Models, Theories and Laws

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 System analysis in Human Geography
System: complex whole; A system is a group of interacting or interrelated entities that
form a unified whole.

System has been defined differently by different scientists.

In the words of James, a system may be defined as “a whole (a person, a state, a

culture, a business) which functions as whole because of the interdependence of its
parts”.

If we accept this definition, then it can fairly be said that geographers have been using
forms of system concepts since the dawn of the subject. However, till the outbreak of
the Second World War no technique had been developed to enable geographers to
analyze complex systems.

Geography deals with complex relationships of living and non-living organisms in an

ecosystem. System analysis provides a framework for describing the whole complex
and structure of the activity. It is, therefore, peculiarly suited to geographic analysis
since geography deals with complex multivariate situations.

The concept (system analysis) was borrowed from Botanical

Science (Von Bertalanffy). In geography, it was introduced by Chorley (in his book:
System analysis in Geography).

It was because of this advantage that Berry and Chorley suggested system analysis
and general system theory as the basic tools for geographic understanding. In the
opinion of Chorley (1962), there is great significance in system analysis in geographical
studies.

The main advantages of system analysis are:

1. there is need to study systems rather than isolated phenomena;

2. there is need to identify the basic principles governing systems;
3. there is value in arguing from analogies with subject matter; and
4. there is need for general principles to cover various systems.

General System Theory

The concept of general system theory was developed by biologists in the 1920s. It was
Ludwig von Bertalanffy who declared that unless we studied an individual organism as
a system of multifarious associated parts we would not really understand the laws
which govern the life of that organism. After some time he realised that this idea could
be applied to other non-biological systems, and that
these systems had many common characteristics over a range of sciences. It was
possible to develop a general system theory which gave the same analytical
framework and procedure to all sciences.

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A general system is a higher-order generalization of a multiplicity of systems which
individual sciences have recognised. This is a way of unifying the sciences. This led to
interdisciplinary approach in research. In other words, the general system theory is a
theory of general models.

According to Mesarevic’s definition, the general system theory is concerned not merely
with isomorphism and analogy in system analysis, but with setting up some general
theory for which characteristics of various systems can be deduced. It is thus
concerned with the deductive unification of system analytic concept.

The general system theory provides a framework for relating individual systems and
types of systems within a unified hierarchical structure. Such a structure is useful in
that it allows us to understand better the relationships that exist between various
types of systems; to state categorically the conditions under
which one system approximates another, and to identify types of systems that may be
useful to us even though we have not yet identified real system to match them.

The general system theory can be understood in the light of a new concept of
mathematics and physics. This concept is known as ‘cybernetics’ (from the Greek
kybernete—helsman). Cybernetics may be defined as the study of regulating and self-
regulating mechanisms in nature and technology. A regulatory system follows a
programme, a prescribed course of action which produces a predetermined operation.
In nature, there is a very large number of self-regulating mechanisms, such as the
automatic regulation of body temperature. These self-regulating mechanisms follow
certain common laws and these can be described mathematically in the same way.
Whilst regulation is very precise in nature, in human societies it is defective.

Cybernetics places emphasis on the interaction between components rather than

making sharp distinctions between cause and effect. Between two components,
causal mechanism may work both ways. An impulse which starts in one part of the
system will work its way back to its origin after being transformed through a range of
partial processes in other parts of the system. This cybernetic theory enables us to
understand the operation of the general system theory.

The abstract character of a system is emphasised when we realize that a system, if it is

to be analyzed, must be ‘closed’. An open system interacts and interconnects with the
surrounding systems, and therefore, becomes difficult to analyze. All real systems
(such as landscapes) are open systems. When we analyze a system we can only
consider a finite number of elements within the system and the reciprocal relations
between them.

The elements and connections which we are not able to consider in such an analysis
must be disregarded completely. We have to assume that they do not affect the
system. In the analysis of a region, we can of course take into account individual
influences and single elements which are not geographically located
within the predetermined area or region. The abstract system remains closed all the
same because we enclose these elements and relationships in our conceptual model.
The system is not synonymous with the model we have made for it, represented by the
elements and connections we have chosen to enclose or consider.

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In other words, we can only study a system after we have determined its boundaries.
This presents no mathematical problem since the boundaries draw themselves insofar
as some lying outside it, although it is not all that easy to choose those elements, in
practical geographical research. As an example, Harvey
describes a firm which functions within an economy on the basis of a particular set of
economic circumstances. When we analyze the internal relations and elements within
the firm as a closed system, we must regard these circumstances as unchangeable. To
extend the boundaries of the system so as to include the changing social and political
relationship in the society of which the firm is a part may well alter the result of the
analysis. So, even in this simple case, the drawing of boundaries creates problems.

By identifying the set of elements that we believe best describe the real system in
order to model a real situation. For example, in a large industrial company engaged in
several branches of activity, the head office and each of the branch offices form its
constituent elements.

Mathematically expressed, the system consists:

A= (a1, a2, a3… an)

To this expression should be added an element a0 which represents the environment
of the system within which the firm operates. We can then infer a new set of elements:

B = (a0, a1, a2…an)

This includes all the elements in the system plus an extra element which represents
the environment. We can then investigate the connections between these elements.
Analyzing the company we can see whether there are any connections between the
branches, and, if so, between which branches. We can observe whether the contacts
go both ways and what the contact model implies.

