OED 634 - Notes

Course Manual OED 634
Front Matter
The field of leadership and management of people in the places of work are being perfected as a
systematic and more scientific approach to people management. In education, there are many
people in leadership cum executive management positions but with little or no training in
leadership roles and effectiveness at all. There is now plenty of evidence that training in
leadership and management effectiveness improves institutional efficiency, performance, and
productivity. Educational leadership training and development is an optional course for masters
students in the Faculty of Education. Its aim is to equip educational graduates with useful
knowledge, skills and attitudes to be able to function as educational leaders at different levels.
The course consists of six modules. The course is designed for those people who are either
already in leadership positions, or are aspiring, or are earmarked for leadership roles, especially
headmasters, principals, head teachers, and education officers at district, region, and ministry
level
Part 1: UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP

Part One is dedicated to understanding leadership as a concept. the part has three lectures.
Lecture One, the concept of leadership, brings a brief explanation of the concept of leadership.
Lecture Two, the competency standards of educational leadership, outlines the major
competency areas of educational leaders. The third lecture, leadership and management,
compares the two related concepts.
Lecture 1: THE CONCEPT OF LEADERSHIP

1.1 Introduction
The people called leaders are familiar to many of us. We have all sorts of leaders: political
leaders, religious leaders, traditional leaders, organisational leaders and army leaders. The list is
endless. This Unit proposes to introduce a discussion on the concept of leadership. What is it?
1.2 Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture you should be able to:
 Define leadership

 Define educational leadership
 Clearly identify the key elements in the definitions
1.3 Leadership
Leadership is a process of influencing others so that they willingly participate in performing
tasks. Leadership can also be defined as a process of “getting others to follow or getting people
to do things willingly” (Mullins, 2005, p.281). It is “the process of influencing others to
understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it” (Yukl, 2010, p.7). Note that
there are some key terms in the definition of leadership:
1.4 Influence
This is a central element in many definitions of leadership. Definitions reflect an assumption that
leadership involves a social influence process. Influence is exerted by one person (or group) over
other people or groups. Using the element of influence, leadership involves several components:
– Leadership is a process
– Leadership involves influencing others
– Leadership happens within a context of a group
– Leadership involves goal attainment
– The goals are shared by leaders and followers
1.5 Vision
Vision is regarded as an important component of leadership. effective school leaders have a
vision of their schools – an intelligent mental picture of a preferred future which is shared with
all in the school community.
1. Vision must be communicated in a way that promotes commitment among members of
the organisation
2. The vision needs to be institutionalized. The leaders should work with others to implant
the vision in the structures and processes of the organisation.
1.6 Relationship
Leaders and followers are regarded as peers of one another, each playing a different role.
Leaders tend to look for what motivates the followers, keeping the followers productive. In order
for this to be transformative, leaders have to be engaged with their followers. They should not
just fulfil the followers’ material needs.

1.7 Servantship
People will freely respond only to individuals who are chosen as leaders because they are proven
and trusted as servants. Leadership is about looking at the needs of stakeholders.

1.8 What is educational leadership?
Leadership is a process of influence leading to achievement of desired purposes. Successful
school leaders develop a vision for their schools based on their personal and professional values.
They share this vision at every opportunity and influence their staff and other stakeholders to
share the vision. Hence, the ethos, structures and activities of the school are geared towards
achieving this shared vision. Leadership may be viewed as a process whereby an individual (or
group of individuals) influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal. Thus,
educational leadership may be viewed as a process whereby educational leaders use the above
explained techniques to influence teachers, other professionals, and students to achieve the goals
of the schools. According to Lindahl (n.d)
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1016282.pdfleadership is second only to classroom instruction
in influencing student outcomes, based on the work of Leithwood, Louis, Anderson, &
Wahlstrom (2004) and most high-performing schools share a common element – strong
leadership.
1.9 Exercise
Use the four key words presented in this lecture to define educational leadership.
Further readings
Leithwood, Louis, Anderson, & Wahlstrom (2004). How Leadership influences student learning
Paper prepared for the UK Department of Skills and Education.
Mullins LJ (2005). Management and Organisational Behaviour (7th Ed.) FT Prentice Hall.
Yukl, G. (2010). Leadership in organizations (7th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. -
at: http://www.thehumanfactorblog.com/2012/07/26/the-many-definitions-of-leadership/
#sthash.aaSewdrD.dpuf
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1016282.pdf
Lecture 2: LECTURE TWO: COMPETENCY STANDARDS FOR EDUCATIONAL

LEADERS
2.1 Introduction
There is a famous quote from Alexander the Great that says, ‘I’m not afraid of an army of lions
led by a sheep; I’m rather afraid of an army of sheep led by a lion’. This may be viewed as an
exaggerated perspective of the role of leadership in comparison to that of followers. However the
quote sends a strong message to organisations to invest in leadership with the right
competencies.
 explain the need for competency standards for educational leaders

 categorise the competency standards
 relate competency standards of educational leaders in your country with the available standa
frameworks
2.3 Competency standards
We need to select capable people for positions of school leadership and develop them into
professional school leaders if we are to bridge the achievement gap between teaching and
learning in poorly performing schools and in successful schools. Without the school professional
leadership competency standards school leaders use their discretion to lead schools the way they
know and want, instead of leading them the way successful schools should be led.

Competencies are a number of characteristics that are needed for one to be ready for school
leadership - knowledge, skills, motives and ability - which are expressed in actions and
behaviour. Competency standards serve as a guideline for good practice in school leadership and
management especially to the novice school leaders. By referring to the standards, school leaders
will know what is expected of them and make necessary effort to perform to the expectations.
The standards will allow performance accountability and measurement against expectations.
They will allow identification of school leaders who meet school leadership expectations so that
they can share their good practice with less performing school leaders. Leaders failing to meet
expectations will be supported or, in the event of repeatedly failing to improve, be discontinued,
not because we hate them but because we love our children and wouldn’t watch their future get
ruined by below standard performers with bystander apathy.

National College for Teaching &Leadership (2013) has grouped the competencies into three
areas that reflect key dimensions of highly effective leadership:
(1) Educational excellence
Educational leaders (school heads) need to have competences on:
 Delivering continuous improvement
 Modelling excellence in teaching
 Learning focus
 Partnership and collaboration
 Organisational and community understanding

(2) Strategic leadership
In this regard, educational leaders (school heads) need to have competencies on:
 Self awareness and self-management
 Personal drive and accountability
 Resilience and emotional maturity
 Conceptual thinking
 Future focus
 Impact and Influence

(3) Operational management
The school leaders need to have competencies on:
 Efficiency and effectiveness
 Analytical thinking
 Relationship management
 Holding others to account
 Developing others
The Rwandan School Leaders’ Professional Standardsare a similar example of competency
frameworks for school leaders. The School Leadership Standards describe essential knowledge,
skills and attitudes that school leaders must demonstrate if they are to provide effective school
leadership and management. They consist of competency domains, expected leadership
competencies, and evidence of performance. The competency standards are in twelve areas:
vision or philosophy of education, Teaching and learning environment, Teamwork, High
standards, Knowledge of the school, Continuous professional development, Performance
evaluation, Partnership, Organisation, Caring ethos Leadership within the school.

Note: Educational leadership has to have three basic sets of competencies: educational
excellence, strategic leadership, and operational management
2.4 Exercise
1. Compare and contrast the competencies by the National College for Teaching
&Leadership (2013) and those for school leaders in Rwanda.
2. Use the template in Table 2.1 to propose better competencies for school
leaders for your country. Consider 1) the three groups of competences 2)
innovations in teaching and learning; and 3) dwindling budgets to finance
education.

Table 2.1: Competency Framework for educational leaders
Competency Expected leadership Competency Evidence of Performance
Domain
Education
Excellence
Strategic
Leadership
Operational
Management
2.5 Further reading

National College for Teaching &Leadership (2013) Leadership curriculum: NPQH
Handbook for Trainee Headteachers working with IOE: Leadership CoLab
http://www.lcll.org.uk/uploads/2/1/4/7/21470046/
trainee_headteacher_handbook_npqh_2013.pdf
Lecture 3: LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT

3.1 Introduction
After the discussion on competencies of educational leadership which has just ended, you should
be in better position to differentiate the two terms: management and leadership. From the
perspective of leadership, management is one of the functions of leadership; others being
direction (vision) and politics (influencing others). Management is very important since it is what
makes things to actually happen in the organisation.
 Compare and contrast leadership and management

 explain who leads what and why
 define the concepts of ‘emergent’ and ‘assigned’ leadership

3.3 The concept of Management
Weihrich (1993, as cited in Olum (2004) defines management as the process of designing and
maintaining an environment in which individuals, working together in groups, accomplish
efficiently selected aims. Weihrich views leadership as one of the functions of the management.
Other functions are planning, organising, staffing, and controlling. Amplifying this view, Olum
(2004) writes:

