces
resentment, silent resistance, sabotage,
and/or physical confrontation.
The "Dependent Expatriate"
— SO + 00 —PO
An expatriate with this configura-
tion has good interpersonal skills and
likes other people, but is insecure
and confused with his/her environ-
ment. Feeling out of control, due to
an inability to deal with stress and
a lack of understanding of the host
culture's norms and values, expa-
triates in this mode use their "people
skills" to get close to a few, selected
fellow expatriates or "Westernized"
76
host-nationals who they perceive as skills are average to high and cultural
strong. They then depend on these toughness is low to moderate, the
individuals—not unlike a child de- expatriate can generally expect to ex-
pends on a parent—for direction and perience a successful and fulfilling
support. By doing this they can stay overseas. However, when exist-
maintain a form of control over the ing acculturation skills are low to
alien environment. It is not a healthy average and cultural toughness is
approach to the situation, however. high to moderate, it is likely the expa-
The person whom the "Dependent triate will exhibit poor performance
Expatriate" clings to for help ulti- with the likelihood of premature re-
mately begins to feel resentment patriation being high. The "survival"
towards the "dependent expatriate" cells indicate expatriates who "get by"
for encroaching on his/her time, per- overseas, who "wait out their stay."
sonal life, good will and job exper- Their performance is adequate, meet-
tise. This situation leads to a variety ing the minimum standards of the
of problems that often force an early firm, but does not reflect any creativ-
return to the home country. ity or initiative.
It is important to note that these
CULTURAL TOUGHNESS: relationships portrayed in Chart 1
A MEDIATING VARIABLE are not static and predetermined.
Change can occur. With proper
While the above taxonomies are training, potential expatriates can—
useful in delineating the diversity of and do—increase their acculturation
acculturation readiness in potential skills, thus increasing their likelihood
expatriates, an important mediating for overseas success. Once overseas,
variable to the above scheme is that expatriates may shift between the
of "cultural toughness." Research different cells depending upon their
shows that acculturation is affected experiences: a mentor may crop up, a
by the degree to which the culture particularly unpleasant experience
of the host country is inconguent with with a subordinate may occur, an
that of the home country (Menden- unexpected family crisis may increase
hall & Oddou, 1985). In other stress—^aU would impact on the expa-
words, some countries' cultures are triate's acculturation level of the
more difficult to adapt to than others. moment. All else being equal, how-
For example, it would be more diffi- ever, the expatriate who possesses
cult for an American expatriate to expertise in acculturation skills can
adjust to the culture of Kenya than weather the unexpected storms more
to the culture of Australia. Both effectively than his/her less skilled
countries offer obstacles that must be counterparts.
surmounted before complete accultu-
ration can be obtained, but it is more
likely that effective acculturation can IMPLICATIONS FOR
be attained in Australia than in EXPATRIATE SELECTION
Kenya for most American expatriates AND TRAINING
due to the greater "cultural overlap"
The model, and its applications
between the US and Australia. toward the prediction of acculturative
This inserts a contingency factor success, carry a number of implica-
into the relationship between existing tions for MNC human resource staffs.
expertise in overall acculturation skills Before managers are sent overseas it
and subsequent levels of accultura- is vitally important that: 1) they re-
tion. The effect of "cultural tough- ceive an evaluation of their current
ness" on this relationship is illustrated expertise in skills/factors that are
in Chart 1. crucial to acculturation; 2) they re-
ceive training in the skills/factors
The levels of predicted overseas that are crucial to acculturation—es-
effectiveness for each combination of pecially in those areas where they are
"level of overall acculturation skills" most weak; 3) the training they re-
and "level of cultural toughness of ceive must be multidimensional in
the host country" are given in the nature (it must encompass all the
respective cells. As can be seen from skills and factors necessary to adapt
Chart 2, when overall acculturation to the overseas environment); 4) the
COLUMBIA JOURNAL OF WORLD BUSINESS
 CHART 1

Relationship between Pre-departure Expertise in Overall Acculturation Skills,

Cultural Toughness and Future Level of Acculturation
Degree of Expertise in Acculturation Skills

High Average Low

Highly Effective Survival

LOW
Effective
LEVEL
Poor
OF MODERATE Effective Survivai
Performance
CULTURAL
TOUGHNESS
Poor
Survival Failure
HIGH Performance