Thus, a system consists of:

(i) A set of elements identified with some variable attributes of objects.

(ii) A set of relationships between these attributes of objects and the environment.

Merits of Abstract Construal of a Systems:

The abstract construal of a system has a number of important advantages, which are
given below:

1. Any geographical region (landscape) has a number of phenomena. System

analysis attempts to reduce this complexity to a simpler form, in which it may be
more easily comprehended and which models can be constructed.
2. It allows, for example, the development of an abstract theory system that is not
tied down to any one particular system or set of systems.
3. This theory provides us with a good deal of information about the possible
structures, behaviors, states, and so on, that might conceivably occur.
4. It provides us with the necessary technical apparatus for dealing with
interactions within complex structures.

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 5. System theory is associated with an abstract mathematical language, which,
rather like geometry and probability theory, can be used to discuss empirically
problems.

Structure of a System:
A definition of ‘system’ has been given in the foregoing paras. Given the definition of a
system, it is possible to elaborate on its ‘structure’.

A system is composed essentially of three components:

• a set of elements;
• a set of links; and
• a set of links between the system and its environment.

The system may be open or closed, for examples:

• Open system: Earth, ocean, forest, atmosphere, etc

• Closed system: (It hardly exists) Culture of Andaman & Nicobar tribes

System change through time, for example:

• Earlier, the system was dominant by the environment and animals

• Nowadays, the system was dominant by human

Types of system
An open system is defined as a “system in exchange of matter with its environment,
presenting import and export, building-up and breaking-down of its material
components.” An open system allows the exchange of matter and energy.

Closed systems are held to be isolated from their environment. There is no exchange
of matter or energy

Morphological systems are the network of structural relationships or cross-

correlations between the constituent parts of systems.

Cascading systems explains path followed by throughputs of energy or mass.

Process-Response systems have a linkage of at least one morphological and one

cascading system. Understanding in simple terms we say that morphological structure
is related to the process that is energized by cascading systems.

Control systems are process-response systems where key components are controlled
by some intelligence where geographical units are concerned.

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Elements of a System:
Elements are the basic aspects of every system, structure, function, development.
From the mathematical point of view, an element is a primitive term that has no
definition, as the concept of point in geometry. Nevertheless, the structure of a system
is the sum of the elements and the connections between them. Function concerns the
flows (exchange relationships) which occupy the connections. The development
presents changes in both structure and function which may take place over time.

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The definition of an element depends on the scale at which we conceive of the system.
For example, the international monetary system may be conceptualized as containing
countries as elements; an economy may be thought of as being made up of firms and
organizations; organizations themselves may be thought of as system made up of
departments; a department may be viewed as a system made of individual people;
each person may be regarded as a biological system; and so on. Similarly, a car may be
an element in the traffic system, but may also be regarded as constituting a system. It
is clear from these examples that the definition of an element depends on the scale at
which we conceive of the system.

The upper diagram shows System A and System B interacting as units, with smaller
system interactions going on within each system. The lower diagram shows Systems A
and B interacting at lower levels.

After it has been decided which scale to use, another problem in system-building is
how to identify the elements. Identification is particularly difficult when we are dealing
with phenomena that have continuous distribution, e.g., when precipitation forms an
element in a system. Identification is easiest with elements that are clearly separated,
such as farms. But, from the point of view of mathematical systems theory, an element
is a variable.

It follows, therefore, that in seeking a translation of the mathematical element in

geographical context we must construe the element as an attribute of some defined
individual rather than as the individual itself.

Links or Relationships:

The second component of system links (relationships). The links in a system which
connect the different elements in it have been shown in Figure-

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These (types of relationships) are as follows:

1. Series relation.
2. Parallel relation.
3. Feedback relation.
4. Simple compound relation.
5. Complex compound relation

1. Simple Series relation – Where one element affects the other without getting
affected itself.
Eg. – Irrigation to high agricultural productivity.

2. Parallel relation – Where the elements are affected by each other like relationship
between Precipitation, vegetation, and climate.

3. Feedback relation – feedback is one in which elements get affected by their own
functions.

It can be (a) Positive feedback and (b) Negative feedback

Eg. – leguminous plants & Soil: (+ve feedback)

Eucalyptus: (-ve feedback)

4. Simple compound relationship – It has both series and parallel relationship.

• Eg. – Solar System

• Light energy has a series relationship with plants
• Gravitation in parallel

5. Complex compound relationship –

• Simple series relation + Parallel relation + feedback relation.

• Most common type – any biological system or geographical system is actually
found as complex compound system.
• Eg. – Human Body, Metro cities

Behaviour of a System
The behavior of a system means interrelationships of the elements, their reciprocal
effect on each other. The behavior has to do, therefore, with flows, stimuli, and
responses, inputs and outputs, and the like. We can examine both the internal
behavior of a system and its transactions with the environment. A study of the former
amounts to a study of functional laws that connect behavior in various parts of the
system. Consider a system that has one or more of its elements related to the aspect of
the environment. Suppose the environment undergoes a change. Then, at least one
element in the system is affected.