Leading is the influencing of people so that they will contribute to organization and group goals;
it has to do predominantly with the interpersonal aspect of managing. Most important problems
to managers arise from people – their desires and attitudes, their behavior as individuals and in
groups. Hence, effective managers need to be effective leaders. Leading involves motivation,
leadership styles and approaches and communication (p. 4).
3.4 Leadership and Management: The two concepts
Leadership is similar but different from management. They both involve influencing people.
They both require working with people. Both are concerned with the achievement of common
goals. However, leadership and management are different on more dimensions than they are
similar.
Table 3.1: Comparison of Management and Leadership Processes Different workplaces
(Kotterman, 2006)
Process Management Leadership
Vision establishment Plans and budgets Sets direction and develop the vision
Develops process steps and sets Develops strategic plans and achieve
timelines the vision
Displays impersonal attitude about Displays very passionate attitude
the vision and goals about the vision and goals
Human Development Organizes and staffs Aligns organisation
and Networking Maintains structure Communicates the vision, mission
Delegate responsibility and direction
Delegates authority Influences creation of coalitions,
Implements the vision teams and partnerships that
Establishes policy and procedures understand and accept the vision
to implement vision Displays driven, high emotion
Displays low emotion Increases choices
Limits employee choices
Vision execution Controls processes Motivates and inspires
Identifies problems Energizes employees to overcome
Solves problems barriers to change
Monitors results Satisfies basic human needs
Takes low risk approach to Takes high risk approach to problem
problem solving solving
Vision outcome Managers vision order and Promotes useful and dramatic
predictability changes, such as new products or
Provides expected results approaches to improving labour
consistently to leadership and relations.
other stakeholders

3.5 Learning Activity
In order to understand the relationship between the two concepts, we need to take time and read an article
Lunenburg (2011). The article is titled ‘Leadership versus Management: A Key Distinction—At Least in
the following link:
http://www.nationalforum.com/Electronic%20Journal%20Volumes/Lunenburg,%20Fred%20C.%20Lead
%20versus%20Management%20IJMBA%20V14%20N1%202011.pdf
After reading the article, you get to the general assumption that the two concepts are not the same at least
since, “Managers do things right, while leaders do the right things” What other differences have you com
What could be their similarities?

3.6 Who leads what; and why?
When you read for example Bolden (2004), you get the feeling that not every person with
authority is automatically a leader. There are managers and leaders, although both can be in the
same person. Interestingly, also, there could be some good leaders without position power. Read
http://business-school.exeter.ac.uk/documents/discussion_papers/cls/what_is_leadership.pdf on
assigned and emergent leaders.

Assigned leaders derive their authority from their positions in the organisational hierarchy. The
titles you give them carry weight with the employees they lead and you expect employees to
show respect for the position. Eventually, however, employees must come to respect the person.
The assigned leader must demonstrate wisdom, problem-solving skills and the ability to motivate
employees in order to maintain a position of leadership and justify the assignment. Note: holding
a leadership position does not in itself guarantee that a person is a leader.

Emergent leaders begin as exemplary or case workers. When such workers begin taking on tasks
voluntarily, helping others complete their tasks better and encouraging consensus among
coworkers, these persons are emergent leaders. This type of leadership is distinguished by the
leader proving himself/herself before being formally given a leadership title. Emergent leaders
offer you the advantage of knowing in advance of a promotion that the person can handle the job.
This type of leadership can also earn the leader respect among employees who know that the
leader has shown the ability to work hard. Employees may expect emergent leadership to
demonstrate more empathy for the worker than assigned leadership.
Hence, the distinction between assigned leadership and emergent leadership is simple. Assigned
leaders are appointed to a formal management or supervisor position. Emergent leaders take on
informal leadership roles based on the perception that work team or group members have toward
them. It is therefore ideal for district education officers, college principals or school heads, to
recognize emergent leaders and assign them to formal positions.
3.7 Exercise
Write an essay (two pages) to describe your preferred school leader.
3.8 Further readings

Bolden, R (2004) What is Leadership? Leadership South West Research Report, Centre for Lea
Studies, July.
Kotterman, J., (2006),“Leadership vs Management: What’s the difference?”,Journal for Quality
Participation, Vol. 29 Issue 2, p.13-17
Olum, Y. (2004) ‘Modern Management Theories and Practices’A paper presented at the 15th E
Central Banking Course, held on 12th July 2004, at Kenya School of Monetary Studies
PART 2: LEADERSHIP THEORIES

Part 2 introduces a discussion on the theories of leadership that are related to traits, behaviour
and context. We begin the discussion with trait theories and then move to behavioural theories
and then complete with a discussion on contextual theories. As we discuss issues related to how
leadership is made and practiced, it is important that you note how theories change from the
superstitious 'Great-man theories' to more tangible theories which explain effective leadership.
Lecture 4: TRAIT AND BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES

4.1 Introduction
Are leaders born or made? How exactly do we get leaders? what qualities the leaders have?
Lecture four brings a discussion on two different sets of theories, the trait theories and
behavioural theories. The trait theories are concerned with in-born qualities that make some of us
more suited to be leaders. Behavioural theories on the other hand concentrate on what leaders do
with whatever traits that they possess.
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
 Explain the major viewpoints of trait and behavioural theories
 Assess the applicability of trait and behavioural theories in education leadership

4.3 Trait Theories
4.3.1 The Great Man Theory
We need to read the document by Richard Bolden (2003) in which he reviews various leadership
theories.
https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/handle/10036/17494/mgmt_standards.pdf?
sequence=1
 The great-man theory assumes that the capacity to leadership is inherent – that great
leaders are born not made.
 Leaders are assumed as born with innate qualities and traits that make them better suited
to leadership. The traits most researched are: drive (determination), emotional stability,
admitting errors, good interpersonal skills and intellectual breadth.
Major assumption
People are born with inherited traits and some traits are particularly suited to leadership

Characteristics of great leaders
 Integrity
 Vision
 Concern
 Creativity
 Results-oriented
 Courage
 Humility

4.3.2 Charismatic Leadership
Characteristics of a charismatic leader
 Supernatural qualities
 Charismatic authority legimatised by exceptional personal qualities
 Vision and articulation
 Personal risk-taking
 Unconventional behaviour
 Maturity and character
 Exceptional communication skills
 Humility – ability to listen to concerns of followers
Table 4.1: Strengths and weaknesses of charismatic leadership
Strengths Weaknesses
 Employee support  Achieving only a single vision
 Fun and improved work environment  Persistence and personal sacrifice on leaders
 Leadership example for employees  Heavy reliance on personal charm
 Visionary  Potential abuse of power
 Articulate – using metaphors and
stories, they convey their vision
 Build trust
 Improved quality of education
 Opportunities for growth

4.4 Behavioural theories
We need to continue reading the document by Bolden (2003) in which he reviews various
leadership theories.
https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/handle/10036/17494/mgmt_standards.pdf?
sequence=1
Behavioural studies attempt to analyse what leaders and managers do with whatever traits, skills,
or motivational capabilities.

Leader behaviours
Task and Relations behaviours
The early leadership research emphasized two general behaviour categories:
1. Relations-oriented behaviours – reflecting the extent to which a leader shows concern for
followers’ satisfaction and wellbeing
2. Task-oriented behaviours – reflecting the degree to which a leader explains and defines
the roles of a task, assigns subordinates to various task roles, controls subordinates'’
performance and provides feedback to subordinates.
NOTE: The ideal leader will be one with high scores on both dimensions.

Transformational and transactional leadership behaviours
Transformational leaders inspire followers to achieve extraordinary outcomes by providing both
meaning and understanding. They align goals and objectives the individual followers and of the
organisation and provide the follower with support, mentoring and coaching.
Components of transformational leadership
 Idealised influence
 Inspirational motivation
 Intellectual stimulation
 Individualised consideration
Transactional leadership behaviours
Unlike transformational leadership that banks on social exchange between the leader and
follower in the form of psychological contract and organisational capacity building, transactional
leadership is based on economic exchange. Transactional leaders identify the needs of the
followers; clarify and negotiates the aspired goals; regulate follower behaviours using contingent
positive or negative reinforcement.
Directive and supportive leader behaviours
In some cases, it is more accurate to note that leaders behavioural repertoire may include both
directive and supportive behaviours. However, most leaders tend to be either directive or
supportive. Directive leaders focus on accomplishment of tasks. This include assignment of
tasks, clarifying targets, giving guidance, expecting followers to comply with rules, policies and
procedures and reinforcing such compliance. Supportive leaders are perceived as acting to
enhance the need satisfactions of subordinates, indicate concern for their wellbeing, and
reinforce an amicable (friendly) climate among the members
4.5 Exercise
The perspective that people are born with inherited traits and some traits are particularly suited to
leadership is still rampant. How will you convince that such beliefs are actually a myth?

