To Be Read Urgently

ARTICLES
Previous International
Experience, Cross-Cultural
Training, and Expatriates’
Cross-Cultural Adjustment:
Effects of Cultural Intelligence
and Goal Orientation
Hyoung Koo Moon, Byoung Kwon Choi, Jae Shik Jung
Although various antecedents of expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment have

been addressed, previous international experience, predeparture cross-cultural
training, and cultural intelligence (CQ) have been most frequently examined.
However, there are few attempts that explore the effects of these antecedents
simultaneously or consider the possible influencing variables that can impact
cross-cultural adjustment. In addition, empirical findings on the effects of these
antecedents are somewhat mixed. Hence, there is a need for integrative stud-
ies exploring the mechanism of cross-cultural adjustment to deepen under-
standing of how previous international experience, predeparture cross-cultural
training, and CQ affect expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment. In this regard,
we considered CQ as a variable that mediates the influences of previous inter-
national experience (work and nonwork) and predeparture cross-cultural
training (length and comprehensiveness) on cross-cultural adjustment. Addi-
tionally, an expatriate’s goal orientation was considered as a moderating vari-
able that influences the effects of previous international experience and
predeparture cross-cultural training on CQ. Results using a sample of 190
Korean expatriates partially supported the hypotheses. The mediating effect
of CQ and moderating effect of goal orientation were partially supported. The
previous international nonwork rather than work experience and comprehen-
siveness rather than length of predeparture cross-cultural training were more
positively related to CQ. The theoretical contributions, practical implications
for human resource development (HRD) practitioners, limitations, and sug-
gestions for future research are discussed.
HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY, vol. 23, no. 3, Fall 2012 © Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq.21131 285
286 Moon, Choi, Jung
Due to globalization, there has been a rapid increase of organizations’ entering

into foreign countries for international business. Many global organizations
have sent their managers or employees to foreign countries, because interna-
tional experience is regarded as an important vehicle for developing global tal-
ent or leadership (Takeuchi, Shay, & Li, 2008; Tarique & Schuler, 2010). In
addition, global organizations expatriate their managers to manage or control
their foreign subsidiaries because there are not enough qualified managers in
foreign countries (Collings, Scullion, & Morley, 2007). In this regard, one of
the critical sources of global organizations’ competitive advantages is the high
quality of capability to manage expatriates effectively (Takeuchi et al., 2008).
However, a significant portion of expatriates was reported to perform unsuc-
cessfully and adjust poorly in the foreign countries (Shaffer & Harrison, 1998;
Takeuchi, Tesluk, Yun, & Lepak, 2005). The expatriates’ failures may incur
considerable direct and/or indirect costs for the organizations, such as a
decrease in sales or revenue, the loss of new market opportunities, and an unfa-
vorable reputation in the local countries (Black & Gregersen, 1991; Parker &
McEvoy, 1993; Shaffer & Harrison, 1998; Shaffer, Harrison, Gregersen, Black, &
Ferzandi, 2006).
The issue of effective expatriate management is important for Korean
multinational organizations, as it is in any developed country such as the
United States. Korea, one of the most promising developing countries, is
rapidly and actively entering into diverse global markets. For this reason, many
Korean organizations are currently expatriating employees into foreign coun-
tries for international business. For instance, according to the biennial report
of Korean Organizations’ Overseas Expansion published by KOTRA (Korea
Trade-Investment Promotion Agency) that investigates the current state of
Korean organizations’ foreign expansion, 6,623 Korean organizations expanded
their business into foreign countries and they expatriated 5,741 employees in
2004. Moreover, these figures are increasing as Korean organizations are head-
ing toward globalization. According to the most recent report published by
KOTRA (2010), 9,929 Korean organizations have expanded into foreign coun-
tries, and 8,351 Korean people have been expatriated. Given these increasing
figures of Korean organizations’ foreign expansion and expatriated employees,
whether expatriates successfully perform in foreign countries is critical for the
effectiveness of Korean organizations’ global business. Nonetheless, with few
exceptions (e.g., Kim & Slocum, 2008; Shaffer et al., 2006; Waxin & Panaccio,
2005), there have not been enough studies examining the antecedents or
mechanism of Korean expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment.
The increasing importance of expatriate management encourages
researchers to pay substantial attention to an expatriate’s cross-cultural adjust-
ment. Cross-cultural adjustment is generally defined as the adaptation process
of living and working in different cultures and is the perceived degree of psy-
chological comfort and familiarity that a person has in different cultures (Black,
1988; Black, Mendenhall, & Oddou, 1991; Hechanova, Beehr, & Christiansen,
HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

Previous International Experience, Cross-Cultural Training 287
2003; Palthe, 2004). Prior empirical studies have tried to identify what factors
have positive influences on an expatriate’s cross-cultural adjustment (Aycan, 1997;
Black et al., 1991; Caligiuri, Phillips, Lazarova, Tarique, & Bürgi, 2001; Caligiuri,
Tarique, & Jacobs, 2009; Parker & McEvoy, 1993; Shaffer, Harrison, & Gilley,
1999). For instance, previous international experience (Bhaskar-Shrinivas,
Harrison, Shaffer, & Luk, 2005), role ambiguity and role clarity (Takeuchi,
Yun, & Tesluk, 2002), big five personality trait such as agreeableness
(Mol, Born, Willemsen, & Van der Molen, 2005; Shaffer et al., 2006), language
proficiency (Kim & Slocum, 2008; Takeuchi, Yun, & Russell, 2002), spouse
adjustment (Kraimer, Wayne, & Jaworski, 2001), cultural novelty and differ-
ence (Parker & McEvoy, 1993), and perceived organizational support (Wang &
Takeuchi, 2007) have been examined as antecedents of an expatriate’s cross-
cultural adjustment.
Among these various antecedents, two antecedents—previous international
experience (Caligiuri et al., 2009; Mol et al., 2005; Takeuchi et al., 2005; Tarique &
Takeuchi, 2008) and predeparture cross-cultural training (Gregersen & Black,
1992; Littrell, Hess, Paley, & Riedel, 2006; Littrell & Salas, 2005; Palthe, 2004;
Puck, Kittler, & Wright, 2008; Waxin & Panaccio, 2005) have been examined
frequently, since cross-cultural adjustments are regarded to be developed by
experiences and training (Ang & Van Dyne, 2008; Black et al., 1991).
Recently, however, cultural intelligence (CQ) has received great attention
as an antecedent of cross-cultural adjustment (Ang, Van Dyne, & Koh, 2006;
Ang et al., 2007; Earley & Ang, 2003; Imai & Gelfand, 2010; Lee & Sukoco,
2010; Ng & Earley, 2006). CQ is defined as “an individual’s competence to
function and manage effectively in culturally diverse settings” (Ang & Van
Dyne, 2008, p. 3). According to Ang et al. (2007), CQ, as a multidimensional
construct, is comprised of four dimensions, such as metacognitive CQ (an indi-
vidual’s level of conscious cultural awareness during cross-cultural interaction),
cognitive CQ (an individual’s knowledge of norms, practices, and conventions
in different cultures acquired from experience and education), motivational CQ
(an individual’s capability of directing attention and energy toward learning
and functioning in a different cultural situation), and behavioral CQ (an indi-
vidual’s capability to present appropriate verbal and nonverbal behaviors when
interacting with people from different cultures).
Although we acknowledge the contributions of previous studies, there are
still some areas of research that need to be explored to fully understand the
dynamics of an expatriate’s cross-cultural adjustment.
First, as discussed earlier, although previous international experience, pre-
departure cross-cultural training, and CQ are regarded as antecedents of an
expatriate’s cross-cultural adjustment, there have been few attempts that explore
the effects of these antecedents by considering them simultaneously (Ang et al.,
2007). As a result, how previous international experience, predeparture cross-
cultural training, and CQ influence cross-cultural adjustment is not fully
explored (Littrell et al., 2006). Moreover, although some meta-analyses showed

the positive influence of previous international experience (e.g., Bhaskar-

Shrinivas et al., 2005) and cross-cultural training (e.g., Deshpande & Viswesvaran,
1992) on expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment, there are also studies show-
ing the nonsignificant relationships among them (e.g., Hechanova et al., 2003;
Puck et al., 2008; Shaffer et al., 1999). These inconsistent empirical findings
may be related to the insufficient attention paid to the role of CQ on how pre-
vious international experience and predeparture cross-cultural training influ-
ence cross-cultural adjustment. Thus, the integrative studies including CQ as
a mediator will be helpful to deepen our understanding about how previous
international experience and predeparture cross-cultural training are related
to cross-cultural adjustment.
Furthermore, previous international experience (e.g., nonwork, work) and
predeparture cross-cultural training (e.g., length, type) are considered to be
comprised of several dimensions (Puck et al., 2008; Tarique & Takeuchi,
2008). Nonetheless, past studies have primarily focused on a specific dimen-
sion (Harrison, Chadwick, & Scales, 1996; Shannon & Begley, 2008; Templer,
Tay, & Chandrasekar, 2006). If various dimensions are not fully considered
when examining the effects of previous international experience and predepar-
ture cross-cultural training, it will be difficult to clearly understand which
dimensions are related to expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment or CQ.
Second, in line with the case of cross-cultural adjustment, although pre-
vious international experiences and predeparture cross-cultural training have
been also examined as antecedents of CQ (Tay, Westman, & Chia, 2008), an
examination on the moderating variables are necessary to further extend our
understanding about the developmental process of CQ. Given that CQ is an
aspect of an individual’s intelligence (Ang et al., 2007), an expatriate’s dispo-
sitional characteristics may affect the relationships among previous interna-
tional experience, predeparture cross-cultural training, and CQ. From this
perspective, goal orientation as an individual’s disposition is recently gaining
attention in the field of expatriate management (Gong & Fan, 2006; Littrell et al.,
2006; Tarique & Takeuchi, 2008). When we consider that adjusting to cultur-
ally different situations a very difficult task, it is expected that whether previ-
ous international experience and predeparture cross-cultural training lead to
CQ could be influenced by an expatriate’s goal orientation. For this reason,
Tarique and Takeuchi (2008) suggested that goal orientation would play a
moderating role on the relationship between previous international experience
and CQ. Despite this possibility of goal orientation as a moderator, there have
not been any attempts to consider goal orientation when examining expatri-
ates’ CQ.
This integrative study on an expatriate’s cross-cultural adjustment that
considers previous international experience, predeparture cross-cultural train-
ing, and CQ can be valuable to the expatriate management of a Korean multi-
national organization. First of all, to our knowledge, none of the existing
studies have examined the role of Korean expatriates’ CQ. In addition, it is

important to examine the effects of previous international experience and pre-

departure cross-cultural training on expatriates’ CQ or cross-cultural adjust-
ment by considering them simultaneously. Korean organizations tend to rely
on language proficiency, measured by exams such as TOEIC (Test of English
for International Communication) or TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Lan-
guage) (Kim & Slocum, 2008), past performance evaluation, and organiza-
tional tenure as criteria for selecting expatriates. With respect to cross-cultural
training, Osman-Gani (2000) showed that Korean organizations considered
cross-cultural training to be less important than organizations in Western coun-
tries. Based on a study of Osman-Gani (2002), it can be inferred that Korean
expatriates would not receive systemic cross-cultural training prior to expatri-
ation. In summary, when considering the selection practices of expatriates and
the perceived importance of cross-cultural training in Korea, we view it a nec-
essary and timely endeavor to examine how previous international experience
and predeparture cross-cultural training are related to Korean expatriates’
cross-cultural adjustment, and to investigate the role of CQ in these relation-
ships. Moreover, we expect that this examination with under-examined sam-
ples, such as Korean expatriates, will contribute to filling the research gap in
the literature on an expatriate’s cross-cultural adjustment.
Taken together, we try to examine the relationships among an expatriate’s
previous international experience, predeparture cross-cultural training (inde-
pendent variables), CQ (mediating variable), goal orientation (moderating vari-
able), and cross-cultural adjustment (dependent variable). To be more specific,
this study has three objectives. First, we examine how previous international
experience and predeparture cross-cultural training relate to CQ by simulta-
neously considering two dimensions of international experience (nonwork and
work) and cross-cultural training (length and comprehensiveness). Second, we
examine the moderating effect of an expatriate’s goal orientation on the rela-
tionship between independent variables and CQ. Third, we identify the medi-
ating effect of CQ on the relationships between independent variables and
cross-cultural adjustment.
Literature Review and Hypotheses Development

