Module-1

Introduction to Automata
Theory

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 Models of Computation

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 Computation

CPU memory

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 temporary memory

input memory
CPU
output memory

Program memory

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 Example: f ( x)  x 3

temporary memory

input memory
CPU
output memory
Program memory
compute xx

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compute x x
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 f ( x)  x 3

temporary memory
input memory
x2
CPU
output memory
Program memory
compute xx

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compute x x
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 temporary memory f ( x)  x 3
z  2*2  4
f ( x)  z * 2  8
input memory
x2
CPU
output memory
Program memory
compute xx

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compute x x
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 temporary memory f ( x)  x 3
z  2*2  4
f ( x)  z * 2  8
input memory
x2
CPU
f ( x)  8
Program memory output memory
compute xx

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compute x x
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 Automata theory is the study of
abstract machines and automata.
The computational problems can be
solved using them.
It is a theory in theoretical computer
science and discrete mathematics

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 Automaton
temporary memory

Automaton
input memory
CPU
output memory

Program memory

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 Different Kinds of Automata
Automata are distinguished by the temporary memory

• Finite Automata: no temporary memory

• Pushdown Automata: stack

• Turing Machines: random access memory

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 Finite Automaton

temporary memory

Finite input memory

Automaton
output memory

Example: Vending Machines (small computing power)

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 Pushdown Automaton
Stack Push, Pop

Pushdown input memory

Automaton output memory

Example: Compilers for Programming Languages

(medium computing power)

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 Turing Machine

Random Access Memory

input memory
Turing
Machine output memory

Examples: Any Algorithm (highest computing power)

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 Power of Automata

Finite Pushdown Turing

Automata Automata Machine
Less power Solve more More power
computational problems

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Applications of finite automata

 For the designing of lexical analysis of a compiler which breaks the

input text into logical units like identifiers, keywords etc.
 For recognizing the pattern using regular expressions.
 For the designing of the combination and sequential circuits.
 Software for designing and checking the behavior of digital circuits.
 Used in text editors.
 For the implementation of spell checkers.
 Software for scanning large bodies of text like web pages to find
occurrence of words, phrases and other patterns.
 Software to verify all types that have finite number of distinct
states such as communications protocols for secure exchange of
information.

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Applications of Push Down Automata
 For designing the parsing phase of a compiler (Syntax
Analysis).
 For implementation of stack applications.
 For evaluating the arithmetic expressions.
 For solving the Tower of Hanoi Problem.

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 Applications of Turing machine

 For solving any recursively enumerable problem.

 For understanding complexity theory.
 For implementation of neural networks.
 For implementation of Robotics Applications.
 For implementation of artificial intelligence.

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General Concepts of Automata Theory
• Alphabet
• Strings
• Empty Strings
• Length of the string
• Power of an Alphabet
• Concatenation of two strings
• Languages

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Alphabets and Strings
• We will use small alphabets:   a, b
• Strings
a
ab u  ab
abba
v  bbbaaa
baba
aaabbbaabab w  abba

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 String Operations

w  a1a2 an abba

v  b1b2 bm bbbaaa

1. Concatenation

wv  a1a2 anb1b2 bm abbabbbaaa

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2.Reverse
w  a1a2 an ababaaabbb
w R  an a2 a1 bbbaaababa
3. String Length
w  a1a2 an Examples:
abba  4
Length: w n aa  2
a 1

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4. Length of Concatenation
uv  u  v
• Example:
u  aab, u 3
v  abaab, v 5

uv  aababaab  8
uv  u  v  3  5  8

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5. Empty String
• A string with no letters:  or ϵ

• Observations:
  0

w  w  w

abba  abba  abba

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 6. Substring
• Substring of string:
• a subsequence of consecutive characters
String Substring
abbab ab
abbab abba
abbab b
abbab bbab

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7. Prefix and Suffix
abbab


Prefixes Suffixes
abbab w  uv
a bbab
ab bab prefix
abb ab suffix
abba b
abbab 

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8. Another Operation
n
w  ww


w
n

• Example: abba   abbaabba

2

• Definition: w0  

abba 0  

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9. The * Operation

 * the set of all possible strings from  alphabet

  a, b
*   , a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa, aab,

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10. The + Operation
 : the set of all possible strings from

alphabet  except 
  a, b
*   , a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa, aab,

   * 

  a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa, aab,

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Languages
• A language is a set of strings