Bolden, R (2004) What is Leadership? Leadership South West Research Report, Centre for
Leadership Studies, July.
Lecture 5: SITUATIONAL AND CONTINGENCY THEORIES

5.1 Introduction
In the lecture just ended, you should have leant something about trait and behavioural theories on
leadership. You should have been introduced to the fact that the theories are increasingly moving
away from ‘the Great Man Theory’ to more contextual leadership. Good. This lecture will
capitalise on the role of context in making a leader. More often than never you have heard of an
effective leader failing to lead in a different school; and wondered what has suddenly happened
to the great guy! A head-teacher who gets transferred to a different school may fail to excel in
the same way as in the previous school. A district educational officer in district X may prove a
better leader in district Y when transferred there. Similarly, one minister for education may not
work so well in comparison with the former. And we keep on wondering, what on earth is going
on.
 Explain the major assumptions of the situational and contingency theories
 Assess the applicability of the theories in educational leadership

5.3 Situational Leadership
When a decision is needed, effective leaders do not just fall into a single preferred style. They
usually base their decisions on motivation and capability of followers. This, in turn, is affected
by factors within the particular situation. The relationship between followers and the leader may
be another factor that affects leader behaviour as much as it does follower behaviour. The
leaders' perception of the follower and the situation will affect what they do rather than the truth
of the situation. The leader's perception of themselves and other factors such as stress and mood
will also modify the leaders' behaviour.
Assumptions
The best action of the leader depends on a range of situational factors. When a decision is
needed, an effective leader does not just fall into a single preferred style.
5.4 Hersey-Blanchard situational leadership: the four leadership styles
The four leadership styles are Telling, Selling, Participating, and Delegating. Telling is the most
direct form of leadership. The leader of the group simply tells each member what to do, and how
they would like them to do it. This approach is less collaborative, and more directive in nature.
There is very little working together between the leader and the team members, instead the leader
simply provides specific instructions for the team members to follow through with.
Selling is one with a little more room for collaboration. While the team members are still
directed by the leader, the leader is more likely to engage with the team members along the way.
The 'Selling' title comes from the idea that the leader may need to convince some of the team
members to follow his or her lead and do things in a specific way.
Participating is a process where the leader tries to build relationships with those on the team -
really becoming part of the team. This is quite a departure from the Telling style, as the leader
will blend in more fully with those who are working as part of the team. In fact, the leader might
not even make all of the decisions in this style, perhaps deferring at certain points to members of
the team with more experience or knowledge in a given area.
Delegating represents the leader passing on most of the responsibilities for a given project or task
to various members of the team. This style is something that leaders of experienced teams will
often use, since the employees that are being led may not need much in the way of direction at
this point in their careers.
Note:
Style 1 (S1 Telling or Directing): High task/low relationship
This leader uses above-average amounts of task behavior and below-average amounts of relations
behavior.
Style 2 (S2 Selling or Coaching): High task/high relationship
This leader uses greater-than-average amounts of both task and relationship behaviors.
Style 3 (S3 Participating or Supporting): High relationship/low task
This leader exhibits greater-than-average amounts of relationship behavior and below-average am
task behavior.
Style 4 (S4 or Delegating): Low relationship/low task
This leader uses below-average amounts of both relationship and task behaviors.
5.5 Contingency Theory

The Fiedler Contingency Model was created in the mid-1960s by Fred Fiedler. The model states
that there is no one best style of leadership. Instead, a leader's effectiveness is based on the
situation. This is the result of two factors – "leadership style" and "situational favorableness" or
"situational control". Fielder developed a tool to determine a leadership style which he called
Least-Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Scale. "Situational favorableness" of a particular situation can
be determined through three factors:
 Leader-Member Relations – This is the level of trust and confidence that your team has
in you. A leader who is more trusted and has more influence with the group is in a more
favorable situation than a leader who is not trusted.
 Task Structure – This refers to the type of task you're doing: clear and structured, or
vague and unstructured. Unstructured tasks, or tasks where the team and leader have little
knowledge of how to achieve them, are viewed unfavorably.
 Leader's Position Power – This is the amount of power you have to direct the group,
and provide reward or punishment. The more power you have, the more favorable your
situation. Fiedler identifies power as being either strong or weak.
5.6 Contingency v. Situational Theory
Contingency theory is similar to situational theory in that there is an assumption of no simple one
right way. The main difference is that situational theory tends to focus more on the behaviours
that the leader should adopt, given situational factors (often about follower behaviour), whereas
contingency theory takes a broader view that includes contingent factors about leader capability
and other variables within the situation
5.7 Exercise
In your assessment, why do you think contingent theories could be most suitable to leading scho

Bolden, R., Gosling, J., Marturano, A. and Dennison, P. (2003) A Review of Leadership Theor
Competency Frameworks. Exeter: Centre For Leadership Studies
http://www2.fcsh.unl.pt/docentes/luisrodrigues/textos/Lideran%C3%A7a.pdf
Part 3: LEADERSHIP ETHICS

Part three provides some discussions on issues related to leadershipethics. Three lectures are
presented. Lecture seven is titled, the perfect storm of unethical leadership, and it basically
alludes to the perfect storm model of unethical behaviours among leaders, by Chandler (2009).
Lecture eight extends the discussion by concentrating on corruption among educational leaders.
The part ends with a lecture on gender and leadership.
Lecture 7: THE PERFECT STORM OF UNETHICAL LEADERSHIP

7.1 Introduction
The word “ethics” derives from the Greek word “ethikos,” and from the root word “ethos,”
referring to character. The term refers to the character or disposition of beliefs, values, and
behaviors that shape perceptions of what is right and wrong based upon one’s personal, social,
cultural, and religious values and the standards by which behaviour is deemed acceptable or
unacceptable regarding responsibilities, rules, codes of conduct, and/or laws. This lecture
provides opportunity for discussion of issues related to ethics; and ethical and unethical
behaviours among educational leaders.
 critically explain ethics, ethical and unethical behaviour
 analyse factors responsible for unethical behaviours
 recognise and adhere to ethical behaviours in educational leadership

7.3 Ethical Leadership Behaviour
Ethical leadership refers to both personal moral integrity and professional ethical standards. It is
difficult to separate the leader’s personal conduct from his/her professional conduct. Ethical
leadership behaviour is defined as the organisational process of leaders acting in a manner
consistent with agreed upon standards of character, decency, and integrity, which upholds clear,
measurable, and legal standards, fostering the common good over personal self-interest.
Note
 Ethical leaders play a modelling role to their followers

 Ethical leadership is needed if leaders are to earn legitimacy, confidence and loyalty of fol
and,
 Ethical leadership enhances organisational moral climate and conduct.

7.4 Unethical Leadership Behaviour
Leadership scholars and social psychologists have addressed the causality of unethical leadership
from three primary perspectives: (a) leaders (b) followers and (c) situational context. The perfect
storm model by Chandler (2009) gives a very good starting point in discussing the cause for
unethical leaders in education. Unethical leadership behaviour is defined as the organisational
process of leaders acting in a manner inconsistent with agreed upon standards of character,
decency, and integrity, which blurs or violates clear, measurable, and legal standards, fostering
constituent distrust because of personal self-interest.

List down three major unethical behaviours among educational leaders at either school or
district level; and provide reasons for existence of such behaviours.
7.5 The Making of the Storm: Three dimensions

The leader: educational leaders are similar in many ways with other leaders. A leader has both
intrapersonal and interpersonal reasons for engaging in the unethical behaviours. Intrapersonal
factors include:
(a) unresolved childhood needs
(b) personality determinants
(c) moral values and character weakness, and
(d) internalized success stressors.

Interpersonal factors:
(a) charisma,
(b) abuse of personalized power,
(c) lack of effective interpersonal skills, and
(d) lack of a viable accountability and support system.

The followers: unethical school leaders are likely to have followers who are: passive, colluding,
or malicious. These followers could contribute to the perfect storm. Passive followers do not help
in shaping the behaviour of the leader. They remain passive and hence encourage the leader to
continue with undesirable behaviours unchecked. The colluding followers are the ones that help
the leader in the process of conducting unethical behaviours. The school driver who knowingly
agrees to use the school car for person activities of the head-teacher is a colluding follower.
Likewise, teachers who agree to the head-teacher’s proposal that students are given exams prior
to the exam session are also colluders. the malicious followers are even worse. They are the ones
who carry out unethical behaviours and literally blame the leader. a school bursar who fakes the
headmaster’s signature and draws fund from the school account is a good example of a malicious
follower.