Previous International Nonwork and Work Experience and Cultural
Intelligence. Expatriates’ previous international experience has been believed to
influence their development of cultural knowledge and appropriate behaviors
that are required in different cultures (Kim & Slocum, 2008; Takeuchi et al.,
2005). A theoretical basis for the positive relationship between previous inter-
national experience and CQ can be found in social learning theory (Bandura,
1977). According to social learning theory (Bandura, 1977), an individual’s
learning occurs when information or knowledge flow from each other. If indi-
viduals visit foreign countries, they will interact and communicate with peo-
ple from different cultures, and accordingly they will acquire knowledge, skills,

and information on different countries and cultures through observation

(Aycan, 1977; Black et al., 1991). That is, previous international experiences
will help individuals understand different cultural circumstances and provide
them with accurate information or knowledge on the foreign country (this
reflecting metacognitive and cognitive CQ) by facilitating the social learning
process (Aycan, 1997; Church, 1982; Lee & Sukoco, 2010). Thus, we can
expect a positive relationship between previous international experience and
metacognitive and cognitive CQ.
Moreover, social learning about different cultures through previous expe-
riences can enhance individuals’ competence to demonstrate verbal and non-
verbal behaviors that are appropriate and/or acceptable in a foreign country (this
reflecting behavioral CQ), and also encourage their willingness to interact with
people from different cultures (this reflecting motivational CQ). For instance,
Shannon and Begley (2008) suggest that individuals who are in contact with
culturally different people can cope with unfamiliar cultural situations effec-
tively; thus, they are likely to behave flexibly when encountering foreign peo-
ple. Indeed, Shannon and Begley (2008) found that previous international
experience was positively related to motivational CQ. Brett and Reilly (1988)
also argue that individuals with culturally diverse experiences will have a strong
willingness to learn unfamiliar cultures because they have a curiosity about dif-
ferent cultures. Taken together, it is expected that expatriates’ previous interna-
tional experience will be positively related to the four dimensions of CQ.
However, as discussed earlier, previous international experience has been
considered to be a multidimensional construct that contains two components:
work experience and nonwork experience (Takeuchi et al., 2005). While work
experience involves work-related experiences such as business trips to foreign
countries, nonwork experience includes studying abroad or personal travel. In
line with prior studies showing that previous work (e.g., Shannon & Begley,
2008; Tay et al., 2008) and nonwork (Tarique & Takeuchi, 2008) experiences
were positively related to CQ, we expect that the expatriates’ previous interna-
tional work and nonwork experiences will have positive influences on their CQ.
However, contrary to the existing studies, we argue that the strength of
the positive influence of previous international nonwork experience on CQ
will be stronger than that of work experience. The first reason is related to the
theory of resource allocation (Becker, 1965; Hockey, 1997). According to the the-
ory of resource allocation, in reality, individuals in an organization have fixed
and constrained resources (e.g., competence, time) to perform various tasks
(Becker, 1965). Hence, due to a fixed amount of resources such as time, individ-
uals have to focus on how they allocate the scarce resources to tasks (Drago &
Garvey, 1998). When we see the effects of previous international experience
on CQ from a resource allocation perspective, it is expected that, when indi-
viduals visit foreign countries for work-related purposes, they would not have
enough time to learn cultural knowledge or to interact with people in foreign
countries, because their primary purpose for visiting the foreign country is

strongly tied to their work. Accordingly, they would devote their full attention
and most of their time to work-related activities, such as gathering informa-
tion on products or competitors, monitoring the foreign subsidiaries.
Second, domain-specific characteristics of previous international experi-
ence are also related to the different effects of international work and nonwork
experience on CQ. According to Takeuchi and his colleagues (Takeuchi et al.,
2005; Tarique & Takeuchi, 2008), whereas the effect of previous international
work experience is likely to be limited to specific domains such as job perfor-
mance in foreign assignments, previous international nonwork experience is
likely to be helpful in developing a comprehensive framework and routine that
is appropriate for effective adjustment in various domains in foreign countries.
As Bandura (1997) suggests, learning occurs through interacting with various
people in typical situations, so individuals visiting foreign countries for non-
work purposes rather than work purposes are likely to have more opportuni-
ties to interact with various people, and thus they will have a higher CQ.
Furthermore, as Ang and Van Dyne (2008) defined it, CQ is an individual’s
competence to function effectively in culturally diverse situations rather than
in a specific domain (e.g., work situation), thus it is expected that previous
international nonwork experience is likely to be more strongly related to expa-
triates’ CQ than work experience.
Finally, according to the mechanism of selective attention (Conway, 1988;
Houghton & Tipper, 1994), individuals tend to focus a certain aspect of infor-
mation or things automatically and/or unconsciously, because they have lim-
ited working memory to process all the relevant information. For instance,
while a selective attention system makes individuals automatically focus on
their goals or interest-relevant information, it forces them to exclude some
information that distracts their attention (Wegner, 1994). This selective atten-
tion mechanism can be applied to individuals’ response to international expe-
riences. For instance, individuals visiting foreign countries for work purposes
may selectively perceive or consciously acquire work-related knowledge or
information, because their primary attention is related to work-related goals.
Thus, the breadth of their cultural understanding may be somewhat narrow.
In contrast, if individuals visit a foreign country for nonwork purposes, they
would spend more time gaining cultural knowledge or interacting with local
people than those who have traveled for business. Thus, individuals with inter-
national nonwork experience will have more diverse, broad, and direct cul-
tural knowledge through experiencing various cultural aspects, because their
focus and attention are not constrained by work-related issues.
In summary, the positive effect of previous international nonwork expe-
rience on CQ will be stronger than that of international work experience.
Therefore, we have made the following hypothesis:
HYPOTHESIS 1: The expatriates’ previous international (a) nonwork and

(b) work experience will be positively related to their CQ. The positive effect of

previous international nonwork experience on CQ will be stronger than that of

work experience.
Predeparture Cross-Cultural Training and Cultural Intelligence. In the

literature of cross-cultural adjustment, cross-cultural training has been well
acknowledged as an important vehicle for improving expatriates’ cross-cultural
adjustment (Littrell & Salas, 2005; Morris & Robie, 2001; Osman-Gani &
Rockstuhl, 2009). Cross-cultural training is defined as the educative process
that is designed to encourage intercultural learning through development of
cognitive, affective, and behavioral competencies needed for effective interac-
tions across cultures (Morris & Robie, 2001).
Cross-cultural training prior to expatriation is expected to be positively
related to an expatriate’s CQ. The first theoretical reason for this positive rela-
tionship relates to social learning theory (Bandura, 1977), which is one of the
most popular theories explaining the positive effect of cross-cultural training
(Littrell et al., 2006). As Black and Mendenhall (1990) state, cross-cultural
training prior to expatriation can help expatriates develop competences or
learn appropriate behaviors to adjust well in foreign countries through observ-
ing and experiencing different cultures directly and/or indirectly. If expatriates
receive predeparture cross-cultural training, they will easily acquire informa-
tion or knowledge on how to communicate and interact with people and on
what the socially acceptable behaviors are in the relevant country (Black et al.,
1991; Deshpande & Viswesvaran, 1992). Thus, expatriates can improve their
cognitive and interpersonal skills on how to deal with cross-cultural situations
(Littrell et al., 2006). Especially given that CQ contains aspects of cognitive
and interpersonal intelligence, predeparture cross-cultural training could
markedly increase an expatriate’s CQ.
Second, the anxiety and uncertainty management theory also support a pos-
itive role of predeparture cross-cultural training on CQ. According to
Gudykunst (1998), the anxiety and uncertainty that individuals face are criti-
cal obstacles for living and working in a new environment. When this theory
is applied to the cross-cultural context, whether expatriates have the compe-
tence to effectively manage anxiety and uncertainty in an assigned country is
a central element of their cross-cultural adjustment. In this situation, prede-
parture cross-cultural training providing the relevant cultural information and
experience (e.g., cultural orientation, cultural awareness training) can be help-
ful to reduce anxiety and uncertainty (Brandl & Anne-Katrin, 2009). Consid-
ering that predeparture cross-cultural training increases expatriates’ cognitive
and behavioral competence to adjust in different cultures by reducing anxiety and
uncertainty (Brandl & Anne-Katrin, 2009), it can be expected to have a posi-
tive influence on CQ.
Third, predeparture cross-cultural training can be seen in the perspective
of socialization (Puck et al., 2008) and realistic job preview (Templer et al., 2006;
Wanous, 1992). In fact, the newly expatriated people are generally newcomers

to the foreign country. As such, it is very difficult for expatriates to live and
work in foreign countries where the culture and values are different from those
of their home country (Caligiuri et al., 2001). However, if expatriates have
received adequate cross-cultural training on communicating, interacting, and
living in the foreign country, they would have been socialized into that foreign
country and have had a realistic preview on the country. Therefore, it can be
stated that predeparture cross-cultural training is likely to function as sociali-
zation and to provide a realistic preview on the foreign assignment (Black &
Mendenhall, 1990).
Based on these theoretical reasons, we hypothesize that two dimensions
of predeparture cross-cultural training will be antecedents of CQ. The first
dimension is the length of predeparture cross-cultural training. That is, the
longer time the expatriates have participated in cross-cultural training prior to
expatriation, the higher CQ they will have. As Black and Mendenhall (1990)
argue, cross-cultural training provides information about how people view the
world and how people behave appropriately in other countries. Thus, expatri-
ates who have received the relevant information through cross-cultural train-
ing would have been well prepared to adjust to other cultures, because they
learned the cultural knowledge and skills to cope with the differences between
their home and host country (Littrell & Salas, 2005). Additionally, the cross-
culturally trained expatriates may have a higher efficacy on their capability to
interact and/or work in culturally diverse contexts; thus, they may demonstrate
desirable behaviors (Osman-Gani & Rockstuhl, 2009). In this regard, expatri-
ates who display a high level of self-efficacy are likely to have enough confi-
dence to be socialized in foreign countries (Ang et al., 2007). Thus, it is
expected that expatriates who had spent much time participating in cross-
cultural training would have a higher level of CQ.
Second, we also expect that the expatriates’ CQ may also be positively
associated with the comprehensiveness of predeparture cross-cultural training.
Puck et al. (2008) defined the comprehensiveness of cross-cultural training as
the number of types of cross-cultural training in which expatriates participate.
They suggest that, if expatriates participate in a larger variety of types of pre-
departure cross-cultural training, their effectiveness in different cultures will
increase, because they will have experienced varied cultural differences
through diverse kinds of training.
Regarding the types of cross-cultural training, many typologies have been
suggested (Brandl & Anne-Katrin, 2009; Littrell et al., 2006; Tung, 1981).
Among the types of cross-cultural training, we apply the typology of Tung
(1981). Tung (1981) divided cross-cultural training into five separate types:
(a) area studies programs (cultural orientation programs to provide informa-
tion about a particular country’s sociopolitical history, geography, and cultural
institutions); (b) cultural assimilator programs (short episodes that briefly
describe intercultural encounters); (c) language training programs (sessions that
teach the language of the assigned country); (d) sensitivity training programs