The effect of these affected elements is transmitted throughout the system until all
connected elements in the system are affected. This constitutes a simple stimulus-
response or input-output system without feedback to the environment:

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The behavior is described by the equations (deterministic or possibilistic) to connect
the input with the output.

Geographical System
A system where one or more of the functionally important variables are spatial may be
described as a geographical system. Geographers are primarily interested in studying
systems whose most important functional variables are spatial circumstances, such as
location, distance, extent, sprawl, density per areal unit, etc.

In the last few decades, the system approach has drawn the attention of geographers.
Chorley attempted to formulate thinking in geomorphology in terms of an open
system; Leopold and Langbein used entropy and steady-state in the study of fluvial
systems, and Berry attempted to provide a basis for the study of “cities as systems
within systems of cities” by the use of two concepts of organization and information in
spatial form.

In geography, static or adaptive systems can be easily constructed. It is difficult to

make a geographical system dynamic, for that we must combine time and space in
the same model. Space may be expressed in two dimensions by cartographical
abstraction. We may be able to present a satisfactory explanation for such a system
but it is very difficult to handle and analyze it.

Some of these problems can be solved by developing geographical models that may
be classified as ‘controlled systems’ (discussed above). Controlled systems are
particularly useful in planning situations when the objective is known and the input in
the economic geographic system has been defined. In most of the cases, we can
control some of the inputs, but others are either impossible or too expensive to
manipulate. For example, if we wish to maximize agricultural production, we may be in
a position to control the input of artificial fertilizers, but we cannot control the climate.

Partially controlled systems are therefore of great interest. Our increased knowledge of
environmental conditions leads us to appreciate the extent of the need for the
development of planning and control systems. Many of the scientists engaged in
research into possible future conditions fear that the positive
feedback mechanism in the form of technological development and control which
have led to an exponential increase in population, industrial production, etc., will, in the
long run, result in a dramatic crisis of pollution, hunger, and shortage of resources. One
of the causes of such a crisis would be the long-term suppression of natural negative
feedback mechanisms.

System analysis may provide a useful systematization of our models, theories of

structured ideas, but it is not necessary to refer to system analysis and its
mathematical implications when we are doing practical research. For instance, a world

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map of iron ore production and trade may be described in systematic
terms: the elements are the producing and consuming centers, the links or relations
are the trading lines, the amount of iron transported along different lines depicts the
function, and maps showing these situations at specific time intervals would describe
the development of the system. Moreover, the system
approach was technically much more demanding, and perhaps for that reason
attracted fewer active researchers.

Both system analysis and general system theory have been criticized on the ground
that they are intrinsically associated with positivism, i.e., these do not take into
consideration the normative values (aesthetic values, beliefs, attitudes, desires, hopes,
and fears), and thus do not give a real picture of a geographical personality.

The development of geographical research has been discussed in the foregoing paras.
It has passed through three different phases of development. The development of
science covers three broad stages: (i) descriptive, (ii) analytical, and (iii) predictive. The
description is the first step and the simplest; it is concerned with the description and
mapping of phenomena. Geography from antiquity to the middle of the 18th century
was in this phase. The analytical stage moves a step further by looking for an
explanation and seeking the laws which lie behind what has been observed.

The period of Alexander von Humboldt falls in this phase. It was during this period that
the analysis of the spatial distribution of phenomena started. The third stage in the
development of science is the predictive stage. By the time the predictive stage has
been reached the laws have been studied so thoroughly that we can use models to
predict occurrences. This stage was partly reached with the advent of geomorphology
and climatology in the closing decades of the 19th century.

But, the real upheaval in the field of human geography is a post-Second World War
phenomenon. Many locational theories have been formulated which are predictive in
nature, and thus we can say that geography has entered the third stage of its
development. Geographers are trying to develop models for
controlled systems which may be used to guide development in the future. It is clear
from the above discussion that geographers are now moving into the predictive stage.

Merits and Demerits of System Analysis

Merits –

• Theorization and Model building has been supported by system analysis, so it

provided a systematic analysis of the discipline.
• Geography became structured science.
• From descriptive geog. to objective
• For rational interpretation, description, and understanding the true nature,
system analysis was used.

Demerits –

• It made geog. as spatial science or space geometry where measurement of

space collection of data & surveys became important.
• Geog. learning became mechanistic and confined to certain objectives.

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 • System analysis was based on generalization & positivism which suggest that
reality is one that is cognizable. Thus unseen variables were discarded.
• Thus unseen variables were discarded.

In System analysis, Humanism and welfare approach was rejected because it is

impossible to quantify human emotions and his decisions making process.

Malthusian Theory of Population

The theorizing about population (population size and change) has remained an
important subject since time immemorial. Many of the ancient philosophers
like Confucius (China), Kautilya (India), Ibn Khaldun (Arab), Plato (Greece), and
modem thinkers like Adam Smith, David Richard, and others, either directly or
indirectly, have said somewhat significant on population issues.

For instance, Kautilya, a contemporary of Plato, had written in his Arthashastra

that ‘a large population is a source of the political, economic, and military strength
of a nation’. Similarly, the 14th-century Arab historian, Ibn Khaldun maintained in his
theory of ‘rise and fall’ that the growth of a dense population is generally favorable to
the maintenance and increase of imperial power.