Situational factors for unethical leadership
- Environmental uncertainty: With environmental instability, change, and uncertainty,
ethical leadership may be compromised
- Drive for competitive viability or dominance: Competition impacts organisational
viability, profit, and overall influence.
- Lack of effective organisational processes and accountability oversight: The lack of
effective organisational processes and accountability oversight further contributes to unethical
leadership behaviour
- Previous organisational success: Organisational downfall ironically has been attributed to
previous organisational. Without the prerequisite capacity to accept and enjoy success, many
people become almost “drunk” on the benefits it provides and ignore the way in which the
positive consequences of success can also give rise to “The Success Syndrome”
7.6 Exercise
1. Revisit our discussion on charismatic leadership and write convincingly to justify that chari
leaders are likely to become unethical.
2. Describe how ‘the storm of unethical leaders’ occurs.
Chandler, D.J (2009) The Perfect Storm of Leaders’ Unethical Behavior: A Conceptual Framew
International Journal of Leadership Studies, 5 (1), 69- 93
Lecture 8: CORRUPTION IN THE EDUCATION SECTOR

8.1 Introduction
Unit 8 is an extension of the previous unit on ethics. Apparently, corruption is one huge area of
unethical leadership that deserves its own unit.
 correctly define corruption in the education sector
 describe the various forms of corruption
 explain factors that lead to corruption among educational leaders
 suggest better solutions to the problem of corruption among education leaders
8.3 Corruption: the concept
Corruption in the education sector can be defined as “the systematic use of public office for
private benefit, whose impact is significant on the availability and quality of educational goods
and services, and, as a consequence on access, quality or equity in education” (Hallak and
Poisson, 2002). This definition combines three elements: It is based on the usual definition of
corruption in the public sector, that is ‘the use of public office for private gains’; (ii) it limits the
scope of behaviours under scrutiny to those observed regularly, resulting directly from
dysfunctions in the system – thus excluding individual behaviours observed only episodically
and resulting primarily from the attitude of a given person; (iii) it establishes a link between
these behaviours and their effects on the system, i.e. a reduction in the resources available,
decrease in their quality, and their unequal distribution.
A distinction can be made between ‘grand’ and ‘petty’ corruption. Grand corruption involves
high-level officials and politicians and large amounts of money; it usually has a high economic
impact. Fraud in public tendering for school construction or textbook production constitutes a
case in point. Petty corruption involves public officers at all levels (from central to local
governments and school levels) and many small amounts of money; even though it usually has a
limited economic impact, it can have a severe social impact, especially for the poor. Illegal fees
paid by parents to teachers or head teachers to get their children admitted to schools, to be
promoted or to pass their exams are examples of petty corruption. however, there is no strict
distinction between grand and petty corruption; in fact, there is a continuum between the two.
The line between what can be considered ‘corrupt’ and ‘non-corrupt’ behaviour is not always
obvious – especially in the absence of clear rules and regulations. The example of gifts: In some
societies, people are used to giving gifts, including to public officials and teachers; this is
regarded as part of socio-cultural relations and has nothing to do with corruption. In other
societies, it is strictly forbidden for public officials to accept gifts: This would be regarded as
corruption and is punished by law. This example is often quoted to argue that corruption is a
cultural concept which has no universal significance, and it is even regarded by some people as a
‘Western’ concept that is not applicable to some societies. However, these views are contradicted
by reality: Experience shows that, in all cultures, people have a clear perception of what should
be tolerated and what should not, even when the system of rules and regulations is weak or non-
existent.
The example of gifts, most people make a difference between a gift of low monetary value,
which is given as part of a social exchange with nothing expected in return, and a gift of higher
monetary value given in the hope of obtaining some favour in return. However, as the value of a
gift can be assessed differently according to the context, there is indeed an unclear border
between corrupt and non-corrupt behaviour. A small amount of money in one context can be a lot
of money in another. In different areas it may prove more appropriate to talk of ethical and non-
ethical behaviour rather than of corrupt and non-corrupt behaviour. One way to draw the line
between ethical and non-ethical behaviour involves evaluating the impact of the behaviour
concerned on the system.
8.4 Factors for corruption in education
High rate of return of the education sector: Through education people hope to get better-paid
jobs; as a consequence, some of them are ready to pay bribes or to fraud in order to get a good
mark or a well-recognized diploma
Complexity of rules and poor governance: the complexity and lack of accessibility of rules
combined with poor governance and supervision at all levels. Unclear educational rules, poor
public information on government decisions and the lack of ‘a culture of accountability’ in the
education sector open up opportunities for corruption.
Low salaries of public officials and of teachers: In many countries, the salaries of teachers are
quite low compared to per capita income. In some countries, the situation has even deteriorated
in recent years, paving the way for the spreading of misbehaviour
Weakening of ethical norms In some countries like those in transition, under reconstruction or in
crisis, a weakening of ethical norms is often observed. the culture of corruption is also common
among other developing countries. It is very surprising that some people think they won’t get
service until they pay bribes. it is not uncommon to be offered bribe by university students to be
favoured in their studies.
Decentralizing educational resources. In some contexts, decentralizationof the education system
has also decentralized opportunities for corruption, extending them to a larger number of
individuals. Promoting school-based management demonstratesthat the more administrative
levels are involved in the financing of education systems, the greater the risk of fund leakage.
For this reason, funds need to be directly sent to schools in order to bypass administrative
hierarchy.
Development of ICTs: The development of new technologies is encouraging the emergence of
new, large-scale forms of academic fraud. Many websites now offer the possibility of buying
term papers or diplomas online. The price of these diplomas varies according to the subject and
the grade concerned.
Privatization The privatization of parts of secondary and higher education requires the
establishment of reliable accreditation mechanisms. But these can be compromised in various
ways, including by accreditation-based on non-transparent criteria, payment of bribes to obtain
accreditation, schools giving false information on their accreditation and creation of fake
accreditation bodies, among others.
Globalization: The internationalization of student flows and of job markets raises new
challenges. For example, it makes it difficult to check on the authenticity of diplomas; as a result,
the market for false certificates is booming. In their efforts to increase scarce resources by
admitting more foreign students (who are charged high enrolment fees), some higher education
institutions (HEIs) turn a blind eye to such practices.
8.5 Forms of corruption

Amundsen (2000) makes a distinction between five main forms of corruption, namely:
embezzlement; bribery; fraud; extortion; and favouritism.
Embezzlement: The theft of public resources by public officials. One example in the education
sector is the use of funds aimed at school construction for the financing of political parties or
political campaigns.
Bribery: payment (in money or in kind) given or taken in a corrupt relationship. One illustration
of it is the payment of bribes to be recruited as a teacher, including when the person does not
have the appropriate credentials to be appointed.
Fraud: economic crime that involves some kind of trickery, swindling or deceit. One
manifestation in the education sector is the creation of paper or diploma mills, whereby a person
can buy a fake diploma directly from the internet; another is the existence of ghost teachers on
payrolls
Extortion: money and other resources extracted by the use of coercion, violence or threats to use
force. Sexual harassment of students or the obligation for parents to pay illegal or unauthorized
fees if they want their child to be admitted to school can be classified as extortion.
Favouritism: Mechanism of power abuse implying ‘privatization’ and a highly biased
distribution of public resources. This includes cases of nepotism, where a public officer gives the
priority to his or her family members. There are many examples of favouritism in the educational
field, including the recruitment of administrators based on their membership of a political party,
or of teachers based on their membership of a trade union
1. Visit the CPI website https://www.transparency.org/research/cpi and briefly summaris
corruption perception ranking of your country. Make an assessment of situation and w
education institutions can do to address corruption in the country.
2. Watch the YouTube clip by PLO Lumumba that summarizes the state of the war against co
among African leaders
2. and then analyze the effectiveness of your national ant-corruption organisation.
3. Interview ten teachers in a school on corrupt practices among district education officers; and establish fiv
corrupt practices. What can be done to fight corruption among education officers in your district?

Amundsen, I. (2000). Corruption: Definitions and Concepts, Chr. Michelsen Institute, Develop
Studies and Human Rights, Draft 17.
Hallak, J. and Poisson, M. (2007) Corrupt schools, corrupt universities: What can be done? Pa
UNESCO
https://www.transparency.org/research/cpi
Lecture 9: GENDER AND LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION

9.1 Introduction
Across the globe, there is a developing concern over the women-teach-men-manage’ trend, that
provides a grim reality of gender disparities in education leadership. It is clear that although
women form the majority of teachers, they are actually a minority when it comes to leading the
schools and other leadership roles in the education hierarchies.
 provide a discussion on the gender imbalances in education worldwide
 identify factors for gender disparities
 explore ways to address the gender disparities
9.3 Gender disparities in educational leadership
Around the world women school teachers face similar difficulties in their workplaces specifically
in administrative sectors. They experience unequal representation than their men counterparts in
school administration. For instance, in Lebanon, women are accountable to male authorities
regardless of their power in administration (Bogotch & Shields: 2013). In Israel, independent
learning among men has tended to develop the culture of independence in their life. As the
tendency continues the women trust that men are strongly embodied in strength and capabilities
to solve difficulties. Women in the situation qualify themselves to be weak and fail to apply for
the chances in leadership for the school leadership (Leithword et al., 2012).
In Nigeria, culture, family and religion are the factors that appear as the barrier to incorporate
women in the upper school leadership. Traditionally Muslim families and Catholics do not allow
girls and women to hold an authority in their religions. This being the case the families; father
and mothers prepare their children to receive directions from men at both home and religion
bodies .Having been so once a boy and a girl at learning levels tend to copy the social and family
orders that accept a man in the frontline and the woman in the hind or back to decisions (Okoli,
2007).
Women in Australia are almost segregated because of being women the school might have any
women still the school leadership is rendered in the hands of many males, this is to say
patriarchal is significantly exercised. Australian schools are highly feminized workplaces but
men hold disproportionate percentage of principalship. In the late 1990s approximately 69
percent of teachers in Australia were women, but they constituted only one third of school
principals (Oplatka, 2006).
Likewise in Canada many women are underrepresented in the school leadership despite their
being many in the working force (Reynold, 2012). Canadian women educators have consistently
been under represented in all types of administrative roles, despite their high proportions in the
teaching work force. The situation is worse at the higher levels of educational leadership. For
example, women’s rate of participation at the level of chief executive officer ranged from 0
percent to 6 percent across the province (Reynold, 2012).
In the United States women are not proportionally considered as men for the matter of heading
the schools. Sobehart (2009) placed women’s’ rate of participation in the superintendence at
about seven percent in the early 1990s, although the representation of women in administrative
position in Kindergarten and higher education were increasing in proportion to their number in
teaching. For instance, although women were 75% of all teachers there were only 44% of all
principals and 18% of all superintendents. In the United States, women are twice as likely as men
to hold a doctorate in education; but men are more than five times likely to lead school districts
(Shakeshaft et al, 2007).
A study of women in education management in ten European countries indicates that the
majority of school managers are men, while the majority of teachers are women (Ruijs, 1990).
This study also highlights the disparity between the number of male and female school
administrators these are of a greater gap between the percentage of the male teachers and
principals. In the average European countries (with exception of Greece) the percentage of
female principals should almost doubled to reflect the percentage of male teachers. This is true
for primary and secondary education.
In England, women in secondary schools do not possess equal leadership opportunities because
men are more favoured in the way they enter the powers. Men may dominate in administration
for a large extent while women remain with the power in teaching and students counselling in
connection with appointment. About half the women in secondary sector, said that they had
experienced sexism/discrimination while in their posts and gave examples of how their gender
had negatively affected their role (Sobehart, 2009).
In Zimbabwe women teach, men manage (Chobaya et al., 2009). women in educational
leadership positions are a minority in Zimbabwe due to factors such as family attachment, in
which case women are seen to be more concerned about family than their job progression; lack
of self-esteem and confidence; and lack of support from across a spectrum of institutions. These
observed factors do not however suggest that women are in anyway under-qualified.