(programs to help trainees build awareness and accept cultural behaviors and
value systems); and (e) field experience programs (programs that send trainees
to the assigned country to experience emotional stress while living and work-
ing in a different culture) (see Tung, 1981, for details).
When the types of cross-cultural training are applied to CQ, it is expected
that studies programs can increase both metacognitive and cognitive CQ by
providing relevant information about different cultures. Area studies programs
may also be useful for developing both cognitive and behavioral CQ, since
these provide the opportunity for expatriates to understand people in their new
host country. In addition, both sensitivity training programs and field experi-
ence programs will be useful for expatriates’ motivational and behavioral CQ
because these provide the confidence to interact with foreign people and to
demonstrate culturally appropriate behaviors by direct experiences.
Taken together, the time expatriates spend in predeparture cross-cultural
training and the variety of types of trainings provided will be positively related
to expatriates’ CQ. Hence, we have made the following hypothesis:
HYPOTHESIS 2: The (a) length and (b) comprehensiveness of expatriates’ predeparture

cross-cultural training will be positively related to their CQ.
The Moderating Effect of Goal Orientation. Generally, goal orientation is

defined as an individual’s goal preference in an achievement situation (Dweck,
1986; Elliot & McGregor, 2001; VandeWalle, 1997). Goal orientation was first
introduced by Dweck (1986), who proposed that an individual has two types
of goal orientation in an achievement situation: a learning goal orientation to
focus on improving his/her capabilities and mastering challenging situations
by learning new skills or things; and a performance goal orientation to demon-
strate his/her competence, gain recognition for accomplishments, and avoid
negative evaluation about his/her incompetence or poor performance from oth-
ers (Button, Mathieu, & Zajac, 1996).
After the concept of goal orientation was introduced, subsequent
researchers have divided learning goal and performance goal orientation into
various dimensions (Payne, Youngcourt, & Beaubien, 2007). For instance,
some researchers suggest that goal orientation is composed of three dimen-
sions. For instance, VandeWalle (1997) validated the three factors of goal ori-
entation such as learning goal, prove performance goal (which is an individual’s
tendency to demonstrate his/her competence and/or performance in compar-
ison with others), and avoid performance goal orientation (which is a desire
to avoid one’s shortcomings, incompetence, and poor performance from being
known to others). Elliot and Church (1997) also suggested three types of goal
orientation such as mastery goal, performance approach goal, and performance
avoidance goal orientation by dividing the performance goal orientation sug-
gested by Button et al. (1996) into two subdimensions. Recently, however, Elliot
and McGregor (2001) proposed a four-factor model of goal orientation—mastery

approach, mastery avoidance, performance approach, and performance

avoidance—by dividing mastery goal orientation suggested by Elliot and
Church (1997) into two subdimensions.
As the preceding suggests, there are a variety of types of goal orientation
and also debates on which factor-models (two-, three-, four-factor model for goal
orientation) are more conceptually rigorous and valid (Payne et al., 2007;
Schmidt & Ford, 2003). Among the various dimensions of goal orientation,
this study focuses on two dimensions—a mastery approach goal orientation and
a performance avoidance goal orientation—to find the distinctive and moderat-
ing effects of goal orientation in the context of an expatriate’s CQ and cross-
cultural adjustment for the following three reasons.
The first reason is that, whereas mastery approach and performance
avoidance goal orientation have been considered to be conceptually different,
these two goal orientations have been reported to have similar influences
(Payne et al., 2007). In addition, some researchers (Ford, Smith, Weissbein,
Gully, & Salas, 1998; Schmidt & Ford, 2003) argue that the concept of per-
formance approach goal orientation is somewhat ambiguous and is difficult to
precisely understand what performance approach goal orientation means. The
second reason is that mastery approach and performance avoidance goal ori-
entation may be more appropriate to find the vivid contrasting interactional
effects. For instance, according to Schmidt and Ford (2003), whereas mastery
approach and performance avoidance goal orientation had clear moderating
effects to increase individuals’ metacognitive activities in the learning context,
performance approach orientation did not have such moderating effects. The
third reason is that, although Elliot and McGregor (2001) suggested four
dimensions of goal orientation, a mastery avoidance goal orientation has not
been fully validated through sufficient empirical studies (Wang & Takeuchi,
2007). Based on these reasons, we focused on mastery approach and perfor-
mance avoidance goal orientation.
As noted earlier, while a mastery approach goal orientation is an individ-
ual’s desire to improve the individual’s capabilities and ability to master chal-
lenging situations by learning new skills or new concepts, a performance
avoidance goal orientation means an individual’s desire to hide shortcomings,
incompetence, and poor performance from others (Elliot & McGregor, 2001;
VandeWalle, 1997). The reason why behaviors of individuals with mastery
approach and performance avoidance goal orientation are different from each
other can be explained by the theory of intelligence (Dweck & Leggett, 1988).
According to Dweck and Leggett (1988), individuals with mastery approach
goal orientation have an incremental theory of intelligence that views ability
or intelligence as malleable and thus can be increased by effort. In addition,
individuals with mastery approach goal orientation have a strong belief that their
efforts are an important instrument to achieve success or development, and thus
they consider the challenging situation as an opportunity for them (Dweck &
Leggett, 1988; VandeWalle, 2003). In contrast, individuals with performance

avoidance goal orientation have an entity theory of intelligence that considers

ability as an unchangeable and inherent attribute that is hard to develop. More-
over, individuals with performance avoidance goal orientation tend to escape
from challenging situations, because they think that efforts to overcome the
difficult situation are useless (VandeWalle, 2003).
Considering the characteristics of mastery approach and performance
avoidance goal orientation, expatriates’ response to previous international
experience and predeparture cross-cultural training is expected to be different
in accordance to their goal orientation.
Interactional Effects of Previous International Experience and Goal Orientation.
International experience with culturally different countries is psychologically
and physically stressful to expatriates because it is difficult to interact with peo-
ple from different cultures. Moreover, the adjustment to culturally different sit-
uations may be a challenging task (Caligiuri et al., 2001).
Following the incremental theory of intelligence (Dweck & Leggett,
1988), individuals with mastery approach goal orientation will enjoy master-
ing new situations, and even consider these new situations to be opportunities
to improve their competence (DeShon & Gillespie, 2005; Payne et al., 2007;
VandeWalle, 1997). Hence, if individuals with a high mastery approach goal
orientation visit foreign countries, they will likely channel their attention to
develop their competence or ability to adjust to cross-cultural situations. On
the other hand, individuals with a low mastery approach goal orientation will
not seek these difficult situations. In addition, some researchers suggest that a
high level of mastery approach goal orientation helps individuals cope with
negative feeling such as failure, and thus they can maintain self-efficacy in
countries with different cultures (Button et al., 1996). In this regard, individ-
uals with mastery approach goal orientation would have actively utilized the
international experience to develop their CQ. Hence, we predict:
HYPOTHESIS 3a: The expatriates’ mastery approach goal orientation will moderate
the relationship between previous international nonwork and work experience
and their CQ, such that its positive relationships will be stronger for expatriates
with higher mastery approach goal orientation.
However, expatriates with a higher performance avoidance goal orientation

may try to avoid challenging situations such as experiencing different cultures.
They may put less effort into learning about different cultures, since they tend
to avoid making errors and have a low intrinsic motivation to develop their
competence (VandeWalle, 2003). A meta-analysis of Payne et al.’s (2007)
revealed that performance avoidance goal orientation was negatively correlated
with the need for achievement, extraversion, and agreeableness. Moreover, as
seen in the entity theory of intelligence (Button et al., 1996; Dweck & Leggett,
1988), individuals with performance avoidance goal orientation will make less
of an effort, because they believe that their ability is hard to be developed by

efforts (Button et al., 1996; Dweck & Leggett, 1988). Therefore, individuals
with a high level of performance avoidance goal orientation, even if they have
had more previous international experiences, will not have a higher CQ. Thus,
we hypothesize:
HYPOTHESIS 3b: The expatriates’ performance avoidance goal orientation will

moderate the relationship between previous international nonwork and work
experience and their CQ, such that its positive relationships will be stronger for
expatriates with lower performance avoidance goal orientation.
Interactional Effects of Predeparture Cross-Cultural Training and Goal Orien-

tation. An individual’s goal orientation is a predictor of training effectiveness,
because an individual’s motivation for training may vary according to what
types of goal orientation he/she has (Fisher & Ford, 1998). Based on the incre-
mental theory of intelligence (Dweck & Leggett, 1988), individuals with high
mastery approach goal orientation are likely to be dedicated to increasing their
competence because they focus on improving their ability and learning some-
thing new (Ford et al., 1998). Thus, if individuals with higher mastery
approach goal orientations participate in predeparture cross-cultural training,
they will perceive cross-cultural training as an opportunity to develop their
cultural competence. Moreover, because individuals with high mastery
approach goal orientation are likely to exhibit higher levels of motivation for
training program (Chiaburu & Marinova, 2005), they will wisely overcome the
stressful situations encountered in predeparture cross-cultural training. As a
result, expatriates with a high mastery approach goal orientation would have
made efforts to check the accuracy of their cultural knowledge and to learn
verbal and nonverbal behavior, when they have participated in predeparture
cross-cultural training. Thus, we hypothesize the following:
HYPOTHESIS 3c: The expatriates’ mastery approach goal orientation will moderate
the relationship between length and comprehensiveness of predeparture cross-
cultural training and their CQ, such that its positive relationships will be
stronger for expatriates with a higher mastery approach goal orientation.
Similarly, the positive effect of predeparture cross-cultural training on CQ

will be weaker for individuals with high performance avoidance goal orienta-
tion than those with low performance avoidance goal orientation. Following
the theory of intelligence (Dweck & Leggett, 1988), individuals with perfor-
mance avoidance goal orientation may not be proactively involved in prede-
parture cross-cultural training because they have a tendency to think that
cross-cultural training has little use for increasing abilities such as CQ. Addition-
ally, given that performance avoidance goal orientation is associated with a fear of
strangeness or failure (Elliot & Church, 1997), individuals with performance avoid-
ance goal orientation will try to escape from stressful cross-cultural training.

In this regard, expatriates with a high performance avoidance goal orientation

would have made efforts to learn, when they have participated in predeparture
cross-cultural training. Thus, we hypothesize the following:
HYPOTHESIS 3d: The expatriates’ performance avoidance goal orientation will

moderate the relationship between length and comprehensiveness of predeparture
cross-cultural training and their CQ, such that its positive relationships will be
stronger for expatriates with lower performance avoidance goal orientation.
The Mediating Effect of Cultural Intelligence. Cross-cultural adjustment

is generally composed of three facets (Black, 1988; Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al.,
2005; Hechanova et al., 2003; Palthe, 2004). General adjustment refers to the
degree of psychological comfort within a host cultural environment, work
adjustment means the degree of psychological comfort with a work setting,
and interactional adjustment refers to the degree of psychological comfort
regarding interpersonal communication with host country nationals (Black &
Gregersen, 1991; Black & Stephens, 1989; Takeuchi et al., 2002).
Among the three facets of cross-cultural adjustment, we have focused on
general and work adjustment for the following two reasons: The first reason is
related to the study of Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al. (2005). According to the meta-
analyses of Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al. (2005), general (nonwork domain) and
work (work domain) adjustment had strong and significant influences on
expatriates’ attitudes (e.g., job satisfaction, withdrawal cognition) and perfor-
mance. In contrast, interactional adjustment was not significantly related
to these expatriates’ attitudes and performance. The second reason is similar to
the study of Takeuchi and his colleagues. According to them, while work
domain is important for expatriates’ work performance because of its central-
ity, nonwork domain is also critical for their decision to change their foreign
job assignments (Takeuchi et al., 2002; Takeuchi, Wang, Marinova, & Yao,
2009). Moreover, while Takeuchi et al. (2005) examined the relationships
between previous nonwork and work experience and cross-cultural adjust-
ment, they focused on general and work adjustment with the perspective of
domain-specific aspects of international experience. In sum, considering the
importance of general and work adjustment for expatriates’ cross-cultural
adjustment and the perspective of domain-specific experience, we focused on
the general and work adjustment.
As noted previously, past studies have tried to find a direct relationship
between previous international experience, predeparture cross-cultural train-
ing, and cross-cultural adjustment; however, empirical results were somewhat
mixed. To solve these inconsistent empirical findings, we consider expatriates’
CQ as a mediator that influences the effect of previous international experi-
ence and predeparture cross-cultural training on work and general adjustment.
We expect that previous international experience would not be linked
directly to expatriates’ adjustment, if the previous international experience does

Figure 1. The Research Model
Mastery Approach
Goal Orientation
RH 3a RH 3c
Previous International Experience RH 1

- Previous international nonwork experience
- Previous international work experience
RH 4 Cross-Cultural
Cultural Adjustment
Intelligence - General
- Work
Predeparture Cross-Cultural Training
- Length of cross-cultural training
- Comprehensiveness of cross-cultural training RH 2
RH 3b RH 3d
Performance Avoidance
Goal Orientation
RH ⫽ related hypothesis
not enhance expatriates’ CQ, even if the expatriates had many international
experiences. In addition, even if the expatriates participated in predeparture
cross-cultural training, when such cross-cultural training does not improve
their CQ, they would not adjust to the newly assigned foreign countries. In a
related study, Black and Mendenhall (1990) suggest that individuals’ skill
development can intervene in the relationship between cross-cultural training
and adjustment through a social learning process. In this respect, we also
expect that previous international experience and predeparture cross-cultural
training exerts its positive influences on cross-cultural adjustment through
developing CQ. Hence, we made the following hypothesis:
HYPOTHESIS 4: CQ will mediate the relationships among expatriates’ previous

international nonwork and work experiences, length and comprehensiveness of
predeparture cross-cultural training, and cross-cultural (general and work)
adjustment.
Figure 1 presents a model of the key theoretical relationships in this study.
Method
Research Design and Procedure. This research is based on cross-sectional
design and a self-reported survey that collected all variables from expatriates
within a certain time period. Ideally, collecting data from different sources (e.g.,
measuring cross-cultural adjustment from expatriates’ supervisors) or a longitu-
dinal survey would have been better to test our hypotheses. However, it was for
us too difficult to acquire survey responses from Korean expatriates. Moreover, it