To the Jews, the injunction to Adam and Eve by the Almighty to ‘be fruitful and
multiply, and replenish the earth’ has been a guiding principle for their attitude
towards marriage and procreation. The Chinese philosopher, Confucius argued that a
numerical balance be maintained between population and environment.

Thus, he was not in favor of the unchecked growth of the population. He was the first
who gave the concept of optimum population level. In ancient Greece, the earliest
thinkers favored the expansion of population, but Plato was a restrictionist who
advocated as the absolute limit of population.

One of the earliest demographers Edmond Halley (1656-1742) was the first scientist
to use death statistics in different age groups to determine a person’s likelihood of
death as he or she passed through each age group (Population Today, 1986). But, as a
science, it emerged only in the last 250 years. The systematic compilation of data was
first begun on a large scale in 19th century Europe.

Malthusian Theory of Population

Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834) was the key figure to analyze the population
statistics. His formulation on population was a landmark in the history of population
theories. He generalized the relationship between population factors and social
change.

In 1798, Malthus gave a theory on population. This theory is based on the observation
of the western European population and society. His theory supported the capitalist
system of economics and deterministic approaches to geography. In his theory, he
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explained the way in which nature controlled the population and neglected the role
of technology and medical advancement to control the population.

In his Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) Malthus argued that because of
the strong attraction of the two sexes, the population could increase by
multiples, doubling every twenty-five years. He contended that the population
would eventually grow so large that food production would be insufficient.

The human capacity for reproduction exceeded the rate at which subsistence from the
land can be increased. Malthus further wrote ‘Population when unchecked increases
in a geometrical ratio. Subsistence increases only in an arithmetical ratio.’

Malthus contended that the world’s population was growing more rapidly than the
available food supply. He argued that the food supply increases in an arithmetic
progression (1, 2, 3, 4, and so on), whereas the population expands by a geometric
progression (1, 2, 4, 8, and so on).

According to him, the population could increase by multiples, doubling every

twenty-five years. He said the gap between the food supply and population will
continue to grow over time.

Even though the food supply will increase, it would be insufficient to meet the needs
of the expanding population. Moreover, famine and other natural calamities cause
widespread suffering and increase the death rate, which is nature’s check against
the population.

In brief, Malthus theory states that:

1. The population is necessarily limited by the means of subsistence.

2. Population invariably increases where means of subsistence increased, unless
prevented by some very powerful and obvious checks.

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 3. These checks, and the checks which repress the superior power of the
population and keep its effects on a level with the means of subsistence, are all
resolvable into moral restraint, vice and misery.

Malthus based his above arguments on man’s two basic characteristics essential
to the maintenance of life:

• (i) The need for food, and

• (ii) the passion between sexes.

It was the second which led people to marry at a relatively early age and would result
in such a large number of births that the population would double itself in few years if
unchecked by misery and vice.

Malthus referred to two classes of checks which kept population down:

1. Positive means:

He spoke of famine (hunger), disease or war, pestilence and vicious customs about
women.

2. Negative means:

He explicitly demanded artificial means of birth control and suggested as an

alternative that the birth rate be decreased through preventive measures such as
late marriage (postponing marriage until later age), moral restraint, and chastity
(abstinence).

He contended that without such restraints the world would face widespread hunger,
poverty and misery.

The ‘positive’ and ‘preventive’ checks which occur in the human population to
prevent excessive growth relate to practices affecting mortality and fertility
respectively.

Malthus saw the tension between population and resources as a major cause of
the misery of much of humanity. He was not, however, in favor of contraceptive
methods, since their use did not generate the same drive to work hard as would a
postponement of marriage.

Malthus argued that positive and preventive checks are inversely related to each
other. In other words, where positive checks are very effective, the preventive
checks are relatively less effective and vice versa.

However, in all societies, some of these checks are in constant operation although in
the varying magnitude of effectiveness. Malthus believed that despite these checks,
the inability of increased food supply to keep abreast of population increase
always results in some kind of a situation of overpopulation.

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Criticism:
Malthus’s views have been widely challenged on many grounds. The main criti-
cisms about his theory are as under:

1. The validity of his two sets of ratios has been questioned by his critics. It is
argued that the population has rarely grown in geometrical proportion and means
of production have rarely multiplied in arithmetic progression.

Population growth is not always geometry series. Based on the historical data, the
population is not get doubled in 25 years.

2. Malthus overemphasized the ‘positive’ checks and did not visualize the role of
‘preventive’ checks like contraceptives and family planning. Neo-Malthusists
argued for the adoption of birth control within marriage. Human inventions in the
fields of birth control, health and nutrition, and agriculture have helped to a great
extent to strike a balance between human reproduction and food supply.

3. Malthus was also severely criticized for ignoring the role of changing technology
and the consequent transformation in the socio-economic set-up of society. He did
not fully appreciate the extent to which improved agricultural technology and crop
fertilization could sustain a large population.

Neo-Malthusians agree that there are absolute limits on food supply, energy and other
resources. Furthermore, they suggest that the problem is intensified by the
disproportionate consumption of such resources by so-called developed
(industrialized) actions. This formulation has been challenged by other researchers.