Note the current state of gender disparity in education leadership: women teach men manage

In South Africa Black women were and are still oppressed by both race and gender. It appears
that women senior positions in education leadership is achieved by colour. White women are the
most determined after the men. Consistent with the Apartheid history, black women tend to
experience the inferiority in the ways they think of holding top school administrative chances.
Hence, there are fewer women senior positions, consistent with apartheid patterns that favour
men over women. In particular there are fewer black women on the leadership ladder (Sobehart,
2009).
9.3 New developments
New values have appeared in leadership. These values contrast with the competitive and
authoritative approach usually associated with traditional masculine management as they are
based on consensual relations and inspire a different management approach to communications,
leadership, negotiations, organisation and control. These values are common among women
leaders.
Male Female
Structure Consideration
Transactional Transformational
Autocratic Participative
Instruction-giving Socio-expressive
Business-oriented People-oriented

9.4 Exercise
Make a quick research in your district to establish the total number of primary and secondary schools. E
the percentage of the female head-teachers. Interview two female head-teachers and document what the
to be challenges caused by gender reasons. Write your research report and share with classmates and th
instructor
Bogotch ,I.(2012) International Hand book of Educational Leadership and Social (In)Justice: S
Science & Business Media
Chobaya, O. (2009). Persistence of the Gender Inequality in Zimbabwe – Factors That I
Advancement of Women into Leadership Position in Primary Schools: Pretoria, South A
Leithwood, K. A and Hallinger , P (2012) Second International Handbook of Educational Leade
Administration: Spinger Sceince & Business Media
Okoli, E.(2012) Gender Disparities in Nigerian Education –Women Experience of Barriers to
opportunities : Proquest Western Michigan University.
Oplatka, I. and Heart- Lazarovits,R.( 2006) Women Principals in A Mutual Society- New Insigh
Feminist Educational Leadership: Sense Publishers Education
Reynolds, C. (2012) Women and School Leadership – International Perspectives: SUNY Press
Shakeshaft, C. (2012) Gender and Educational Management: SAGE Inc.
Sobehart, H.C (2009) Women Leading Education across the Continent – Sharing the Spirit, F
Flame: R&L Education Publisher
Part 4: LEADERSHIP IN THE EDUCATION SECTOR

Part four provides some discussions on specific issues to leadership in the education sector.
Three lectures are presented. Lecture 10 is titled, leadership and the improvement of student
performance establishes the role of leadership in improving student performance. Lecture 11
extends the discussion by introducing a discussion on school improvement programmes that
improve student performance. The last lecture is on recruitment of school leaders and it discusses
the need for schools to have strategies to recruit effective school leaders
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Part 4: LEADERSHIP IN THE EDUCATION SECTOR

Lecture 10: LEADERSHIP AND THE IMPROVEMENT OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE
10.1 Introduction
One of the major roles of educational leadership is to improve student performance. As such
educational leaders are constantly kept accountable for the performance of their respective
institutions, particularly on student performance. Lecture 10 will discuss the relationship
between educational leadership and student performance; and hence justifying investing on good
leadership.
 Justify the position of leadership in student learning
 Discuss the roles of leadership that promote student performance
10.3 Leadership is second only to classroom instruction
One of the ‘Seven strong claims about successful school leadership’(Lethwood et al, n.d) is that
‘Leadership is second only to classroom instruction among all school-related factors that
contribute to what students learn at school’ (Lethwood et al, 2004). This claim was not
something new. It supported previous studies such as that conducted by Heck, Larsen, and
Marcoulides (1990). Investigating three domains of principal instructional leadership, Heck, et al
(1990) demonstrated both direct and indirect effects on student achievement for their measures
of principal influence operating through school governance, instructional organisation, and
school climate. Specifically, an inclusive approach to governance worked to promote an effective
system of instructional organisation and a school climate supportive of teaching and learning.
Their study found direct effects on achievement for instructional organisation and climate and
indirect effects for governance through its positive influence on these two domains.
Efforts that build a sense of teamwork in the school proved particularly important, such as
clarifying, coordinating, and communicating a unified educational mission to teachers, students,
and community. Important instructional leadership variables that influence achievement are not
those tied to close supervision of instruction (Hallinger & Murphy, 1985; Heck et al., 1990).
According to Lethwood et al (2004), while evidence about leadership effects on student learning
can be confusing to interpret, much of the existing research actually underestimates its effects;
and that the total effects of leadership on student learning account for about a quarter of total
school effects. Mostly leaders contribute to student learning indirectly, through their influence on
other people or features of their organisations.
There are direct and indirect effects of educational leadership on student performance. Explain.

10.5 Exercise
In what ways do you agree that leadership is second only to classroom instruction?

Leithwood, K., Louis, K.S., Anderson, S. and Wahlstrom, K. (2004) Review of research How lea
influences student learning. Minnesota, MN: The Wallace Foundation
Marks, H. M. and Printy, S.M (2003) Principal Leadership and School Performance: An Integratio
Transformational and Instructional Leadership. Educational Administration Quarterly Vol. 39, No.
2003) 370-397
http://www.sccoe.org/depts/esb/rsdss/Accountability%20Doc%20Library/Principal%20Leadership%
%20
Lecture 11: SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMMES

10.1 Introduction
School improvement programme is a safe way to ensure that schools implement plans to improve
students’ performance. Lecture 11 is dedicated to leading school improvement programmes.

 Relate school improvement programme and student performance
 Explain the major elements of a school improvement framework
 Develop a school improvement plan

10.3 Leading school improvement
School improvement has two outlooks. The first is a narrow outlook that associates it with the
concept of underperformance. Hence, it goes that underperforming schools need to undergo a
school improvement programme. With this narrow notion school improvement is limited to
underperforming schools. the other outlook is that school improvement programme is an
important programme for every school. This wider perspective is equated to continuous quality
improvement of a school, which requires schools to keep improving the quality of delivery
regardless of their ranking.

Figure 10.1: Continuous school improvement

 School improvement should begin with research and data analysis
 This should guide school improvement planning
 Implementation should involve the whole school
 Evaluation should lead to another round of data collection and analysis
 Student performance should always be the main focus at each of the stages
10.4 What is the outcome of school improvement programme?
Many writers believe that the outcome of SIP should be student performance. in short, whatever
programme implemented should be evaluated in terms of what impacts it makes into the student
performance (in grades), in which specific subjects. this emphasis on student performance is
somewhat deliberate in order to keep schools focused on the core function of the school. You can
imagine what would have happened if schools were to implement all sorts of projects without
linking them to student performance: we could have all sorts of outcomes, including some which
are not core. Can you identify some non-core outcomes?

Some writers (e,g,, Tao, 2010) think that this emphasis on student performance is too narrow.
Tao (2010) for example, suggests that the outcome of school improvement programme should be
the well-being of the people in the school system – the leadership, staff and students in terms of
improvement of their capabilities.