Table 1. Industries and Response of the Participating Companies

Number of Distributed Number of Valid Valid Response
Companies Industries Questionnaires Responses Rate (%)
A Electronic 60 47 78.3
B Chemical 50 40 80.0
C Electronic 40 34 85.0
D International Trade 30 21 70.0
E Information 30 20 66.7
Technology
F Apparel 20 15 75.0
G Automobile 20 13 65.0
Total 250 190 76.0
was very difficult to conduct surveys more than once and to obtain data from
multiple sources. For these reasons, just one survey was conducted and all the
data were obtained only from the expatriates.
The lists of Korean companies expatriating employees overseas were
obtained from reports published from KOTRA (Korea Trade-Investment Pro-
motion Agency). The KOTRA website provides the reports including lists of
Korean companies expatriating employees. Among these lists, we selected the
10 largest Korean companies (e.g., LG, Samsung) by referring to the ranks of
Korean companies published by the Korea Stock Exchange, because large com-
panies are more likely to enter into many foreign countries and to expatriate
many employees. As to the selected companies through this process, we called
the representative HR (human resource) manager in each company by using the
contact information provided by KOTRA. We then explained the purposes of
this study and asked for cooperation with our survey. Ultimately, among the
10 companies that we contacted for the survey, 7 companies agreed to partic-
ipate in this study. Table 1 shows the distribution of industries for the partici-
pating companies such as electronics (2), chemicals (1), international trade
(1), information technology (1), apparel (1), and automobiles (1).
Because it was important to obtain a large sample of potential respon-
dents, we asked for the representative HR managers to provide us with a list
of all expatriates they sent overseas. Through this request, the contact infor-
mation, including names and e-mail addresses for all the expatriates in each
company, was obtained from HR managers.
We directly e-mailed the survey, which contained a cover letter explain-
ing the purpose of the survey and questionnaires, to the identified 250 expa-
triates. To ensure confidentiality, all respondents who received the survey were
instructed to return the completed questionnaire directly to one of the authors via

an e-mail attachment, not to return it to their HR managers. The survey lasted

over five weeks in November 2009.
Sample. As seen in Table 1, out of 250 distributed questionnaires, 190
usable questionnaires were returned (maximum was 47 and minimum was
13). The total valid response rate was 76.0%, with a range from 65.0% to
85.0%. In addition, as seen in Table 2, the range of expatriated nations was
very diverse; for instance, United States (28.93%), China (15.3%), Japan
(13.7%), Germany (5.3%), and Hong Kong (4.7%).
The respondents had the following characteristics. Of the total respon-
dents, 185 respondents (97.4%) were male. The mean age was 39.6 years (SD
⫽ 5.1), and tenure after foreign assignment 32.9 months (SD ⫽ 33.9). One
hundred eighty-six respondents (97.9%) had a university education or above.
However, there may be a possibility of mean difference in our focal vari-
ables such as CQ, which was caused by the companies and the expatriated
nations. Accordingly, a series of one-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) were
conducted. The results of ANOVA showed that there was no significant mean
difference for CQ (F ⫽ 1.06, ns; F ⫽ 0.52, ns) and cross-cultural adjustment
(F ⫽ 0.60, ns; F ⫽ 1.29, ns) caused by the companies and the expatriated
nations, respectively.
Measures. Unless otherwise indicated, every item was measured by a
seven-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).
Previous Work and Nonwork International Experience. Generally, the fre-
quency (i.e., how many times expatriates have visited foreign countries)
(Palthe, 2004; Shaffer & Harrison, 1998; Takeuchi et al., 2005) and duration
(i.e., how long expatriates have stayed in foreign countries) (Black, 1988;
Gregersen & Black, 1992; Harrison et al., 1996; Kim & Slocum, 2008; Parker &
McEvoy, 1993) are the widely used measures to assess the previous interna-
tional experience. Between these two types of measures, we focused on the fre-
quency measure for the following two reasons: First, since CQ, by definition,
is an individual’s competence to effectively adjust in culturally diverse situations
(Earley & Ang, 2003), how many times expatriates visited diverse foreign
countries may be more important than how long they have stayed in a specific
country. Second, in the case of developing countries such as Korea that are
rapidly expanding into global markets, frequent international experiences can
be more effective for Korean expatriates to understand diverse cultures and to
flexibly respond to dynamic global environments. Thus, it may be more impor-
tant for expatriates to have many experiences with various foreign countries
rather than to stay for a longer period in one specific foreign country.
In this study, following the measure of Takeuchi et al. (2005), the expa-
triates’ total number of previous international work and nonwork experiences
was assessed. We asked the respondents an open-ended question: “How many
international nonwork (e.g., personal trip, language study) and work experi-
ence (e.g., business trip, benchmarking) did you have prior to the expatriate
assignment?”

Table 2. The Distribution of Expatriated Nations
The Participating Companies
Expatriated Nations Frequency Percentage (%) A B C D E F G
United States 55 28.9 8 3 19 1 7 5 12

China 29 15.3 5 3 4 5 2 2 8
Japan 26 13.7 3 7 2 1 5 3 5
Germany 10 5.3 0 2 2 1 0 0 5
Hong Kong 9 4.7 2 1 0 0 3 1 2
England 6 3.2 3 0 0 0 0 1 2
Singapore 6 3.2 2 1 0 0 0 0 3
Turkey 5 2.6 0 0 5 0 0 0 0
Saudi Arabia 4 2.1 2 0 1 0 0 0 1
The Netherlands 4 2.1 1 0 0 1 0 0 2
India 3 1.6 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
Indonesia 3 1.6 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
Vietnam 2 1.1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
Poland 3 1.6 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
Russia 3 1.6 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
Republic of South Africa 3 1.6 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
Others 19 10.0 6 0 3 3 3 0 4
Total 190 100 34 20 40 13 21 15 47
Predeparture Cross-Cultural Training. First, we assessed the length of pre-

departure cross-cultural training by using the measure developed by Gregersen
and Black (1992). Respondents were asked, “How many hours of culture-
related training did you participate in prior to expatriation?” Second, the com-
prehensiveness of predeparture cross-cultural training was assessed by using
the measure of Downes, Thomas, and Singley’s (2002) five types, which are
based on the typology of Tung (1981). Respondents were asked to answer Yes
(0 ⫽ not participated) or No (1 ⫽ participated) questions that described
the five different types of culture-related training that they received prior to
expatriation.
Cultural Intelligence. A widely used 20-item measure validated by Ang
et al. (2007) was used to assess expatriate’s CQ. Sample items included the fol-
lowing: “I am conscious of the cultural knowledge that I apply to cross-
cultural interactions” (metacognitive CQ), “I know the legal and economic systems
of other cultures” (cognitive CQ), “I enjoy interacting with people from differ-
ent cultures” (motivational CQ), and “I change my verbal behavior (e.g.,
accent, tone) when it is required in a cross-cultural interaction” (behavioral
CQ). Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for metacognitive, cognitive, motivational,
and behavioral CQ were 0.81, 0.87, 0.90, and 0.85, respectively.
The expatriates’ response for CQ may be overestimated, since CQ was
measured by a self-reported questionnaire. However, as we previously men-
tioned, most of the expatriates were older (mean ⫽ 39.6 year) and organizational
tenure was long (mean ⫽ 141.1 month). Considering that the long-tenured and
older employees tend to more accurately respond to surveys assessing intelli-
gence and have many experiences in taking surveys (Mabe & West, 1982), we
expect that respondents would accurately respond for CQ. Moreover, we
assured the confidentiality of the survey by requesting respondents to return
their completed questionnaire to the author and not to their HR manager.
Thus, respondents would not respond to the items for CQ in an exaggerated
manner. In addition, expatriates’ responses may be exaggerated, since CQ
essentially represents a part of an individual’s intellectual abilities (DeNisi &
Shaw, 1977). However, when considering the finding of Imai and Gelfand
(2010), showing that CQ was not significantly related to cognitive ability, we
can conclude that expatriates’ response for CQ was not influenced by their cog-
nitive intelligence.
Goal Orientation. The expatriates’ goal orientation was assessed by using
the measure of Elliot and McGregor (2001). As discussed earlier, although
there are a variety of measures assessing goal orientation (e.g., Button et al.,
1996; Elliot & Church, 1997; VandeWalle, 1997), we think that the measure
of Elliot and McGregor’s (2001), which was developed recently and composed
of more diverse dimensions of goal orientation, is more appropriate to precisely
capture the nature of mastery approach and performance avoidance goal orien-
tation. For instance, if the measure with three types of goal orientation (Elliot &
Church, 1997; VandeWalle, 1997) is used, the exact concepts of mastery

approach and performance avoidance goal orientation might be diluted

because this measure assesses the overall learning goal orientation without dif-
ferentiating its subtypes such as mastery approach and mastery avoidance.
Thus, we first measured four dimensions of goal orientation, and then selec-
tively used two types of goal orientation based on the reasons discussed ear-
lier. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for mastery approach and performance
avoidance goal orientation were 0.88 and 0.58, respectively.
Cross-Cultural Adjustment. Expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment was assessed
by the measure used by Black and Stephens (1989). Originally, Black and
Stephens’s (1989) measure was comprised of three factors: general, interac-
tional, and work adjustment. However, following the previous studies (e.g.,
Takeuchi et al., 2005), we focused on seven- and three-item measures for gen-
eral and work adjustment by considering the importance of the general and
work adjustment factors and the domain characteristic of international work
experience, which was previously discussed in the theoretical section. Cron-
bach’s alpha coefficient for the general and work adjustment factors were 0.82
and 0.90, respectively.
Control Variables. We recognize that some expatriates’ demographic vari-
ables may be related to CQ as well as cross-cultural adjustment. Thus, expa-
triates’ age, tenure after assignment, education level, and job title were
controlled. In addition, language proficiency (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005)
and previous visiting experience in the currently assigned nation (Kim &
Slocum, 2008; Shannon & Begley, 2008) were controlled because these vari-
ables have been reported to be related to CQ and cross-cultural adjustment.
Translation of Questionnaire Items. All questionnaire items were origi-
nally written in English. To survey, original items were translated into Korean
by following Brislin’s (1980) translation-back-translation procedure with the
help of two English-Korean bilingual speakers. First, one bilingual speaker
who is a professor in the field of organizational behavior translated the Eng-
lish version of the items into the Korean version. Then, the other bilingual
speaker who is a doctoral student majoring in the management field back-
translated the Korean version of items into the English version to ensure that
the English and Korean versions of the items were comparable to a high degree
of accuracy.
Analyses
Validity Analyses. Before testing the hypotheses, three confirmatory fac-
tor analyses (CFAs) were conducted to evaluate the discriminant and conver-
gent validity of our focal variables by using AMOS 7.0. We evaluated the
goodness of each model by determining whether the values of the compara-
tive fit index (CFI) and the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) are greater than 0.90, and
whether the value of the root-mean-squared error of approximation (RMSEA)
is lower than 0.08 (Lance & Vandenberg, 2002).