Yet none would deny that starvation is a very real fact even in 2012. According to the
International Food Policy Research Institute, out of 79 countries, 65 come under the
category of the alarming level of hunger. Burundi, Ethiopia, Chad, Eritrea, and Timor
have been categorized as the five hungriest countries in the world. Around the
world, we read many reports of starvation death, and malnutrition.

With such images in mind, a representative of the World Bank stated in 1981 that
the ‘ghost of Malthus is not buried yet’. Ironically gains in food supplies do not
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always lead to progress in the fight against starvation. It puts pressure on food
prices that make it more difficult for the poor to buy the food they need.

4. Both the positive checks of hunger and disease referred to by Malthus do not
operate today, except the terrible disaster sometimes caused by Tsunami, Katrina,
Rita, and floods or rains in desert areas like Banner and Jaisalmer in August 2006.

But the catastrophe of this nature in any part of the world is immediately rushed to the
affected place from surplus areas all over the world. A marked decline in the death rate
even in the developing countries is a significant factor in the context of the population
spurt.

5. One of the principal weaknesses of Malthus’ thought has been that he neglected
the manpower aspect in population growth. He was a pessimist and dreaded every
increase in population. He forgot, according to Cannan, that “a baby comes to the
world not only with a mouth and a stomach, but also with a pair of hands.”

This implies that an increase in population means an increase in manpower which

may tend to increase not only agricultural but also industrial production and thus
makes the country rich by an equitable distribution of wealth and income. As rightly
pointed out by Seligman “The problem of population is not merely one of mere size
but of efficient production and equitable distribution.” Thus the increase in population
may be necessary.

6. Moreover, natural calamities referred to above have occurred in under-

populated areas also and thus there was no causal relationship between positive
checks and overpopulation.

7. Malthus also failed to realize even the biological limitations that a population
cannot grow beyond certain limits.

8. Malthus a False Prophet: The Malthusian theory is not applicable to countries for
which this was propounded. In western European countries, the bogey and
pessimism of Malthus have been overcome. His prophecy that misery will stalk these
countries if they fail to check the growth of the population through preventive checks
has been proved wrong by a decline in birth rate, adequacy of food supply, and
increase in agricultural and industrial production. Thus Malthus has proved to be a
false prophet.

Applicability
Despite these weaknesses, the Malthusian doctrine contains much truth.
The Malthusian doctrine may not be applicable to Western Europe and England
but its principal tools have become the part and parcel of the people of these
countries. If these lands do not face the problems of over-population and misery, it is
all due to the bogey and pessimism of Malthusianism.

In fact, the people of Europe were made wiser by Malthus who forewarned them of the
evils of over-population and they started adopting measures toward it off. The very

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fact that people use preventive checks, like late marriage and various
contraceptives and birth control measures on an extensive scale proves the vitality
of the Malthusian law.

Even famous economists like Marshall and Pigou and sociologists like Darwin were
influenced by this principle when they incorporated it in their theories. And Keynes,
initially overawed by the Malthusian fears of over-population, later wrote about “Some
Economic Consequences of Declining Population.” Is it not the fear of Malthusianism
which has created the problem of a declining population in France?

The Malthusian doctrine may not be applicable now to its place of origin, but its
influence spreads over two-third of this universe. Excluding Japan, the whole of Asia,
Africa, and South America come under its purview. India is one of the first countries to
adopt family planning on the state level to control the population. Positive checks like
floods, wars, droughts, diseases, etc. operate. The birth and death rates are high. The
growth rate of the population is about 2 percent per annum.

The real aim of population policy is, however, not to avoid starvation but to eliminate
poverty so as to raise output per head in an accelerated manner. Thus the Malthusian
theory is fully applicable to underdeveloped countries like India. Walker was right
when he wrote: “The Malthusian theory is applicable to all communities without
any consideration of color and place. Malthusianism has stood un-shattered,
impregnable amid all the controversy that has raged around it.”

Summary
Malthusian Theory

• The population growth rate is higher than the growth of the resources.
• Population grow in geometric series: 1,2,4,8,16
• Resources or food grow in arithmetic series: 1,2,3,4,5,6
• In 25 years the population would be two times.
• If population growth is not prevented by man-made checks than positive checks
may be arises.
• There will be a food crisis at some point in time.

Positive Checks on the population growth:

• The positive checks include famines, earthquakes, Tsunami, floods, drought,

epidemics, Wars, etc. Nature plays up when the population growth goes out of
hand.

Preventive Checks on the population growth:

• The preventive measures such as late marriage, self-control, simple living, etc.
help to balance the population growth and food supply.

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 Marxian theory of Population Growth
The debate about the Malthusian theory has continued down to the present.
Economists such as J.S. Mill and J.M. Keynes supported his theory whereas others,
especially, sociologists, have argued against it. According to them, the widespread
poverty and misery of the working-class people were, not due to an eternal law of
nature as propounded by Malthus but to the misconceived organization of society.

Karl Marx went one step further and argued that starvation was caused by the
unequal distribution of wealth and its accumulation by capitalists. It has nothing to
do with the population. The population is dependent on economic and social
organization. The problems of overpopulation and limits to resources, as
enunciated by Malthus, are inherent and inevitable features associated with the
capitalist system of production.