School improvement programme framework
We need to understand that SIPs can mean any project or programme that is
implementehome0501
d with the view to achieving better student performance in the school. some writers have
suggested framework within which to understand the initiatives. For example, Australian
Council for Educational Research (ACER) (2012) has suggested seven key areas in which SIPs
can focus.
1. A Culture That Promotes Learning
2. Targeted Use of School Resources
3. An Expert Teaching Team
4. Systematic Curriculum Delivery
5. Differentiated Teaching and Learning
6. Effective Pedagogical Practices
7. School-Community Partnerships
However I would suggest that such areas in ACER and other frameworks are not universal and
do not necessarily capture local school improvement issues in different countries. I recommend a
framework which I call TIE IT UP. It is just a framework that can be used in conducting
research in school improvement, in planning targets and actions, in monitoring implementation,
and in conducting evaluation of the programmes. The framework calls for schools to focus on the
following key aspects:
1. Teacher well-being and improved teaching
2. Instructional leadership
3. External environment
4. Infrastructure and related resources
5. Technology in teaching and management
6. Understanding the needs of special groups
7. Performance and well-being of learners
Examples of school improvement programmes
We need to note and distinguish SIPs at system level from those programmes at school level.
System level SIPs are those programmes implemented at national level. These are not the focus
in this lecture. School-based SIPs are numerous. Let’s use the TIE-IT-UP framework to suggest
such initiatives.

Table 10.1 School improvement plan (using a TIE-IT-UP framework)
School:
District:
Financial year:
Improvement Target Action Target Responsibilit Performance Budget
area date y indicator
Teacher and
teaching
Instructional
leadership
External
environment
Infrastructure
Technology
Understanding
special needs
Performance
Use the improvement areas suggested in the TIE-IT-UP framework to conduct a research study in
secondary schools. Identify two major improvement needs in each of the seven areas.

Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER) (2012) National School Improvement To
Queensland: Department of Education, Training and Employment
Tao, 2010)
Lecture 12: RECRUITMENT OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERS

12.1 Introduction
Effective leadership pays so establishes research. However, good educational leaders are a scarce
resource and usually unavailable in the labour market. Lecture 12 will provide some discussion
on ways to ensure that schools recruit effective leadership staff all the time.
 Analyse the state of recruitment of school leaders
 Analyse different strategies to improve recruitment of educational leaders
12.3 The state of educational leaders’ recruitment
A recent study by Renihan (2012) discovered that only 43 percent of teachers were interested in
becoming school principals or even vice principals. The rest expressed that they would never
consider aspiring for such positions. Mumford (2003) has put the problem in at least three
different ways: a growing shortage, declining candidate quality and mobility rate of educational
leaders. Pont, Nusche & Moorman (2008) argue educational systems to make school leadership
an attractive profession. They observe that potential applicants are deterred by the heavy
workload of principals and the fact that the job does not seem to be adequately remunerated or
supported. in addition there seems to be uncertain recruitment procedures and career
development prospects for principals that may also deter potential candidates. They suggest the
following strategies to attract, recruit and support high-performing school leaders include the
following:

Professionalise recruitment
Recruitment processes can have a strong impact on school leadership quality. While school-level
involvement is essential to contextualise recruitment practices, action is necessary at the system
level to ensure that recruitment procedures and criteria are effective, transparent and consistent.

Succession planning
Proactively identifying and developing potential leaders can boost the quantity and quality of
future school leaders. Eligibility criteria should be broadened to reduce the weight accorded to
seniority and attract younger dynamic candidates with different backgrounds. Recruitment
procedures should go beyond traditional job interviews to include an expanded set of tools and
procedures to assess candidates. Finally, those who are on the hiring side of recruitment panels
also need guidelines and training.
Focus on the relative attractiveness of school leaders’ salaries
The relative attractiveness of salaries for school leaders can influence the supply of high quality
candidates. Policy makers need to monitor remuneration compared to similar grades in the public
and private sectors and make school leadership more competitive. Establishing separate salary
scales for teachers and principals can attract more candidates from among the teaching staff. At
the same time, salary scales should reflect leadership structures and school-level factors in order
to attract high performing leaders to all schools.

Acknowledge the role of professional organisations of school leaders
Professional organisations of school leaders provide a forum for dialogue, knowledge sharing
and dissemination of best practices among professionals and between professionals and policy
makers. Workforce reform is unlikely to succeed unless school leaders are actively involved in
its development and implementation through their representative organisations.

Provide options and support for career development
Providing career development prospects for school leaders can help avoid principal burnout and
make school leadership a more attractive career option. There are many ways to make the
profession more flexible and mobile, allowing school leaders to move between schools as well as
between leadership and teaching and other professions. Current country practice provides some
examples to draw from, including alternatives to lifetime contracts through renewable fixed-
term contracts and options for principals to step up to new opportunities such as jobs in the
educational administration, leadership of groups or federations of schools and consultant
leadership roles.

Note: Teachers are not necessarily interested in becoming head-teachers. There must be some mec
attract good teachers into leadership positions.

12.4 Exercise
Propose a practical strategy to attract teachers into leadership positions.

Mumford, B. (2003) School Leaders: Challenging Roles and Impact on Teacher and School Eff
OECD Commissioned Paper
Pont, B., D. Nusche and H. Moorman (2008), Improving School Leadership, Volume 1:
Policy and Practice OECD, Paris. (August 2008)
Renihan, PJ. (2012) Leadership Succession for Tomorrow’s Schools
Social and Behavioral Sciences 55 ( 2012 ) 138 – 147
Part 5: LEADERSHIP AT DIFFERENT EDUCATIONAL LEVELS

Part five provides some discussions on leadership at different levels of education. the three
lectures bring discussions on leadership issues at school level, higher education level and
ministry level, respectively.
Lecture 13: LEADERSHIP AT SCHOOL LEVEL

13.1 Introduction
What is the actual situation in schools with regard to the functioning of leadership structures?
Lecture 13 will lead you to this discussion.

By the end of the lecture, you should be able to:
 Identify and analyse different organs related to school leadership
 Assess the effectiveness of such organs

13.3 School leadership structures and practices
School governing structures are meant for existence and functioning of such structures as school
committees, boards, and parent-teacher associations. One study (Ng’umbi and Makoye, 2014)
showed that all schools had school boards although the functioning of the boards was not well
recorded. It was difficult to find minutes of the various meetings that were convened. It has been
revealed that SBs in the various schools meet regularly. The role of SB in budgeting has been
observed to be minimal in most schools. It is reported that the most common role SBs were
involved was discussing students’ indiscipline. In all the visited schools there were no parent-
teacher associations. It was not common for parents to meet school teachers on regular basis in
order to discuss school issues.
School boards are meant to be official governance point at the school level according to the
Education Act (United Republic of Tanzania, 1978). There are several issues regarding school
boards: one is the way they are formed: most of the boards are appointed by heads of school “on
the basis of friendship” and that such appointed boards cannot go against the school heads.
Unfortunately, even the approving bodies i.e., the Regional Education Office does not take
trouble to seek more information on the proposed members of school boards.
The second issue regarding school boards is that the newly appointed members are not provided
with necessary training and sometimes not even invited to meetings. The third point is even more
complicated, and it refers to local politics around leadership of schools. It has been observed that
schools are increasingly becoming a measure of community development which any political and
community leader would highly wish to associate with. Political leaders particularly councillors,
would tend to “reward or punish” schools according to political support they receive from the
school community. One case was reported where the chairperson of the school board had
contested for the post of councillor, and lost. The current councillor is now doing anything
possible to sabotage the school so that his rival does not get credit for being chairperson of the
school board (Ng’umbi and Makoye, 2014)!
The issue of school administration is central in schools. It has been established that most heads
of community schools, for example, are new and inexperienced. This has been so because
community schools have increased too rapidly in the past few years. It is encouraging however to
note that more young graduates are coming up as school heads. This trend can be an opportunity
for the young heads to get training in school leadership and management issues including school
budgeting and financial management.
Another crucial structure is supervision. Schools are supposed to be monitored by various
structures. Exploring how district, regional and national leaders are involved in supervising
school activities several issues arise. Results show that there have been many school visits by
political leaders particularly in relation to classroom construction. Less interest so far has been
shown on the supervising the actual teaching and learning process in schools. Only 43 per cent of
sampled schools were actually visited by school inspectors for the whole period from 2007-2010,
for at least once during the whole period of four years.
Note: most of the boards are appointed by heads of school “on the basis of friendship”
13.6 Exercise
Less interest so far has been shown on the supervising the actual teaching and learning process in
Suggest a strategy that will ensure better supervision of teaching and learning.

Ng’umbi, M.W. and Makoye, B.M(2014) Where is Community in the Community Schools M
Findings from a Public Expenditures Tracking Survey in Singida, Tanzania. Journal of Issues a
Practice in Education. 6(1). p.125-140
United Republic of Tanzania (1978). The National Education Act, 1978. Dar es Salaam: Gover
Printer
Lecture 14: LEADERSHIP OF HIGHER EDUCATION

14.1 Introduction
This is a lecture that directs you into focussing your analysis in leadership of higher education.
High education includes all institutions for post-secondary education, such as polytechnics and
universities.

By the end of the lecture, you should be able to:
 Analyse different leadership styles used to lead HEIs
 Relate the suggested styles to the leadership of HEIs in your country.