First, since CQ is an important construct in our study, we tested whether

CQ was composed of four discrete dimensions. As seen in Model 1 and 2 of
Table 3, the CFA results showed that the four-factor model of CQ (Model 2)
yielded a better goodness-of-fit index (x2(df ) ⫽ 286.6 (164), CFI ⫽ 0.92, TLI
⫽ 0.91, RMSEA ⫽ 0.07) than the single-factor model (Model 1) considering
all four dimensions of CQ as single factor (x2(df ) ⫽ 684.6 (170), CFI ⫽ 0.66,
TLI ⫽ 0.62, RMSEA ⫽ 0.15), with a significant change of chi-square of 398.0
(⌬df ⫽ 6, p ⬍ 0.01).
Second, we also performed another CFA to test discriminant and conver-
gent validity among all variables—CQ, goal orientation, and cross-cultural
adjustment—of this study. This kind of CFA was particularly necessary due to
the possibility of conceptual similarity between goal orientation and motiva-
tional CQ. For instance, although mastery approach goal orientation and moti-
vational CQ are different concepts, the reconfirmation of discriminant validity
is important since self-efficacy is regarded as the common foundational com-
ponent of mastery approach goal orientation and motivational CQ (Earley &
Ang, 2003; Payne et al., 2007; Templer et al., 2006). As seen in Models 3, 4,
5, and 6 of Table 3, the CFA results demonstrated that the eight-factor model
(Model 6) showed a better goodness-of-fit index (x2(df ) ⫽ 656.2 (406), CFI
⫽ 0.90, TLI ⫽ 0.89, RMSEA ⫽ 0.07) than all other alternative models. In par-
ticular, the eight-factor model showed a better goodness-of-fit index than the
seven-factor model which considers mastery approach goal orientation and
motivational CQ as a single construct (Model 5), with a significant change of
chi-square of 586.8 (⌬df ⫽ 7, p ⬍ 0.01). Taken together, the results of the
two kinds of CFA confirmed the discriminant and convergent validity for all
variables.
Third, this study may have a possible common method bias since all vari-
ables were rated by the single source—expatriates—in the same questionnaire
survey (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). As a result, it is crit-
ical to show that this data do not have a serious common method bias through
statistical analyses. For this, we considered two statistical remedies suggested
by Podsakoff et al. (2003). One is the Harmon’s one-factor test, which is usually
used to test the common method variance issues among the collected data
through a factor analysis. If common method variance is a serious problem in
collected data, we can expect that a single factor will emerge or one general
factor will account for a significant portion of the variance in all variables
(Podsakoff et al., 2003). The results of factor analysis, including all items of
variables, showed that the eight factors were extracted with an eigenvalue
greater than 1, each item was loaded on its appropriate factor, and the factor
loading of all items exceeded .50. Moreover, the first factor accounted for only
12.6 percent of the total variance, and hence the dominant single factor did
not appear.
The other analysis is the single-common-method-factor approach (Chang,
Van Witteloostuijn, & Eden, 2010; Podsakoff et al., 2003). This analysis is

Table 3. Results of Confirmatory Factor Analyses
Change From
Previous Model
Models Description ␹2 df CFI TLI RMSEA ⌬␹2 ⌬df
For CQ
Model 1 Single-factor model 684.6* 170 0.66 0.62 0.15 – –
(Metacognitive ⫹ Cognitive ⫹
Motivational ⫹ Behavioral)
Model 2 Four-factor model 286.6* 164 0.92 0.91 0.07 398.0* 6
(Metacognitive, Cognitive,
Motivational, Behavioral)
For All Variables
Model 3 Single-factor model 1,990.1* 434 0.58 0.55 0.14 – –
Motivational ⫹ Behavioral ⫹
General Adjustment ⫹ Work Adjustment
⫹ Mastery Approach ⫹ Performance Avoidance)
Model 4 Three-factor model 1,165.9* 431 0.71 0.69 0.11 824.2* 3
Motivational ⫹ Behavioral,
General Adjustment ⫹ Work Adjustment,
Mastery Approach ⫹ Performance Avoidance)
Model 5 Seven-factor model 1,243.0* 413 0.77 0.75 0.10 (77.1*) 18
(Metacognitive, Cognitive, Behavioral,
General Adjustment, Work Adjustment,
Mastery Approach ⫹ Motivational
Performance Avoidance)
Model 6 Eight-factor model 656.2* 406 0.90 0.89 0.07 586.8* 7
(Metacognitive, Cognitive, Motivational,
Behavioral, General Adjustment,
Work Adjustment, Mastery Approach,
Performance Avoidance)
Common Method Factor 794.5* 375 0.89 0.86 0.08
Notes: CFI ⫽ comparative fit index; RMSEA ⫽ root mean square error of approximation.
*p ⬍ 0.01.
designed to partition the responses’ variance to a focal measure into three cat-
egories: trait, method, and random error components. Through this analysis,
we can examine whether the estimated parameters in the eight-factor model
are significantly changed after adding a common method factor. The results
demonstrated that the common method factor model, which included method
factor in the eight-factor model, did not improve the goodness-of-fit index
(x2(df ) ⫽ 794.5 (375), CFI ⫽ 0.89, TLI ⫽ 0.86, RMSEA ⫽ 0.08). The esti-
mated parameters of all items in the common method factor model still
remained above 0.60 even after controlling for the effects of the common fac-
tor. Moreover, the common method factor accounted for only a small portion
(2.4%) of the total variance which is far less than the amount of common
method variance (25%) observed by Williams, Cote, and Buckley (1989).
Descriptive Analyses. Table 4 presents the means, standard deviations,
zero-order correlation, and Cronbach reliability coefficients of focal variables.
As expected, all independent variables were positively correlated with four
dimensions of CQ (minimum r ⫽ 0.18, p ⬍ 0.05, maximum r ⫽ 0.47,
p ⬍ 0.01), and all dimensions of CQ had positive correlations with dependent
variables (minimum r ⫽ 0.39, p ⬍ 0.001, maximum r ⫽ 0.62, p ⬍ 0.01).
Although the reliability of performance avoidance goal orientation is relatively
low (a ⫽ 0.58), the reliabilities of all other variables were acceptable, exceed-
ing the 0.70 value recommended by Nunnally (1978).
Analytical Strategy for Testing the Hypotheses. Two multiple hierarchi-
cal regression analyses were conducted with SPSS 16.0 to test the hypotheses.
First, we tested the main effects of independent variables (previous interna-
tional nonwork and work experience, and length and comprehensiveness of
predeparture cross-cultural training), and the interactional effects of modera-
tors (mastery approach and performance avoidance goal orientation) on depen-
dent variables (general and work adjustments) by following the three steps of
Baron and Kenny (1986). We entered the variables into the regression analy-
ses at four hierarchical steps:
In step 1, control variables (e.g., age, education) were entered.

In step 2, independent variables were entered to test main effects.
In step 3, moderating variables were entered.
In step 4, interactional variables were entered and we examined the
significance of beta coefficients and the change of variance explained (⌬R2).
However, when calculating the interaction terms to test the moderating

effect, we centered all variables by subtracting the mean from the original vari-
ables (Aiken & West, 1991) to reduce the multicollinearity problem. To check
multicollinearity, variance inflation factor (VIF) scores were calculated in each
regression model. All VIF scores were below 6, suggesting that multicollinear-
ity was not a serious problem in the analyses.

Table 4. Means, Standard Deviations, Correlations, and Reliabilities
Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 Age 39.5 5.09

2 Education 0.98 0.14 0.08
3 Tenure after assignment 32.85 33.92 0.31† 0.07
4 Job title 1.03 0.52 0.32† 0.08 0.11
5 Prior experience in an 8.11 12.64 0.00 0.06 0.05 ⫺0.07
assigned nation
6 Language proficiency 4.26 1.64 0.11 0.06 0.08 0.00 0.08 (0.98)
7 Previous nonwork 6.61 8.61 0.01 0.04 0.10 0.00 0.13 0.00
experience
8 Previous work experience 23.68 40.44 0.23† 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.26† 0.16** 0.26†
9 Length of cross-cultural 23.89 49.43 0.11 0.06 0.04 ⫺0.05 0.09 ⫺0.01 0.17** 0.07
training
10 Comprehensiveness of 2.33 1.82 0.25† 0.07 0.16** 0.05 0.15** 0.12 0.35† 0.32† 0.44†
cross-cultural training
11 Performance avoidance 3.88 1.36 ⫺0.08 ⫺0.08 ⫺0.19† ⫺0.08 ⫺0.17** 0.02 ⫺0.09 ⫺0.02 ⫺0.09 0.04 (0.58)
12 Mastery approach 5.98 0.79 0.19† 0.00 0.13 0.19† ⫺0.05 0.10 0.33† 0.23† 0.17** 0.12 ⫺0.13 (0.88)
13 Metacognitive CQ 5.37 0.79 0.27† ⫺0.04 0.20† 0.12 0.00 0.10 0.41† 0.30† 0.26† 0.39† ⫺0.09 0.43† (0.81)
14 Cognitive CQ 4.75 0.92 0.28† 0.15** 0.22† 0.12 0.07 0.19† 0.38† 0.27† 0.27† 0.42† ⫺0.16* 0.39† 0.48† (0.87)
15 Motivational CQ 5.27 0.99 0.05 0.11 0.10 0.16* ⫺0.07 0.09 0.47† 0.25† 0.23† 0.42† ⫺0.15* 0.48† 0.62† 0.53† (0.90)
16 Behavioral CQ 5.24 0.79 0.21† 0.10 0.23† 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.36† 0.22† 0.18* 0.32† ⫺0.18* 0.43† 0.53† 0.50† 0.48† (0.85)
17 General adjustment 5.20 0.90 0.29† 0.14 0.25† 0.05 ⫺0.03 0.17* 0.37† 0.21† 0.31† 0.45† ⫺0.12 0.34† 0.45† 0.53† 0.58† 0.39† (0.82)
18 Work adjustment 5.71 0.83 0.35† 0.19† 0.26† 0.29† ⫺0.01 0.23† 0.34† 0.29† 0.27† 0.45† ⫺0.20† 0.57† 0.55† 0.62† 0.58† 0.54† 0.65† (0.90)
Notes: Values in parentheses along the diagonal are the Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients.
Education (0 ⫽ below college, 1 ⫽ college or above), job title (0 ⫽ employee, 1 ⫽ middle manager, 2 ⫽ top manager).
*p ⬍ 0.10, **p ⬍ 0.05, †p ⬍ 0.01.
Furthermore, with respect to Hypothesis 1, to examine the relative influ-

ence of previous international work and nonwork experience on CQ, the dom-
inance analyses (Budescu, 1993) were also conducted as supplementary
analyses. The dominance analyses primarily address the relative importance of
different independent variables, wherein the relative importance reflects the
contribution that a specific variable makes in explaining variance in a depen-
dent variable.
Second, we tested the mediating effects of CQ, following the procedure
suggested by Baron and Kenny (1986). According to Baron and Kenny (1986),
for CQ to play a role of mediator, three conditions should be met: (a) the inde-
pendent variables are related to the dependent variables (Condition 1); (b) the
independent variables are related to the mediator (CQ) (Condition 2); and
(c) when mediator is added, while the influence of mediator on dependent
variables is still significant, the significant relationships between the indepen-
dent and dependent variables in Condition 1 disappear (full mediation) or the
strength of relationships are reduced (partial mediation) (Condition 3). Addi-
tionally, Sobel (1988) tests were also conducted to more strongly confirm the
mediating effects of CQ.
Results of Testing the Hypotheses
The Main Effects of Previous International Experience and Predeparture Cross-
Cultural Training. Model 1 to Model 4 of Table 5 show the main effects of the
previous international nonwork and work experience and the length and com-
prehensiveness of predeparture cross-cultural training on CQ. With respect to
Hypothesis 1, the previous international nonwork experience (Hypothesis 1a)
was positively related to all dimensions of CQ (b ⫽ 0.29, p ⬍ 0.01, metacogni-
tive; b ⫽ 0.27, p ⬍ 0.01, cognitive; b ⫽ 0.39, p ⬍ 0.01, motivational; b ⫽ 0.25,
p ⬍ 0.01, behavioral CQ). However, contrary to expectations, the previous inter-
national work experience (Hypothesis 1b) was only positively related to metacog-
nitive (b ⫽ 0.13, p ⬍ 0.10) and cognitive CQ (b ⫽ 0.13, p ⬍ 0.10). Moreover,
the results of general dominance analyses confirmed the greater influence of pre-
vious international nonwork than work experience on CQ. As seen in Table 6,
the previous international nonwork experience accounted for 65.4%, 78.6%,
78.1%, and 75.0% of the explained variances in metacognitive (general domi-
nance ⫽ 0.21), cognitive (general dominance ⫽ 0.22), motivational (general
dominance ⫽ 0.39), and behavioral CQ (general dominance ⫽ 0.20), respec-
tively. Thus, Hypothesis 1 was partially supported.
With respect to Hypothesis 2 on the effects of predeparture cross-cultural
training, Table 5 shows that the length of the predeparture cross-cultural train-
ing (Hypothesis 2a) was marginally related only to cognitive CQ (b ⫽ 0.13,
p ⬍ 0.10). In contrast, the comprehensiveness of predeparture cross-cultural
training (Hypothesis 2b) was positively associated with all dimensions of CQ
(b ⫽ 0.23, p ⬍ 0.01, metacognitive; b ⫽ 0.16, p ⬍ 0.05, cognitive; b ⫽ 0.25,
p ⬍ 0.01, motivational; b ⫽ 0.19, p ⬍ 0.05, behavioral CQ). Therefore,
Hypothesis 2 was also partially supported. However, although we did not