training they receive should be appro- preparatory training for managers and cross-cultural trainer, they can focus
priate to the necessary degree of in- employees destined to work abroad on the areas they are weak in during
tegration into the host culture by the (p. 7)." Schwind's observation is the training, so they can plan for
expatriate and his/her family; and consistent with other researchers' and thus prevent—to a large degree
that 5) they receive pre-departure findings that there is a marked defi- —specific negative experiences when
training from well-qualified trainers ciency on the part of US firms in overseas.
who possess a sound understanding offering comprehensive cross-cultural
of the acculturation process. training to their employees who are
assigned overseas (Dunbar & Ehrlich, Scope of training
A common practice in the selection 1986; Korn/Ferry International, 1981;
procedure for expatriate managers is Mendenhall, Dunbar & Oddou, 1986; The scope of training must include
to use managerial and technical com- Runzheimer, 1984; Tung, 1981). all aspects of the acculturation pro-
petence (a successful track record in cess. Training that focuses on a
the US) as the sole criterion for When such training support is not limited number of dimensions is
assignment overseas (Mendenhall & offered, the probability of failure in- unfair to the trainees, for the indi-
Oddou, 1985; Miller, 1972; 1973; creases dramatically, because the ini- vidual trainee might naturally be
Tung, 1981). The criteria for selec- tial months abroad are the hardest, skilled at the topics covered in the
tion for overseas assignments must yet it is in this time period that the training program and assume that
encompass all of the dimensions of home office often has the highest he/she has nothing to worry about
acculturation, not just the traditional expectations for performance. Yet while overseas. Unforeseen obstacles
one of technical competence. A without preparation in key cross- and challenges can cause deeper
battery of instruments can be utilized cultural skills, that time period has stress, because the expatriate has no
to measure the various dimensions the highest likelihood of producing idea how to handle "out-of-the-blue"
(for a more complete discussion, see the poorest performance during the threats to self-esteem and psychologi-
Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985); for interim of the overseas assignment cal balance. Similarly, focusing
example, psychological tests, inter- and sets the tone for the rest of the on dimensions that may happen to
views with significant others, cross- overseas stay. cover only an expatriate's weakness
cultural assessment centers and tests serve only to convey an overly de-
for personal stress tendencies can be Thus, predeparture training in ac- pressing picture to the trainee of what
used. MNC human resource staffs, culturation skills is a must for the it is like to live and work overseas.
after generating measures that would expatriate manager as well as for The trainee may, in reality, be fairly
accurately refiect degree of expertise his/her spouse and children (Gay- strong in some acculturation skills
in the key factors of acculturation, lord, 1979; Harvey, 1983; Menden- but will not be in touch with them
would be in a better position to hall & Oddou, 1985; Walker, 1976). in time to utilize them upon arriving
predict overseas success than they are Further, this training should be di- overseas. Not preparing expatriates
at present. rectly tied to the acculturation skill with training that is comprehensive in
testing described above; that is, scope is not only illogical and a poor
trainees should have access to the business practice, it is unethical as
Pre-departure training evaluations of their degrees of strength well—poor adjustment overseas can
Schwind (1985) noted "that a ma- and weakness in acculturation-related lead to a variety of personal and
jority of companies involved in inter- skills. If they have access to their interpersonal problems (e.g., alcohol-
national trade do not provide any evaluations, with the aid of the ism, marital problems, stress, depres-

WlNTER 1986 77
 CHART 2

1. Relationship between Degree of Integration into the Host Culture and Rigor of Cross-
Cultural Training.
2. Relationship between Length of Overseas Stay and Length of Training and Training
Approach.

Length of LEVEL OF
CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING APPROACH
Training RIGOR

1-2 Months -f- HICH IMPRESSION APPROACH

Assessment Center
Field Experiences
Simulations
Sensitivity Training
Extensive Language Training

1-4 Weeks AFFECTIVE APPROACH

Cultural Assimilator Training
Language Training
Role-Playing
Critical Incidents
Cases
Stress Reduction Training
Moderate Language Training

Less than LOW INFORMATION GIVING APPROACH

a Week Area Briefings
Cultural Briefings
Films/Books
Use of Interpreters
"Survival-level" Language Training

DEGREE OF
LOW MODERATE HICH
INTEGRATION

Length of 1 Month 2-12 1-3

Stay or less Months Years

sion, alienated children, etc.). To a
large degree, these problems can be
avoided with proper selection and
proper training—to neglect both is
irresponsible.
Depth of training
Obviously, if an individual is going
to be in a foreign country for two
weeks to engage in business negotia-
tions with representatives from a
foreign firm, the type of training he/
she should receive should differ from action needed with host-nationals
that received by someone being as- (government bureaucrats, managers,
signed to a Third World country blue-collar workers, etc.) and likeli-
for three years. The depth of pre- hood of the manager needing cross-
departure training should be a func- cultural skills in his/her future career
tion of length of stay, type of in the firm.
involvement in the culture, marital
status and number of children, cul- As Chart 2 indicates, with an in-
tural toughness of host-country, creased need for degree of integration
degree of interpersonal interaction with the host-culture, the type of
with host-nationals that will be neces- training should increase in depth
sary, position of the expatriate in the from being strictly "information-
subsidiary's hierarchy, type of inter- giving" to being increasingly "affec-

•,78 COLUMBIA JOURNAL OF WORLD BUSINESS

tive" and "immersion-oriented" in use of authority, etc.); and 5) they the training was limited to the "infor-
nature. Also, as degree of integra- should have a positive attitude about mation-giving" approach (e.g., area
tion increases, length of needed train- experiencing new cultures, new inter- briefings, some language study and
ing time should increase. personal experiences and new value basic cultural overviews). The multi-
systems. In addition, added qualifi- dimensional approach to training and
Qualifications for trainers cations should include: a thorough selection design provided in this paper,
understanding of the multidimen- if utilized, forms a basis upon which
Kohls (1984), a longtime cross- sionality of the acculturation process, MNC human resource staffs can
cultural trainer, suggests that trainers familiarity with both the empirical begin to build valid, comprehensive
should have the following character- and theoretical literature on expa- expatriate acculturation training pro-
istics and qualifications: 1) they triate acculturation, and the ability grams. Not only will such programs
should have had experience living to work with trainees one-on-one in save the firm from financial costs by
abroad (minimum of two years); skill-building (not being limited in avoiding common overseas blunders
2) they should have experienced cul- ability to only giving seminars or (the voiding of business deals, loss
ture shock personally; 3) they should speeches that entertain). of valuable local employees, break-up
have a comprehensive area knowledge of joint ventures, poor relations with
of the host-country (religion, politics, host governments, etc.) but will build
cultural mores, accepted business CONCLUSION the managerial expertise of its em-
practices, ethics, etc.); 4) they should ployees by providing them with the
have a clear understanding of Amer- Tung (1981) found that of the knowledge base necessary to be suc-
ican values and be able to differn- MNCs in her study, 68% did not cessful in their overseas assignments.
tiate between the two cultures on provide their expatriate employees It is time American MNCs start to
specific dimensions (e.g., leadership, with acculturation training; of those invest in this cross-cultural training.
motivation, time orientation, accepted which did provide training, 60% of

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