• String: A sequence of letters

• Examples: “cat”, “dog”, “house”, …

• Defined over an alphabet:

  a, b, c,, z

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• A language is any subset of  *

• Example:
  a, b
*   , a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa,
• Languages:
 
a, aa, aab
{ , abba, baba, aa, ab, aaaaaa}

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 Note that

Sets   { }  {}
Set size {}    0
Set size {}  1
String length  0

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Another Example
An infinite language
L  {a b : n  0}
n n


ab
L abb L
aabb
aaaaabbbbb

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Operations on Languages
1. The usual set operations
a, ab, aaaa  bb, ab  {a, ab, bb, aaaa}
a, ab, aaaa  bb, ab  {ab}
a, ab, aaaa  bb, ab  a, aaaa
Complement: L   * L
a, ba   , b, aa, ab, bb, aaa,

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• L1= { ab,abb}
• L2= { abb,ba}
• Find L1U L2 = { ab,abb,ba}
• L1 –L2 = { ab}
• L1 ⋅ 𝐿2= { abb}

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 2. Reverse
Definition:
L  {w : w  L}
R R

Examples:
ab, aab, baba  ba, baa, abab
R

L  {a b : n  0}
n n

LR
 {b a : n  0}
n n

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• L = { baa, ab,bb,aba }
• Find 𝐿𝑅

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3.Concatenation

• Definition: L1L2  xy : x  L1, y  L2 

• Example: a, ab, bab, aa

 ab, aaa, abb, abaa, bab, baaa

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 4. Another Operation
• Definition: Ln   
LLL
n

a, b  a, ba, ba, b 

3

aaa, aab, aba, abb, baa, bab, bba, bbb

L0  
• Special case:
a , bba , aaa 0  

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More Examples

L  {a b : n  0}
n n

L  {a b a b : n, m  0}
2 n n m m

2
aabbaaabbb L

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5. Star-Closure (Kleene *)
Definition:
L*  L  L  L 
0 1 2

 , 
• Example:
a, bb, 
 
a, bb*   
 aa , abb, bba, bbbb, 
aaa, aabb, abba, abbbb,

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6. Positive Closure


Definition:
L  L  L 
1 2

 L * 
a, bb, 
  
a, bb  aa, abb, bba, bbbb, 
aaa, aabb, abba, abbbb,
 
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Language Recognizers : An example of Finite
Automata

An automaton is an abstract model of a

digital computer.

Finite Automata(FA) is the simplest machine

to recognize patterns.

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Finite Automaton

Input
String
Output
“Accept”
Finite
or
Automaton
“Reject”

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 Representation of Finite Automata

Finite Automata is represented by –

1. Transition Graph
2. Transition Table
3. Regular Expression

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Transition Graph
a, b

q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4

initial accepting
state state state
transition

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Initial Configuration
Input String
a b b a

a, b

q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4

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Reading the Input

a b b a

a, b

q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4

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 a b b a

a, b

q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4

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 a b b a

a, b

q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4

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 a b b a

a, b

q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4

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 Input finished

a b b a

a, b

q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
accept
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Rejection

a b a

a, b

q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4

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 a b a

a, b

q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4

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 a b a

a, b

q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4

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 a b a

a, b

q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4

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 Input finished

a b a

a, b

reject
q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4

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Another Rejection

a, b

q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4

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 

a, b

q5
a a, b
b a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4

reject
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Another Example

a a b

a a, b

q0 b q1 a, b q2

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 a a b

a a, b

q0 b q1 a, b q2

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 a a b

a a, b

q0 b q1 a, b q2

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 a a b

a a, b

q0 b q1 a, b q2

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 Input finished

a a b

a a, b
accept

q0 b q1 a, b q2

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Rejection Example

b a b

a a, b

q0 b q1 a, b q2

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b a b

a a, b

q0 b q1 a, b q2

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b a b

a a, b

q0 b q1 a, b q2

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b a b

a a, b

q0 b q1 a, b q2

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 Input finished

b a b

a a, b

q0 b q1 a, b q2

reject
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Languages Accepted by FAs
Definition:

The language LM  contains

all input strings accepted by M

LM  = { strings that bring M

to an accepting state}

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Example
LM   abba M

a, b

q5
b a a, b
a b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
accept
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Example

LM    , ab, abba M

a, b

q5
b a a a, b
b
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3 a q4
accept accept accept
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Example

LM   {a b : n  0}
n

a a, b

q0 b q1 a, b q2

accept trap state/

dead state
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