Table 5. Results of Hierarchical Moderated and Mediated Regression Analyses
Model 5 Model 6
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 General Adjustment Work Adjustment
Meta-cognitive Cognitive Motivational Behavioral Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
Control Variables
Age 0.20** 0.21† ⫺0.05 0.14 0.27† 0.18* 0.24† 0.23† 0.13** 0.12**
Educational level ⫺0.08 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.10 0.08 0.04 0.13* 0.11* 0.08
Tenure after assignment 0.11 0.17** 0.07 0.17** 0.20** 0.15** 0.13** 0.14* 0.10 0.04
Job title 0.08 0.04 0.17** 0.00 ⫺0.09 ⫺0.06 ⫺0.16† 0.25† 0.28† 0.21†
Experience in an assigned nation 0.05 0.07 ⫺0.04 0.01 ⫺0.06 ⫺0.15** ⫺0.07 0.01 ⫺0.09 ⫺0.03
Language proficiency 0.15* 0.15* 0.14* 0.03 0.13* 0.09 0.05 0.17* 0.11* 0.08
⌬R2 0.08† 0.13† 0.03 0.04** 0.15† – – 0.24† – –
Independent Variables
International nonwork experience 0.29† 0.27† 0.39† 0.25† 0.26† 0.05 0.28† 0.08
International work experience 0.13* 0.13* 0.12 0.11 0.06 ⫺0.01 0.12* 0.04
Length of cultural training 0.11 0.13* 0.10 0.04 0.17** 0.11* 0.12* 0.06
Comprehensiveness of 0.23† 0.16** 0.25† 0.19** 0.18** 0.04 0.18** 0.04
cultural training
⌬R2 0.25† 0.20† 0.35† 0.17† 0.21† – 0.22† –
Moderating Variables
Mastery approach goal orientation 0.23† 0.24† 0.33† 0.38†
Performance avoidance goal ⫺0.03 ⫺0.18† ⫺0.15** ⫺0.12*
orientation
⌬R2 0.04† 0.08† 0.11† 0.13†
Interactional Variables
International nonwork experience 0.34** 0.15 0.01 0.17
⫻ Mastery approach goal
International work experience ⫺0.15 ⫺0.05 ⫺0.24** ⫺0.01
⫻ Mastery approach
International nonwork experience ⫺0.03 0.19* 0.29† 0.15
⫻ Performance avoidance goal
International work experience 0.06 0.25† 0.08 ⫺0.02
Length of cross-cultural training 0.04 ⫺0.14 0.01 0.28†
⫻ Mastery approach goal
Comprehensiveness of ⫺0.40† ⫺0.28** ⫺0.26** ⫺0.52†
⫻ Mastery approach
Length of cross-cultural training 0.12 0.25† 0.08 ⫺0.03
Comprehensiveness of ⫺0.22 ⫺0.39† ⫺0.47† 0.32**
⌬R2 0.07** 0.08† 0.09† 0.13†
Mediating Variables
Metacognitive CQ 0.01 0.12
Cognitive CQ 0.12 0.19†
Motivational CQ 0.46† 0.19**
Behavioral CQ 0.01 0.20†
⌬R2 0.17 .17†
Total Adjusted R2 0.40 0.46 0.56 0.43 0.15 0.35 0.52 0.24 0.45 0.63
Total F Value 6.42† 7.89† 11.13† 7.04† 5.67† 9.67† 13.26† 9.45† 14.37† 20.33†
*p ⬍ 0.10, **p ⬍ 0.05, †p ⬍ 0.01
make the hypothesis on the relative influence, the results of dominance analy-
ses in Table 6 showed that the relative influences of the comprehensiveness of
predeparture cross-cultural training on all dimensions of CQ (relative weight
to ⌬R2 ⫽ 70.8%, 72.7%, 78.9%, and 75.0%, for metacognitive, cognitive,
motivational, and behavioral CQ, respectively) were larger than those relating
to the length of cross-cultural training.
Moderating Effects of Mastery Approach and Performance Avoidance Goal Ori-
entation. As seen in Table 5, with respect to the moderating effect of mastery
approach goal orientation, mastery approach goal orientation had interactive
effects on the relationship between previous international nonwork experience
and metacognitive CQ (b ⫽ 0.34, p ⬍ 0.05), between previous international
work experience and motivational CQ (b ⫽ ⫺0.24, p ⬍ 0.05), between the
length of predeparture cross-cultural training and behavioral CQ (b ⫽ 0.28,
p ⬍ 0.01), and between the comprehensiveness of predeparture cross-cultural
training and all dimensions of CQ (b ⫽ ⫺0.40, p ⬍ 0.01, metacognitive;
b ⫽ ⫺0.28, p ⬍ 0.05, cognitive; b ⫽ ⫺0.26, p ⬍ 0.05, motivational;
b ⫽ ⫺0.52, p ⬍ 0.01, behavioral CQ).
Second, performance avoidance goal orientation had interactional effects
on the relationship between previous international nonwork experience and
cognitive (b ⫽ 0.19, p ⬍ 0.10) and motivational CQ (b ⫽ 0.29, p ⬍ 0.01),
between previous international work experience and cognitive CQ (␤ ⫽ .25,
p ⬍ 0.01), between the length of cross-cultural training and cognitive CQ
(␤ ⫽ 0.25, p ⬍ 0.01), and between comprehensiveness of pre-departure cross-
cultural training and three dimensions of CQ (b ⫽ ⫺0.39, p ⬍ 0.01, cogni-
tive; b ⫽ ⫺0.47, p ⬍ 0.01, motivational; b ⫽ 0.32, p ⬍ 0.05, behavioral CQ).
To interpret the moderating patterns in detail, we calculated the regres-
sion equations for these interactional relationships at both high (1 SD above
mean) and low (1 SD below mean) levels of the mastery approach and the per-
formance avoidance goal orientation. First, Figure 2a to 2d delineated the
international graphs between previous international nonwork and work expe-
rience and goal orientation. As expected, the previous international nonwork
experience had a more positive effect on metacognitive CQ for expatriates with
a higher mastery approach goal orientation; whereas it had a negative effect on
metacognitive CQ for expatriates with a lower mastery approach goal orienta-
tion (Figure 2a). However, contrary to our expectation, the slope of the posi-
tive relationship between previous international work experience and
motivational CQ was steeper for expatriates with a low mastery approach goal
orientation than those with a high mastery approach goal orientation (Figure 2b).
In addition, the interactional effects of the performance avoidance goal orien-
tation also were beyond our expectation. For instance, although the absolute
levels of the cognitive CQ for expatriate with a low performance avoidance goal
orientation were higher, the slopes of the positive relationships between previ-
ous international nonwork experience and cognitive and/or motivational
CQ were steeper for expatriates with a high performance avoidance goal

Table 6. Results of Dominance Analyses
Meta-Cognitive CQ Cognitive CQ Motivational CQ Behavioral CQ
General Relative Weight General Relative Weight General Relative Weight General Relative Weight
b Dominancea as % of ⌬R2b b Dominance as % of ⌬R2 b Dominance as % of ⌬R2 b Dominance as % of ⌬R2
Previous international
nonwork experience 0.35** 0.21 65.6 0.33** 0.22 78.6 0.43** 0.39 78.0 0.30** 0.20 76.9
Previous international
work experience 0.20** 0.11 34.4 0.13* 0.06 21.4 0.19** 0.11 22.0 0.15* 0.06 23.1
Total of ⌬R2 0.32 0.28 0.50 0.26
Length of cross-cultural
training 0.12 0.07 29.2 0.12 0.06 27.3 0.10 0.08 21.1 0.05 0.04 25.0
Comprehensiveness of
cross-cultural training 0.33** 0.17 70.8 0.28** 0.16 72.7 0.42** 0.30 78.9 0.28** 0.12 75.0
Total of ⌬R2 0.24 0.22 0.38 0.16
Notes: aGeneral dominance coefficients reflect the average contribution to R2 that a predictor makes across all possible subset regressions.
bRelativeweight coefficients restate this contribution as a percentage of the total R2 explained by predictor variables.
p ⬍ 0.05, *p ⬍ 0.10, **p ⬍ 0.01.
Figure 2. Interaction Plots for the Moderating Effects of Goal

Orientation (2a through 2i)
For Mastery Approach Goal Orientation
2a 2b
High Mastery
Meta- Approach
Motivational
Cognitive
CQ
CQ
Low Mastery
Approach
Low High Low High

Nonwork Experience Work Experience
For Performance Avoidance Goal Orientation
2c* 2d
High Performance
Avoidance
Cognitive Cognitive
CQ CQ
Low Performance
Avoidance
Low High Low High

Nonwork Experience Work Experience
For Mastery Approach Goal Orientation
2e 2f **
High Mastery
Behavioral Motivational Approach
CQ CQ
Low Mastery
Approach
Low High Low High

Length of Cross-Cultural Training Comprehensiveness of
Cross-Cultural Training

Figure 2. Continued
2g 2h ***
High Performance
Cognitive Cognitive Avoidance
CQ CQ
Low Performance
Avoidance
Low High Low High

Length of Cross-Cultural Training Comprehensiveness of
2i
High Performance
Behavioral Avoidance
CQ
Low Performance
Avoidance
Low High
Comprehensiveness of
*The interaction plot between performance avoidance goal orientation and nonwork experience for motivation CQ is
similar to graph 2c.
**The interaction plots between mastery approach goal orientation and comprehensiveness of cross-cultural training
for metacognitive, cognitive, and behavioral CQ are similar to graph 2f.
***The interaction plot between performance avoidance goal orientation and comprehensiveness of cross-cultural
training for motivational CQ is similar to graph 2f.

orientation (Figure 2c). The relationship between the previous international

work experience and cognitive CQ was also more positive and steeper for
expatriates with a high performance avoidance goal orientation (Figure 2d).
Second, Figure 2e to 2i showed the international effects between prede-
parture cross-cultural training and goal orientation. Figure 2e supported our
hypothesis predicting that the effects of the length of predeparture cross-
cultural training on behavioral CQ would be positive for expatriates with a
high mastery approach goal orientation. However, contrary to our expectation,
the comprehensiveness of predeparture cross-cultural training had a steeper
positive effect on all dimensions of CQ for expatriates with a low mastery
approach goal orientation (Figure 2f). Moreover, the interactional graphs of
performance avoidance goal orientation showed similar results. For instance,
whereas the interactive effects of performance avoidance goal orientation on
the relationship between the comprehensiveness of predeparture cross-cultural
training and cognitive and motivational CQ satisfied our expectation (Figure
2h), the opposite moderating effect was found for behavioral CQ (Figure 2g).
In summary, the hypotheses on the moderating effects of goal orientation
(Hypothesis 3a to 3d) were partially supported, and the potential reasons for
these unsupported hypotheses will be discussed later.
Mediating Effects of Cultural Intelligence. Finally, Table 5 shows the results
of testing the mediating effects of CQ for general and work adjustment. First,
as for general adjustment, motivational CQ had a mediating effect. The influ-
ences of previous international nonwork experience (b ⫽ 0.26, p ⬍ 0.01) and
comprehensiveness of predeparture cross-cultural training (b ⫽ 0.18,
p ⬍ 0.05) on general adjustment were significant in step 2 of Model 5 (Con-
dition 1). As shown earlier, the influences of previous international nonwork
experience (b ⫽ 0.39, p ⬍ 0.01) and comprehensiveness of predeparture
cross-cultural training (b ⫽ 0.25, p ⬍ 0.01) on motivational CQ (Model 3)
were significant. However, when the four dimensions of CQ were include in
the step 3 of Model 5, while motivational CQ (b ⫽ 0.46, ⌬R2 ⫽ 0.17,
p ⬍ 0.01) was significant, the influences of the previous international nonwork
experience (b ⫽ 0.05, ns) and comprehensiveness of predeparture cross-
cultural training (b ⫽ 0.04, ns) on general adjustment disappeared (Condition 3).
Thus, three conditions were satisfied for motivational CQ to be a mediator, and
motivational CQ was shown to have a full mediating effect in the relationship
between previous international nonwork experience, the comprehensiveness
of predeparture cross-cultural training, and general adjustment.
Second, as to work adjustment, cognitive, motivational, and behavioral
CQ played a full mediating role. More specifically, the influences of the previ-
ous international nonwork (b ⫽ 0.28, p ⬍ 0.01) and work experience
(b ⫽ 0.12, p ⬍ 0.10), and length (b ⫽ 0.12, p ⬍ 0.10) and comprehensiveness
of predeparture cross-cultural training (b ⫽ 0.18, p ⬍ 0.05) on work adjustment
were significant in step 2 of Model 6 (Condition 1). The influences of the previ-
ous international nonwork (b ⫽ 0.39, b ⫽ 0.25, p ⬍ 0.01, respectively), and