Marx’s contention that food production could not increase rapidly was also
debated when new technology began to give farmers much greater fields. French
sociologist E. Dupreel (1977) argued that an increasing population would spur rapid
innovation and development to solve problems, whereas a stable population would be
complacent and less likely to progress.

The Marxian approach is also referred as Historical Determinism. His theory of

population growth is implicit and is implied in his general theory of communism.

Marxian theory of Population Growth

Karl Marx (1818 – 1883) was a German philosopher and founder of modern
communism. His theory of population was christened as the theory of surplus
population. Karl Marx completely rejected the Malthusian Theory.

While postulating his general theory of communism and scientific interpretation of

history in his book – the Communist Manifesto, and Das Kapital. He gave some ideas
about population growth.

Karl Marx (1818-1883) is regarded as the Father of Communism. He did not separately
propose any theory of population, but his surplus population theory has been
deduced from his theory of communism. Marx opposed and criticized
the Malthusian theory of population.

Karl Marx criticized the capitalist economy had a very different idea about
population growth. For Marx, these social problems were not the fault of the poor
workers, but of the capitalist system that exploited them.

Marx made the scientific interpretation of human history. He said just like there are the
scientific explanation for the physical phenomenon, the same are there for social
phenomenon. He said the essence of history is change in the modes of production in
any society and this changes is always progressive.

Marx considered that society, especially feudal and capitalist society has two major
economic classes viz.
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 1. The Rich
2. The Poor

Rich were those who have means of production and earn their profit by exploiting
the poor. On the other hand, the poor were those who sell their energy & will to
work to these rich people in exchange of wages.

The employers earn profit by exploiting the poor, this profit is known as surplus
profit. According to Marx in no country of world population increase on account of
fertility but it increases only on account of capitalist policies.

The capitalist makes labour part of their production and still something out of that. By
installing labour-saving machines a capitalist wants to have the maximum surplus-
value of that. As a result of this unemployment spreads, wage declines, and poverty
increases. The poor population can not nourish their children on account of their
poverty thus they try to increase the population by reproduction so that the next
generation would also help them to generate extra wages.

However due to the increase in the advanced technology and excess labourers the
condition of surplus population and Unemployment generates. This is the main
cause of misery.

He came to the conclusion that the main causes of the surplus population were
nothing else but the wrong politics of capitalists. Marx was on the view that in the
socialist society reproductive behavior would develop a complete harmony between
the individual and the society.

Marx suggested that for population control fall of capitalism is the only mean
and distributive justice, state control over resources can mitigate the food
crisis. Thus his theory is the socio-economic model of population control.

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Criticism of Marx
The theory of Marx was criticised on the following grounds –

1. An increase in population does not necessarily lead to a decrease in wages. There

are many socio-economic factors which are responsible.
2. Population growth does not necessarily due to a decrease in wages, this may
occur due to improved medical facilities.
3. The theory of Marx is applicable only in capitalist society and not in other
societies.
4. According to Marx, the higher the wages, the lower the birth rate, but faith and
religion may also play a significant role. This he did not consider.
5. It is true to a great extent that in a capitalist society there is a surplus population
on account of unemployment. But it is not to presume that under a socialist
system there will be no need to check population growth at any stage.
6. Even in communist countries, population growth is checked on the plea that no
mother should have more children so that their mother so that their health does
not deteriorate.
7. In the erstwhile USSR, factory workers were provided contraceptives in their
factories so that the birth rate was kept low.
8. If economic inequality is the main cause of the birth rate then in these countries
rates should not differ. Because these inequalities have come to an end. The
necessity of family planning is felt in these countries.

Demographic Transition Theory

The demographic transition theory studies the relationship between economic
development and population growth. It discusses about changes in birth rate and
death rate and consequently growth rate of population in assonance with the process
of growth and development. It is also used to describe and predict the future
population of any area.

The theory tells us that the population of any region changes from high births and
high deaths to low births and low deaths as society progresses from the rural
agrarian and illiterate to urban industrial and literate society.

These changes occur in stages which are collectively known as the demographic
cycle. There are four stages of demographic transition related to the state of economic
development.

“Demographic transition refers to a population cycle that begins with a fall in the
death rate, continues with a phase of rapid population growth and concludes with a
decline in the birth rate” – E.G. Dolan.

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Demographic Transition Theory
Demographic transition is a term, first used by Warren S. Thompson (1929), and later
on by Frank W. Notestein (1945), referring to a historical process of change which
accounts for the trends in births,
deaths, and population growth that occurred in today’s industrialized societies,
especially European societies. This process of demographic change began for the most
part in the later 18th century.

Demographic transition should not be regarded as a ‘law of population growth’,

but as a generalized description of the evolutionary process. In simple terms, it is a
theory which attempts to specify general laws by which human populations change in
size and structure during industrialization. It is frequently accepted as a useful tool in
describing the demographic history of a country.

The theory postulates a particular pattern of demographic change from high fertility
and high mortality to low fertility and low mortality when society progresses from
a largely rural agrarian and illiterate society to a dominant urban, industrial,
literate and modern society.

It is typically viewed as a three-stage process:

(i) that the decline in immortality comes before the decline in fertility,
(ii) that the fertility eventually declines to match mortality, and
(iii) that socio-economic transformation of society takes place simultaneously with its
demographic transformation.

The demographic transition theory is characterized by conspicuous transition stages.