14.3 Transformational leadership
If at all a university leadership needs to be effective it has to refrain from acting as an
authoritarian. It is wise to utilize more transformational styles that include collaboration and
mentorship. Naturally, educational institutions have workers who can best be described as
colleagues. Bleedorn (2003) explains that transforming leadership creates a dynamic connection
to the ideas of other enlightened, systematic thinkers and observers. This model offers students
and staff the opportunity to show their cognitive abilities, problem-solving skills and knowledge.
College administrators act as transformational leaders by integrating (1) a shared vision of
change; (2) empowering voices in a collaborative community and (3) reflection on vision value.

14.4 Vision
In lecture one; we discussed much about leadership and vision. Davis (2006) tells us the ability
to “articulate an educational vision” is key to fostering continuous improvement. Furthermore,
that “educational leaders must be the stewards in a vision of success for all to achieve. It is
evident that working in a student atmosphere with today’s educational needs, university
instructors and administrators need to be transparent in expectations and vision building in order
to support change.

14.5 Interpersonal Communication

Effective leaders invest in communication. In a leadership position, often how we interact with
colleagues and team members predicts the end result or outcome of our vision. Crum & Sherman
(2008) explain an attribute to being successful in communication means “external awareness and
engagement” within our professional relationships. Myatt (2012) also discusses that “leadership
is about acclimation, improvising and adapting” to various personalities and characters;
including individuals who may not always bring forth ideal attitudes towards a collective vision.

14.6 Creative Thinking
When working towards a collaborative goal, leaders should inspire creativity to ensure a
successful vision. To keep collegiate colleagues engaged, Sousa (2003) points out that the real
leaders need to think outside the box by developing their own creative skills and cultivating
creativity in others in order to find innovative ways to bring about change. Myatt (2012)
observes that the difference between real leaders, and leaders by title only, is what they do when
it comes to creativity in addressing issues.

14.7 Technology
The information age has brought in information management systems that are useful to the
leadership of both academic and administrative matters. Bleedorn (2003) explains that
“technology pushes humankind to new dimensions” which creates a great opportunity for leaders
in higher education (p. 83). Not only does technology help provide a pathway towards an
innovative goal, it speaks to multiple intelligences and individual ways of learning. Bleedorn
(2003) concludes that the information age provides a new way to stimulate “the mind to make
new connections” which aids in vision development (p. 87).

14.8 Instructional leadership (as opposed to business leadership)
Leadership is needed that has a clear mind of the purpose of higher education. HEIs are
increasing in number and the completion among them is soaring. This has led to compromising
quality of education, with some HEIs trying to unfairly produce good GPAs. Graduates are
increasingly becoming ineffective in the labour market. We need a leadership that will craft
curricular that will produce job creators not job seekers. Gone are the days when jobs were
abundant; and hence, it is pointless to produce job seekers.

14.9 Linking research to industry
Traditional practices of conducting research and shelving their reports in libraries has not been
helpful in transforming the communities. A new trend is required whereby research is directly
linked to solving existing social problems. Scientific discoveries need to be transformed into
products.

NOTE
A new trend is required whereby research is directly linked to solving existing social problems.
14.6 Exercise
1. Suggest convincingly mechanisms of linking research to solving existing social problems.
2. HEIs are increasingly becoming producers of job seekers instead of producing job creators.
would you address the problem?
3. HEIs are struggling with funding. How would you lead such an institution?
Bleedorn, B. D. B. (2003). An education track for creativity and other quality thinking processe
MD: Scarecrow Press.
Crum, K. S., & Sherman, W. H. (2008). Facilitating High Achievement: High School Principals
Reflections on Their Successful Leadership Practices. Journal Of Educational Administration, 4
580.
Davis (2006) Davis, E. E. (2006). Qualities for effective leadership: School leaders speak. Lanh
Rowman & Littlefield Education.
Myatt, M. (2012, Jan 3) Five ways to free yourself from a leadership rut. Forbes. Retrieved from
http://www.forbes.com/sites/mikemyatt/2012/01/03/5-ways-to-free-yourself-from-a-leadership-
Sousa, D. A. (2003). The leadership brain: How to lead today's schools more effectively. Thous
CA: Corwin Press
Lecture 15: EDUCATION LEADERSHIP AT MINISTRY LEVEL

15.1 Introduction
Ministry responsible for education has the main role of overseeing education policy making and
implementation. In some countries there are more than one ministry responsible for education in
which case analysis ought to be made to understand the specific roles of each. Lecture 15 is
dedicated to discussing issues related to leadership of education and ministry level.
By the end of this lecture you should be able to:
 Analyse the major role of the ministry of education policy development
 Analyse effectiveness of your country’s ministry in performing the role
 Explain other roles performed by the ministry
15.3 The role of the Ministry
Policy development
The roles of a ministry responsible for education are usually clearly stipulated in the laws related
to education. Analysis of the education Act will show such responsibilities. However the main
roles are related to policy development on pre-primary, primary, secondary technical and adult
education and higher education. Education policy development may be presented in three main
areas namely: power and decision making; policy-making; and planning.
Power and decision makingis assumed to reflect and represent the authoritative mandates
through which the education policies are structured. In this respect, power and decision making
is housed in the Ministry. The complexity is that we may have a situation whereby more than one
ministry is responsible for education. Note that policy development begins with decision making
and pronouncements made by the responsible authority.
The policy makingrepresents an active part of the policy development. This part is largely
targeting the policy formulation which has policy documents as final output. The policy making
itself is considered to accommodate three main stages. The first stage is involving a consultation
course of action which includes terms of references, workshops, conferences and sector studies.
Second stage involves a preparation of document and policy recommendations. The third stage
involves an articulation of policies in the form of final documents, directives and/or legal
provisions. Planning includes the final and administrative element on resource allocation for
policy implementation purposes.

15.4 Monitor implementation of the education policy
There are many policies, both written and pronouncements on education that need to be
implemented. Number of schools per village or community, number of vocational training
colleges per district, teacher-pupil ratio, pupil-book ratio and pronouncements like ‘every
secondary school has to have well furnished science laboratories’ and ‘every primary school has
to have a pre-primary class’ are good examples of policies.

15.5 Overall overseer of international conversations on education
Because of global initiatives on education, ministries responsible for education in each country
are responsible for ensuring implementation of global initiatives such as Education for All
(EFA), Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and most recently Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) that are related to education.

Note: Policy making includes terms of references, workshops, conferences and sector studies.
research cannot be overemphasised. other considerations include globalisation and changes in t
13.6 Exercise
1. Assess the implementation of the EFA goals in your country by the end of 2015. In your an
is the role of the ministry in achieving or not achieving the goals?
2. Policy making and policy implementation are two different things. Use the example of you
education policy to discuss the congruence of the two.
Haddad, W.D., (1995) Education policy-planning process: an applied Framework. Paris: UNE
International Institute for Educational Planning
Kitamura, Y. (2009) Education Indicators to Examine the Policy-Making Process in the Educa
of Developing Countries. Discussion Paper No.170
Part 6: TRAINING, SUCCESSION AND EVALUATION OF EDUCATIONAL

LEADERS
Part six is the last one. It has three lectures which are related to training and development of
educational leaders, educational leadership succession, and evaluation of educational leaders.
Lecture 16: TRAINING OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERS

16.1 Introduction
It has been observed that leaders are not born as it was previously thought. They can be trained
and developed; and I guess this belief is what made you enrol in this course. Otherwise, it would
indeed be useless to attend some leadership training programmes if we already had some guys
somewhere born with leadership traits.
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to
 Explain the concept of training and development in relation to leadership skills
 Explain the stages in leadership development
 Analyse different strategies to leadership development
16.1 Training and Development
Educational leadership development can be pre-service, induction, or in-service. Day (2001)
defines leadership development as “expanding the collective capacity of organisational members
to engage effectively in leadership roles and processes” (p.582). Furthermore, Day et al (2008)
state that management development; which in some other readings is referred to as management
or leadership training; tends to focus on enhancing specific task performance in management
roles; whereas leadership development involves building the capacity of individuals to help staff
learn new ways of doing things that could not have been predicted.
16.2 Stages in leadership training and development
 “Emergent leadership- this is when a teacher is beginning to take on management and
leadership responsibilities and perhaps aspires to become a head teacher.
 Established Leadership- Comprising assistant and deputy heads who are experienced
leaders but who do not intend to pursue headship.
 Entry to headship- including a teacher’s preparation for and induction into the senior post
in school.
 Advanced leadership- the stage at which school leaders mature in their role, look to
widen their experience, refresh themselves and updates their skills.
 Consultant leadership- when an able and experienced leader is ready to put something
back into the profession by taking on training, mentoring, inspection or other
responsibilities” (Weindling, 2003.p11)