comprehensiveness of predeparture cross-cultural training (b ⫽ 0.25,

b ⫽ 0.19, p ⬍ 0.01, respectively) on motivational (Model 3) and behavioral
CQ (Model 4) were significant. Also, the previous international nonwork
(b ⫽ 0.27, p ⬍ 0.01) and work (b ⫽ 0.13, p ⬍ 0.10) experience and the
length (b ⫽ 0.13, p ⬍ 0.10) and comprehensiveness (b ⫽ 0.16, p ⬍ 0.05) of
predeparture cross-cultural training on cognitive CQ (Model 2) were signifi-
cant (Condition 2). However, when the four dimensions of CQ were included
in step 3 of Model 6, while cognitive CQ (b ⫽ 0.19, p ⬍ 0.01), motivational
CQ (b ⫽ 0.19, p ⬍ 0.05), and behavioral CQ (b ⫽ 0.20, p ⬍ 0.01) on gen-
eral adjustment were significant (⌬R2 ⫽ 0.17, p ⬍ 0.01), the previous inter-
national nonwork (b ⫽ 0.08, ns) and work (b ⫽ 0.04, ns) experience, and
length (b ⫽ 0.06, ns) and comprehensiveness (b ⫽ 0.04, ns) of predeparture
cross-cultural training on work adjustment were not significant. Thus, these
results showed that three conditions were satisfied for mediation model, and
thus cognitive, motivational, and behavioral CQ had full mediating effects.
The Sobel (1988) test confirmed the indirect effects of CQ in the relation-
ships among the previous international experience, predeparture cross-cultural
training, and cross-cultural adjustment. Table 7 summarizes the results of Sobel
tests and mediating relationships. Noticeably, the indirect effects of the com-
prehensiveness of predeparture cross-cultural training on general adjustment
(indirect effect ⫽ 0.103, z ⫽ 4.859, p ⬍ 0.01) and on work adjustment (indi-
rect effect ⫽ 0.093, z ⫽ 4.773, p ⬍ 0.01) through motivational CQ were larger
than others.
In summary, Table 8 summarizes the results of testing all hypotheses.
Discussion
Faced with the era of globalization, it is a critical element for multinational
organizations to effectively manage expatriates to perform and adjust in for-
eign countries successfully. In this regard, examining the influence of previous
international experience and predeparture cross-cultural training on expatri-
ates’ cross-cultural adjustment has long been an important theme in the fields
of organizational behavior and human resource development (HRD). However,
the influences of previous international experience and predeparture cross-
cultural training on cross-cultural adjustment remains underdeveloped, and
empirical findings have been inconsistent. Furthermore, although CQ recently
is regarded to be an antecedent of cross-cultural adjustment, there are few inte-
grative studies examining how previous international experience, cross-
cultural training, and CQ are related in the mechanism of expatriates’ cross-cultural
adjustment.
The present study was conducted with the following objectives: (a) to
examine how previous international experience (nonwork and work) and pre-
departure cross-cultural training (length and comprehensiveness) are related
to an expatriate’s cross-cultural adjustment by considering CQ as a mediator

Table 7. Sobel Tests for Testing Mediating Effects of CQ
Independent Variables Mediating Variable (CQ) Dependent Variables Indirect Effect SE Z
Previous international nonwork experience Motivational General 0.025 0.004 5.218*

Comprehensiveness of cross-cultural training Motivational General 0.103 0.021 4.859*
Previous international nonwork experience Cognitive Work 0.022 0.005 4.791*
Previous international work experience Cognitive Work 0.003 0.001 3.623*
Length of cross-cultural training Cognitive Work 0.003 0.001 3.337*
Comprehensive of cross-cultural training Cognitive Work 0.106 0.021 5.123*
Previous international nonwork experience Motivational Work 0.025 0.005 5.283*
Comprehensive of cross-cultural training Motivational Work 0.093 0.020 4.773*
Previous international nonwork experience Behavioral Work 0.017 0.004 4.247*
Comprehensive of cross-cultural training Behavioral Work 0.067 0.017 3.878*
*p ⬍ 0.01.
Table 8. Summary of Testing Hypotheses
Hypotheses Descriptions Significant for... Results
Hypothesis 1 (a) Previous international nonwork experience → CQ Positive for all dimensions of CQ Partially supported
(b) Previous international work experience → CQ Positive for only metacognitive and cognitive CQ
Influence of nonwork is larger than that of work experience Stronger for all dimensions of CQ
Hypothesis 2 (a) Length of cross-cultural training → CQ Positive for only cognitive CQ Partially supported
(b) Comprehensiveness of cross-cultural training → CQ Positive for all dimensions of CQ
Hypothesis 3a Previous international nonwork international experience Stronger for metacognitive CQ Partially supported
⫻ Mastery approach goal orientation (Mo) → CQ
Previous international work international experience –*
⫻ Mastery approach goal orientation (Mo) → CQ`
Hypothesis 3b Previous international nonwork international experience –* Not supported
⫻ Performance avoidance goal orientation (Mo) → CQ
Previous international work experience –*
Hypothesis 3c Length of cross-cultural training Stronger for behavioral CQ Partially supported
Comprehensiveness of Cross-Cultural Training –*
Hypothesis 3d Length of cross-cultural training Stronger for cognitive and motivational Partially supported
⫻ Performance avoidance goal orientation (Mo) → CQ CQ
Comprehensiveness of cross-cultural training –*
Hypothesis 4 Mediating effects of CQ for general adjustment For motivational CQ Partially supported
Mediating effects of CQ for work adjustment For cognitive, motivational, and behavioral CQ
*Although interactional effects for certain dimensions of CQ were significant, the directions of interactions were different from those of hypotheses.
simultaneously, and (b) to verify when the influences of previous international

experience and predeparture cross-cultural training on CQ is increased and/or
decreased by considering goal orientation as a moderator.
The results highlight four important points. First, previous international
nonwork experience is more important for developing expatriates’ CQ than
international work experience. In other words, although previous work expe-
rience can be beneficial to increase CQ, its effectiveness may be constrained by
the nature of the work-related experience. For instance, visiting foreign coun-
tries for business purposes may force individuals to focus on the business
issues rather than learning the culture. As our findings show, even though
expatriates with many previous international work experiences can have cul-
tural knowledge or information (cognitive CQ), they may not have a motiva-
tion to interact with people from different cultures (motivational CQ) or to
demonstrate appropriate behavior in that culture (behavioral CQ).
Second, predeparture cross-cultural training is important for the develop-
ment of CQ as well as cross-cultural adjustment. As our results show, the com-
prehensiveness of predeparture cross-cultural training can be a stronger
predictor of CQ than the length of cross-cultural training. This implies that the
mere time in which the expatriates participated in cross-cultural training prior
to expatriation is not sufficient to increase CQ.
Third, this study also demonstrates that CQ mediates the influences of pre-
vious international experiences and predeparture cross-cultural training on an
expatriate’s cross-cultural adjustment. However, it should be noted that CQ has
different mediating roles depending on its dimension. First, in both general and
work adjustments, metacognitive CQ was not shown to play a mediating role.
One possible explanation is that metacognitive CQ cannot be easily developed
in a short period. In other words, because metacognitive CQ, by definition,
requires a fundamental change in an individual’s mental structure or way of
thinking, change of metacognitive CQ may require a long time to be developed
(Ang et al., 2007). In this regard, supplementary analyses were performed to test
whether the relationships between independent variables and metacognitive CQ
according to the tenure of the assignment. The correlations between metacogni-
tive CQ and previous international nonwork experience and comprehensiveness
of predeparture cross-cultural training were much stronger for expatriates with
a longer tenure (r ⫽ 0.62, p ⬍ 0.01, r ⫽ 0.62, p ⬍ 0.01, respectively) than those
for expatriates with a shorter tenure (r ⫽ 0.16, ns; r ⫽ 0.31, p ⬍ 0.05, respec-
tively). However, in terms of general adjustment, motivational CQ was shown
to have the strongest mediating effect. The reason may relate to the fact that moti-
vational CQ can effectively encourage individuals to pay attention and to make
extra effort to learn the cultural differences (Templer et al., 2006). For this rea-
son, the effect of motivational CQ to foster learning cultural knowledge and
behavioral actions might be larger than any other dimensions of CQ.
Fourth, we also found that expatriates’ two types of goal orientations inter-
acted with previous international experience and predeparture cross-cultural

training. However, several hypotheses were not supported, and there are three
noticeable features that must be explained. First of all, both the positive effect
of previous international work experience on motivational CQ (Figure 2b) and
those of the comprehensiveness of cross-cultural training on the four dimen-
sions of CQ (Figure 2f) were more positive for expatriates with a low mastery
approach goal orientation. A possible explanation is that expatriates with a
high mastery approach goal orientation may already have a high level of CQ.
That is, expatriates with a high mastery approach goal orientation might have
a large number of overseas experiences, because they generally have a tendency
to seek challenging situation and have a motivation to learn new things (Van-
deWalle, 2003).
Second, with regard to the moderating effect of performance avoidance goal
orientation, the reason why the slope of their positive relationship was steeper
for expatriates with high performance avoidance goal orientation (Figure 2c and
2d) may be related to the dispositional characteristics of performance avoid-
ance goal orientation. For instance, expatriates with high performance avoidance
goal orientation may try to understand the different knowledge, norms, or val-
ues of different cultures at least cognitively, because they have a tendency to pre-
vent their incompetence from being known to others (Elliot & Harackiewicz,
1996).
The third surprising result was that the effect of predeparture cross-
cultural training on behavioral CQ was positive for expatriates with a high per-
formance avoidance goal orientation (Figure 2i). This may be explained from
the perspective of impression management. Previous studies (e.g., Tuckey,
Brewer, & Williamson, 2002) have reported that performance avoidance goal
orientation is more positively related to impression management behavior
towards others because they have a strong desire to disguise their incompe-
tence. In this regard, expatriates with a high performance avoidance goal ori-
entation could have participated in a variety of cross-cultural training; thus,
they may intentionally demonstrate desirable verbal and/or nonverbal behav-
iors when interacting with people from a different culture to present a good
image to others.
Conclusions and Implications for Research and Practice