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The transition from high birth and death rates to low rates can be divided into three
stages (some scholars like Haggett, 1975 have divided into four or five stages):

• Pre-transition stage – High and fluctuating birth and death rates with little
population growth.
• Stage I: High birth rates and declining death rates with rapid population growth.
• Stage II: Low birth and death rates with slow population growth.
• Stage III: Birth and death rates both decline appreciably leading to zero
population growth. The theory holds that pre-industrial societies were
characterized by stable populations that had both a high death rate and birth
rate. It postulates a little and slows population growth. The theory states that the
high mortality rates characteristic of undeveloped areas will decline before
fertility rates which are also high.

First Stage or Stage of High Birth Rate and High Death Rate
In the first stage, the country is at a low level of economic development. Agriculture
is the main occupation of the people. The standard of living of the people is low.
The death rate is high because of a lack of medical facilities, epidemics, famines,
and illiteracy. The birth rate is high because of social and economic reasons. The key
notable features of this stage are as follows:

• Population Pyramid in the first stage is Expanding at the bottom

• Stable population
• High birth rate, High infant mortality, and High death rate = low life expectancy
• Many young people, very few older people
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 • High fertility rate (8+)
• A society dominated by religious belief
• The stagnant economy, No surplus subsistence type of living
• Ex – Sierra Leone, Somalia

The first stage has high fertility and high mortality because people reproduce more
to compensate for the deaths due to epidemics and variable food
supply. The population growth is slow and most of the people are engaged in
agriculture where large families are an asset. Life expectancy is low, people are
mostly illiterate and have low levels of technology. Two hundred years ago all the
countries of the world were at this stage.

Second Stage or Stage of High Birth Rate and Low Death Rate or Stage of Population
Explosion
In this stage, the birth-rate is high but the death rate is low. It results in a high
growth rate of the population. In this stage, income begins to rise and economic
activities expand. On account of better health facilities and a nourishing diet, the
death rate falls rapidly. The birth rate remains high due to social backwardness and
limited access to contraceptives. The key notable features of this stage are as follows:

• Population Pyramid in this stage is Rapidly Expanding

• Very rapid increase in population (population explosion)
• Rapid decline in death rate but death rate remains below the birth rate
• Fertility rate remains high
• High birth rate
• High rate of natural increase
• Decline in infant mortality
• Many young people

Fertility remains high at the beginning of the second stage but it declines with time.
This is accompanied by a reduced mortality rate. Improvements in sanitation and
health conditions lead to a decline in mortality. Because of this gap, the net addition
to the population is high.

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Third Stage or Stage of Declining Birth Rate and Low Death Rate
In the third stage, a declining birth rate and low death rate lead to low population
growth. Along with the economic development of the country, structural changes in
the economy begin to take place. A large population begins to reside in urban
areas. People start considering large families as a liability. Consequently, the birth
rate begins to fall. The death rate continues to be low. The growth rate of the
population declines. India is passing through this stage of demographic transition.
The key notable features of this stage are as follows:

• The Population Pyramid in the third stage is Stationary

• Population growth slows down
• Birth rate declining rapidly
• The decline in fertility rate
• Death rate declining slowly
• Birth rate approaching death rate
• High life expectancy
• An increasing number of older people

Fourth Stage or Stage of Low Birth Rate and Low Death Rate
In the fourth stage, a low birth rate and a low death rate lead to Population
stabilization. In this stage, because of rapid economic development, the standard of
living of the people becomes very high. Quality of life is given a priority to the size
of the family. The key notable features of this stage are as follows:

• Population Pyramid is Contracting

• Stable or slow population increase
• Low birth rate
• Low death rate
• High life expectancy
• Birth rate is approximately the same as the death rate
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 • The fertility rate is close to or below 2.1
• Many older people

In the last stage, both fertility and mortality decline considerably. The population is
either stable or grows slowly. The population becomes urbanized, literate, and has the
high technical know-how, and deliberately controls the family size. This shows that
human beings are extremely flexible and are able to adjust their fertility. In the present
day, different countries are at different stages of demographic transition.

Criticism
Although the theory of demographic transition has been appreciated widely by the
demographers, it has been criticized on many grounds also. There are even critics who
have gone to the extent of saying that it cannot be called a theory.

Demographic transition stages are not always sequenced in order. After the
breaking of the USSR, erstwhile USSR countries apart from Russia shown increases
in death rate and went the first stage of the demographic transition from the
second & third stage of the demographic theory, because of the withdrawn of the
social security scheme.

The main points of criticism are:

• Firstly, this theory is merely based upon empirical observations or the

experiences of Europe, America, and Australia.
• Secondly, it is neither predictive nor its stages are segmental and inevitable.
• Thirdly, the role of man’s technical innovations cannot be underrated,
particularly in the field of medicine, which can arrest the rate of mortality.
• Fourthly, neither does it provide a fundamental explanation of the process of
fertility decline, nor does it identify the crucial variables involved in it.
• Fifthly, it does not provide a time frame for a country to move from one stage
to another.
• Finally, it does not hold good for the developing countries of the world, which
have recently experienced unprecedented growth in population due to the
drastic decline in death rates.