16.3 Approaches to leadership development
16.3.1 Systematic leadership development programmes
There are examples of such programmes such as courses offered by ADEM in Tanzania. The
National College of School Leadership in UK enhances school leadership development using the
programmes already in place, for example, the National Professional Qualification for Headship
(NPQH), the former Head Teacher Induction Programme (HIP), the Leadership Programme for
Serving Heads (LPSH) and the programme leading from the Middle (LftM). Together they offer
coherent opportunities for the three main phases of leadership development for head teachers in
England. Studies show that since its inception, the NCSL has been acting as the main source of
support for middle and deputy leaders, new head teachers and those who are aspiring to become
the heads of today and tomorrow.
16.3.2 Mentoring and coaching
A number of studies on school leadership development worldwide state that mentoring and
coaching techniques can be used as the quickest and most effective ways for providing newly
appointed school leaders with support to lead schools. The term mentoring is a broad concept: it
means different things to different people. Drawing from outside the education standpoint for a
broader interpretation, Davis (1996, p.15) is of the opinion that “mentoring can be seen as the
most effective leadership approach”. There is a need for a mutual learning agreement between a
manager and an employee that follows a predictable process and leads to superior performance,
commitment to sustained improvement, and positive relationships. Such a mutual agreement can
be achieved through rules which direct the leader to guide and teach specific skills to the
employee within a determined time period. The leader is then able to apply the skills to his or her
working life to gain competence.
Thus, Hobson (2003, p.1) states that “the mentoring process is used to refer to a process whereby
a more experienced individual, willing to share his/her knowledge with someone less
experienced in a relationship of mutual trust”. Further still, whilst different approaches are used
in mentoring, the process itself has been highly successful in promoting the development of
practising and aspiring leaders. He states that “all major studies of formal mentoring programmes
for new head teachers have concluded that mentoring work was effective” (p.2).
It has been argued by Gunter (2003, p.86) that there need to be a check and balance to examine
the professional relationship between the ‘novice’ and ‘experienced’ head teachers to ensure that
the mentoring process is taking place. There is a danger that if the wrong people are matched or
one becomes too dependent on the other then the whole process can fail and, according to Gunter
(2003), the latter may happen. In an education system like the Tanzanian, studies appear to
indicate that there is a realistic danger that newly appointed head teachers might rely too much
on their mentors. Furthermore, it is also unclear for how long the experienced head teachers will
be available to help newly appointed heads.
In England, studies show that the above methods of school leadership development have been
employed formally for sometime but its use in leadership development is a more recently
discovery (Day, 2001). However, the model has also sustained critique. In particular, Day (2001)
expressed that the mentoring method is the process that seemed to benefit few and usually those
groomed for the top jobs (human capital approach rather than as building capacity of the whole
organisation or school). He argues that it is important to understand how this concept works in
current leadership development as a way forward to providing effective leadership models to
mentors and mentees.
16.3.3 Developing head teachers in schools through a distributed perspective
Harris (2005) describes distributed leadership as “collective leadership responsibility rather than
top down authority constructed through shared action and interaction” (P, 1). Distributed
leadership in school is mainly concerned with rallying leadership at all levels in the school or an
organisation, not just relying on leadership from the head teacher (Spillane, 2001). It is a model
of leadership which engages the many rather than the few in leadership activity within the school
and actively distributing leadership practice; it is one premised upon the interactions between
many leaders rather than the actions of an individual leader (Harris, 2005). The emphasis here is
about leadership practice and not leadership functions (Spillane, 2001). Other authors argue that
if leadership is principally about influence and direction then it makes it easier to lead when
leadership is distributed (Hargreavesand Fink, 2006). On one hand, Spillane (2001) states that in
any organisation leadership practice is fluid and emergent rather than fixed, and therefore argues
that a distributed leadership model in a school is a form of leadership that takes many on board
and is not a delegation; it is promoted rather mandatory imposed; it is an inclusive concept
within which leaders share messages between themselves, students and across schools.
16.4 Exercise
1. Use simple examples from a school to explain the concept of collective leadership responsi
how it relates to leadership development
2. Visit the institutions that train education leaders or their websites and analyse the curriculum
Remember to share your findings.
Harris, A. (2005) Crossing boundaries and breaking barriers: Distributing leadership in schoo
London: Specialist Schools Trust
Hobson, A (2003) Mentoring and Coaching for New Leaders, Nottingham, NCSL, available at
www.ncsl.org.uk/researchpublications
Davies, B,1996, Re-engineering school leadership, International Journal of Educational Mana
10 (2) 11-16
Day D V, 2001, Leadership development: a review in context, Leadership Quarterly, 11 (4) 58
Mulford, B. (2003) School Leaders: Changing Roles and Impact on Teacher and School Effe
A paper commissioned by the Education and Training Policy Division, OECD, for the Ac
Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers. http://www.oecd.org/edu/school/263
Lecture 18: EVALUATION OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERS
18.1 Introduction
How should educational leaders be evaluated? This is a very important topic that concludes this
course. We naturally would wish to see that our school leaders perform; but which yardstick are
we going to use in order to tell whether they are indeed performing?
By the end of the lecture you should be able to:
 develop an evaluation rubric for education leaders
 effectively conduct evaluation of educational leaders
18.3 Developing an evaluation rubric
How should educational leaders be evaluated? I recommend you take time to carefully read
Evaluating principals: Balancing accountability with professional growth issued by New
Leaders for New Schools.
It has been well argued that the starting point in evaluating leaders is to have in place an
evaluation rubric. The content of the rubric is, of course, the competencies of educational leaders
(Refer Lecture Two); that will form the evaluation standards (The Vermont Task Force on
Teacher & Leader Effectiveness, 2012).
Let us remind ourselves of the competencies. This time let us use a different model, as proposed
by New Leaders for New Schools (2010).
1. Vision for Results and Equity: The actions that principals take to articulate a vision, set
high goals, and create an environment where all students thrive
2. Planning and Operations: The actions that principals take to diagnose the school’s
situation, develop and implement action plans, manage time and allocate resources in
support of school goals
3. Culture: The actions that principals take to build a culture of high expectations, align
adult behavior and systems with that culture, and engage families
4. Learning and Teaching: The actions that principals take to promote rigorous
curriculum, high quality instructional practice, and the use of achievement data to drive
improvement and interventions
5. Staff Development and Management: The actions that principals take to manage
human capital, support the professional growth of staff, evaluate staff, and develop a
leadership team
6. Personal Leadership and Growth: The actions that principals take to support
organizational learning, maintain resolve and focus, find solutions in response to
challenges, and communicate effectively (p.6)
18.4 Scoring plan
New Leaders for New Schools (2010) makes a very strong recommendation on how to score in
the evaluation of educational leaders, ‘Make student outcomes and teacher effectiveness
outcomes 70% of a principal’s evaluation, and base the remaining 30% on the leadership actions
shown to drive better results’ (p.6). It is recommended that the 70% should for student outcomes
and teacher effectiveness; and be further divided as Student Outcomes (50% ) Teacher
effectiveness (20% ). it is also recommended that Principals should be evaluated by their success
in increasing teacher effectiveness in two ways: Growth in the percentage of teachers under a
principal’s supervision who make “effective” gains in student achievement outcomes; and
Improvement in retention of teachers
Note:
Seventy (70%) should be for student outcomes and teacher effectiveness
18.5 Exercise
Use one of the standards presented in Lecture Two to evaluate at least two school leaders.

New Leaders for New Schools(2010) Evaluating principals: Balancing accountability with
professional growth issued. New York, NY: New Leaders for New Schools
The Vermont Task Force on Teacher & Leader Effectiveness (2012) Vermont Guidelines
for Teacher & Leader Effectiveness http://education.vermont.gov/documents/EDU-
Guidelines_for_Teacher_and_Leader_Effectiveness.pdf

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Course Manual OED 634

Part 1: UNDERSTANDING LEADERSHIP

Lecture 1: THE CONCEPT OF LEADERSHIP

Lecture 2: LECTURE TWO: COMPETENCY STANDARDS FOR EDUCATIONAL

2.5 Further reading

Lecture 3: LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT

3.8 Further readings

PART 2: LEADERSHIP THEORIES

Lecture 4: TRAIT AND BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES

4.6 Further readings

Lecture 5: SITUATIONAL AND CONTINGENCY THEORIES

5.5 Contingency Theory

5.8 Further readings

Part 3: LEADERSHIP ETHICS

Lecture 7: THE PERFECT STORM OF UNETHICAL LEADERSHIP

7.5 The Making of the Storm: Three dimensions

Lecture 8: CORRUPTION IN THE EDUCATION SECTOR

8.5 Forms of corruption

8.7 Further readings

Lecture 9: GENDER AND LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION

Part 4: LEADERSHIP IN THE EDUCATION SECTOR

Part 4: LEADERSHIP IN THE EDUCATION SECTOR

10.6 Further readings

Lecture 11: SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMMES

10.6 Further readings

Lecture 12: RECRUITMENT OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERS

12.5 Further readings

Part 5: LEADERSHIP AT DIFFERENT EDUCATIONAL LEVELS

Lecture 13: LEADERSHIP AT SCHOOL LEVEL

13.2 Learning Objectives

13.7 Further readings

Lecture 14: LEADERSHIP OF HIGHER EDUCATION

14.5 Interpersonal Communication

Lecture 15: EDUCATION LEADERSHIP AT MINISTRY LEVEL

Part 6: TRAINING, SUCCESSION AND EVALUATION OF EDUCATIONAL

Lecture 16: TRAINING OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERS

18.6 Further readings

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