Theoretical Implications. This study contributes to the expatriates’ CQ
and cross-cultural adjustment literature in three ways. First, this study
enhances the understanding of the role of CQ. Past researchers have examined
previous international experience, predeparture cross-cultural training, and
CQ as predictors of cross-cultural adjustment separately. However, by integrat-
ing these variables, we theorized and tested the mediating effect of CQ to
explain that previous international experience and predeparture cross-cultural
training are positively related to expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment. Thus, this
study fosters a deeper understanding of how previous international experience

and predeparture cross-cultural training positively influence cross-cultural

adjustment. In particular, our findings regarding the mediating effects of CQ
may partially explain the inconsistent empirical results on the relationship
among these variables (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005; Palthe, 2004; Shaffer et
al., 1999; Takeuchi et al., 2005). Moreover, the mediating effect of CQ can
explain the reason why Puck et al. (2008) failed to find a significant relation-
ship between the comprehensiveness of cross-cultural training and cross-
cultural adjustment. As such, given that predeparture cross-cultural training
is a very important construct in the field of HRD (Littrell et al., 2006), this
study showing that predeparture cross-cultural training positively influences
expatriates’ CQ will be beneficial for investigating the mechanism behind
an expatriate’s cross-cultural adjustment.
Second, following the necessity of studies on the roles of individual char-
acteristics (Gong & Fan, 2006; Palthe, 2004; Wang & Takeuchi, 2007), we
found that expatriates’ mastery approach and performance avoidance goal ori-
entation served as important boundary conditions for the effects of previous
international experience and predeparture cross-cultural training on CQ.
Indeed, the theory of intelligence on goal orientation (Dweck & Leggett, 1988)
helped us to theorize the relationships in which the positive effects of previous
international experience and predeparture cross-cultural training on CQ would
be stronger or weaker. Moreover, with regard to cross-cultural training, this
study extends the research areas of cross-cultural training. For instance, Littrell
and Salas (2005) suggest that the research focus in the field of cross-cultural
training needs to be shifted from “whether cross-cultural training is effective or
not” to “why cross-cultural training is more effective for some expatriates and
is not for others” (p. 329). Consistent with Littrell and Salas’s (2005) perspec-
tive, in that this study identifies that expatriate’s goal orientation can be a mod-
erator affecting the effectiveness of cross-cultural training on CQ, this study
keeps pace with the research trends in the field of cross-cultural training.
Third, our study also deepens the understanding of how various dimen-
sions of previous international experience (nonwork and work) and predepar-
ture cross-cultural training (length and comprehensiveness) can have different
and unique influences on expatriates’ CQ. As noted above, despite the fact that
international experience and cross-cultural training is comprised of multiple
dimensions (Puck et al., 2008; Tarique & Takeuchi, 2008), the examination
on the different and unique effects of these dimensions was not fully addressed
in the CQ literature. Ultimately, our study using multiple dimensions helps us
figure out how expatriates’ CQ is affected according to the various dimensions
of previous international experience and predeparture cross-cultural training.
Practical Implications. This study suggests three practical implications
about how multinational organizations can select and develop their potential
expatriates. The first implication relates to the criteria in selecting candidates
for expatriates. An appropriate selection system for expatriates is important to
reduce expatriates’ failure and to improve their performance in their assigned

countries (Caligiuri et al., 2009). Although previous international work expe-

riences tend to be considered more important than nonwork experience, our
study shows that previous international nonwork experience is more positively
related to all dimensions of CQ and cross-cultural adjustment. Hence, HRD
practitioners in multinational organizations need to include previous interna-
tional nonwork experience as an important selection criterion for potential
candidates and/or entry-level employees. In this respect, when selecting entry-
level employees, Korean organizations recently have considered job applicants’
personal international experiences in foreign countries, such as backpacking
and study abroad to learn a foreign language, in order to evaluate a global
mindset or cultural competence. The inclusion of previous international non-
work experience for selecting candidates for expatriates will be beneficial to
acquire expatriates who have a high level of CQ and the potential to adjust well
in a foreign country.
Second, our findings suggest that providing international nonwork experi-
ence rather than work experience is more useful to develop expatriates’ CQ as
well as cross-cultural adjustment. This means that HRD practitioners need to
intentionally send their employees into foreign countries for nonwork purposes
(e.g., benchmarking, learning foreign culture) rather than work purposes in
order to acquire a broader pool of potential expatriates in advance. Consistent
with our perspective, Stahl, Chua, Caligiuri, Cerdin, and Taniguchi (2009) argue
that expatriation for developmental purposes (e.g., to develop global knowledge
or competence) is more likely to be effective for expatriates to understand or
learn cultural knowledge than expatriation for functional purpose (e.g., to con-
trol and monitor foreign subsidiaries). Kraimer, Shaffer, and Bolino (2009) also
found that developmental assignments were more positively related to manage-
rial and cultural skills acquisition than functional assignments. Hence, apart from
the work-related international experience, HRD practitioners need to design
development programs to include the provision of nonwork-related international
experiences to develop well-ready candidates for expatriation.
Third, this study suggests that HRD practitioners should be more careful
to design and implement predeparture cross-cultural training that develops
expatriates’ CQ. As our findings showed, all dimensions of CQ were more pos-
itively related to the comprehensiveness than the length of predeparture cross-
cultural training. As Puck et al. (2008) found, this result implies that the
absolute length of time expatriates participate in cross-cultural training prior
to expatriation may not be sufficient to increase their CQ. Instead, whether
expatriates participate in various predeparture cross-cultural trainings may
more effective to develop CQ (Ang et al., 2007). Therefore, HRD practitioners
should develop various predeparture cross-cultural training programs such as
lecture-based orientation, role plays, language training, and field experiences,
and provide these programs to the potential expatriates before expatriation.
This is especially important issue for Korea. In reality, a significant por-
tion of Korean candidates for foreign assignments have prepared for the foreign

assignments on their own by acquiring information or knowledge (e.g., local

price, housing fee, legal constraints) on the focal country. In addition, Korean
organizations have not paid sincere and full attention on cross-cultural train-
ing; there are some Korean organizations that take it for granted that employ-
ees will personally prepare for a foreign assignment. In this respect, the results
of our study provide valuable implications for Korean multinational organiza-
tions by showing that predeparture cross-cultural training can be an effective
tool for increasing expatriates’ CQ.
Finally, our study provides that predeparture cross-cultural training is
more effective for expatriates who have a tendency to avoid trying new things
and fear low performance (a high performance avoidance goal orientation) and
for expatriates who have a weak willingness to learn new things and develop
their competence or skills (a low mastery approach goal orientation). For these
expatriates, cross-cultural training can help them overcome fear or hesitation
toward trying new things and enhance their motivation to learn new things in
a different cultural context.
Limitation and Future Research

Limitation. We acknowledge that this study has some limitations. First,
the common source bias affecting results may operate in our data, since
all variables were obtained from a single source (expatriates) and also measured by
a self-reported questionnaire. To address this concern, we ensured anonymity
and conducted statistical analyses such as a single-method-factor analysis
(Podsakoff et al., 2003). Furthermore, we found significant moderating effects
of goal orientation (Evans, 1985). However, despite these statistical analyses
and the findings of the moderating effects, the common source bias still
remains a critical limitation of this study. Hence, future research using differ-
ent rating sources or longitudinal design is needed to precisely understand the
dynamics of expatriates’ CQ.
Second, the reliability for performance avoidance goal orientation was
marginal and one of the items was deleted for poor factor loading. We infer
that marginal reliability and poor factor loading may be caused by using a four-
type measure of goal orientation (Elliot & McGregor, 2001). In this regard,
future research is needed with different versions of goal orientation measure
such as the three-dimension measure (VandeWalle, 1997).
Third, although our sample consists of Korean expatriates from diverse
industry, there may be sampling issues. Given that the respondents were expa-
triates working for the seven Korean public multinational organizations which
were selected in accordance to organizational size, our findings may not hold
for all Korean organizations or expatriates. For instance, small and/or nonpub-
lic companies could not afford to provide predeparture cross-cultural training
to expatriates because of a lack of resources. Even if they did provide cross-
cultural training programs, the programs may be different from or not be so

extensive as those of large public companies. Hence, for those companies, the
effects of predeparture cross-cultural training on CQ may be different from
those found in our study. Additionally, males (approximately 97%) dominated
our sample, and thus the findings of our study may have differed if there had
been more female respondents. These two sample issues need to be further
addressed in future studies.
Finally, although we conducted the translation-back translation process
with the support of two bilingual speakers, the translated Korean version of
items may be inaccurate because the two bilinguals were native Koreans.
Future Research. We suggest the following agenda for future research.
First, future research should consider a greater variety of experience as
antecedents of CQ. There may be many different types of previous experiences
(e.g., previous experience on working with an international joint venture or
multinational company, previous working experience in a job that is charac-
terized by a high portion of international work, and previous experience work-
ing with foreigners) that may affect CQ. In addition, the previous international
experience should also be further differentiated. That is, the effects of previous
international experience on CQ may be different according to what cultural
experience expatriates have. For instance, if the expatriates’ experience primar-
ily relates to a nation that is culturally similar to their home countries, this kind
of previous experience may not lead to the development of CQ, because CQ
is required to adjust in a nation that is culturally very different from the home
country. Therefore, future research is needed to consider the expatriates’ expe-
riences in various ways and to test how these various experiences affect CQ.
Second, future research on the relationships between specific types of pre-
departure cross-cultural training and each dimension of CQ is needed.
Although we did not set hypotheses, our supplementary analyses by one-way
ANOVA showed that there were significant mean differences in metacognitive
(F ⫽ 3.39, p ⬍ 0.10) and cognitive CQ (F ⫽ 8.99, p ⬍ 0.01) for area studies
programs, cognitive CQ (F ⫽ 4.56, p ⬍ 0.05) for language training programs,
and cognitive CQ (F ⫽ 4.08, p ⬍ 0.05) for sensitivity training programs. Addi-
tionally, the means of all dimensions of CQ differed according to whether expa-
triates had participated in cultural assimilator training. Hence, future empirical
research needs to identify what types of predeparture cross-cultural training
are more effective in developing CQ.
Third, there may be various dispositional traits or states as influencing
variables in the expatriates’ CQ and cross-cultural adjustment. For instance,
Ang et al. (2007) propose that self-monitoring, self-efficacy, and social identity
may affect the expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment. Indeed, some prior stud-
ies have shown that self-monitoring (Harrison et al., 1996; Kim & Slocum,
2008) and self-efficacy (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005; Harrison et al., 1996;
Hechanova et al., 2003; Shaffer et al., 1999) were related to cross-cultural
adjustment. However, an examination on the effects of such individual dispo-
sitions on CQ has not been attempted. Therefore, it is necessary for future

researchers to examine what roles dispositional characteristics play in the expa-

triates’ CQ.
Finally, one might question whether our findings can be applied to other
nations with different cultural characteristics, since we collected data from
Korean organizations. Hence, future research with expatriates of different
cultures is needed to verify whether our results would hold in other cultural
contexts.
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Hyoung Koo Moon is a professor at the Korea University Business School.
Byoung Kwon Choi is a principal reseacher at the Management Research Department of the
LG Economic Research Institute.
Jae Shik Jung is with the HR & Administration Team of Daewoo Shipbuilding &
Marine Engineering Company, Ltd.

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ARTICLES

Hyoung Koo Moon, Byoung Kwon Choi, Jae Shik Jung

Although various antecedents of expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment have

Due to globalization, there has been a rapid increase of organizations’ entering

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

the positive inﬂuence of previous international experience (e.g., Bhaskar-

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

important to examine the effects of previous international experience and pre-

Literature Review and Hypotheses Development

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

and information on different countries and cultures through observation

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

HYPOTHESIS 1: The expatriates’ previous international (a) nonwork and

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

previous international nonwork experience on CQ will be stronger than that of

Predeparture Cross-Cultural Training and Cultural Intelligence. In the

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

HYPOTHESIS 2: The (a) length and (b) comprehensiveness of expatriates’ predeparture

The Moderating Effect of Goal Orientation. Generally, goal orientation is

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

approach, mastery avoidance, performance approach, and performance

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

avoidance goal orientation have an entity theory of intelligence that considers

However, expatriates with a higher performance avoidance goal orientation

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

HYPOTHESIS 3b: The expatriates’ performance avoidance goal orientation will

Interactional Effects of Predeparture Cross-Cultural Training and Goal Orien-

Similarly, the positive effect of predeparture cross-cultural training on CQ

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

In this regard, expatriates with a high performance avoidance goal orientation

HYPOTHESIS 3d: The expatriates’ performance avoidance goal orientation will

The Mediating Effect of Cultural Intelligence. Cross-cultural adjustment

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

Figure 1. The Research Model

Previous International Experience RH 1

HYPOTHESIS 4: CQ will mediate the relationships among expatriates’ previous

Figure 1 presents a model of the key theoretical relationships in this study.

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

Table 1. Industries and Response of the Participating Companies

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

an e-mail attachment, not to return it to their HR managers. The survey lasted

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

United States 55 28.9 8 3 19 1 7 5 12

Predeparture Cross-Cultural Training. First, we assessed the length of pre-

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

approach and performance avoidance goal orientation might be diluted

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

First, since CQ is an important construct in our study, we tested whether

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

In step 1, control variables (e.g., age, education) were entered.

However, when calculating the interaction terms to test the moderating

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

1 Age 39.5 5.09

Furthermore, with respect to Hypothesis 1, to examine the relative inﬂu-

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq

Figure 2. Interaction Plots for the Moderating Effects of Goal

For Mastery Approach Goal Orientation

Low High Low High

For Performance Avoidance Goal Orientation

Low High Low High