In spite of these criticisms and shortcomings, the demographic transition theory

does provide an effective portrayal of the world’s demographic history at the
macro level of generalizations. As an empirical generalization developed on the basis
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of observing the demographic trend in the West, the transition process for any country
can easily be understood.

Central Place Theory of Christaller and Losch

• The theory was given by Walter Christaller in 1933
• It is one of the 1st Locational theories in Human Geography
• Along with Von Thunen’s Agricultural Location theory & Weber’s Industrial
location theory, Central Place Theory is one of the Locational Triads that
became the basis of law making tradition in Quantitative Revolution phase in
Geography (1950s)
• The objective of Quantitative Revolution phase was to develop Models &
Theories for a more objective analysis in Geography & to make geography as
one of the modern scientific discipline
• It is a normative deductive theory
• It is concerned with the way the settlements evolve and are spaced out
• It seeks to discover an order in size & spacing of settlement and functional
relation between them i.e. Settlements size & its position in hierarchy, functional
relation with other settlements, etc
• It seeks to find whether spacing of settlement is arbitrarily located or there is
any logic or justification between order in size and spacing of settlement
• It is a theoretical account of the size and distribution of settlements within an
urban system

Assumptions
The Locational Triad used the principle of simplifying assumptions to make
lawmaking or to make generalizations relatively easier

1. Isotropic Surface i.e. Homogeneous surface, which is flat & monotonous without
any variations in physical aspects of relief, climate, terrain & resources
2. The region is isolated i.e. Landscape understudy is isolated & has no connection
with the rest of the world
3. All men are rational & economic i.e. people with perfect knowledge &
unbounded rationality
4. All consumers have the same income & demand is the same
5. These consumers visit the nearest Central place that provides Goods &
Services required by them as transport cost rises proportionally with distance
6. The entire landscape of settlements is to be fully served by a set of uniformly
spaced central places
7. All settlements are point occupying i.e. Metropolis or Normal City, town or
hamlet, all occupy the equal area
8. The settlement distribution is uniform with respect to resources
9. The population is homogeneously distributed i.e. population of city, town,
hamlet, metro, etc is equal

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Objectives
• It consists of 2 theories
• W. Christaller Theory (1933)
• August Losch Theory (1940)
• Christaller’s theory was based on his empirical studies of settlements in South
Germany
• CPT is a theory that tries to suggest that under ideal normative conditions or
perfect conditions, what can be the best number of levels in which urban
hierarchy can be dissolved (Tier 1, Tier 2, Tier 3 towns etc), the number of
settlements in each hierarchy, their location & spacing and ideal shape of
their influence area (circular, hexagonal, etc)
• Since it is a normative model, it can be used for planning

Concepts
• The Fundamental Concepts on which CPT is based are
• Principle of Centralization
• Principle of Hierarchy
• These principles govern the structure of all phenomenon

Principle of Centralization

• Similar to all matter, all regions have a core and peripheral areas
• e.g. The village has its core around a temple, mosque, church, chaupal, etc
• e.g. Small towns serve as a core for several villages and hamlets
• It is not necessary that the core/focal point has to be at the geometric
centre of the settlement
• Centralization is, thus, not a geometrical concept rather a concept concerning
the relationship between a central and peripheral settlement

Principle of Hierarchy

• Similar to most phenomenon arranged in a hierarchical fashion, Hierarchy also

manifests itself in terms of territorial divisions and places
• e.g. State, District, and Tehsil complemented by place hierarchy of State capital,
District headquarter and Tehsil headquarter

The theory is based on 6 Derivative Concepts

1. Concept of Central Place

2. Concept of Central Place function
3. Concept of Centrality
4. Concept of Complementary Area
5. Concept of Threshold Population
6. Concept of Range of Goods & Services

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Concept of Central Place

• It is the principal settlement of any region i.e. chief/main settlement that

provides goods & services of basic & regular nature to all surrounding regions
depended on it(e.g. CBD)
• It is the focus point to all surrounding regions such as
• Around a village – Town
• Around a large town, or medium city – Metro City
• Around a metro city – Capital city
• Any yearly or weekly market do not serve as a focal point rather a permanent
settlement or establishment
• Central Place is characterized by maximum pull & a high degree of
functionality (e.g. Transport, Health, Education, etc)
• It is at the helm of affairs
• In the theory, Central Place is depicted by a single dimensionless point
• However, all urban places are not necessarily urban places e.g. A mining town
or manufacturing town is not a central place, unless it has some tertiary activities
catering to needs of surrounding villages

Concept of Central Place Function

• These are the set of Goods & Services offered by Central Place
• A central place offers more than one central place functions & all
the functions are not of same hierarchical order rather some of them are of
higher hierarchy & some of lower hierarchy (e.g. Supreme Court has a higher
hierarchy and it is located in Delhi)

Concept of Centrality

• Centrality refers to the relative importance of a central place which is

dependent on the Central Place functions that it offers such as
• Number of Goods & Services
• Variety of Good & Services, and
• Order of function
• Those which provide higher order function have high centrality whereas those
which provide lower order function have low centrality
• Centrality of a central place is not on the basis of its location (Central Place
is never the geometric centre)

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Concept of Complementary Area

• Complementary area is the area of influence of a Central place i.e.

the surrounding regions up to which central place provides its goods &
services
• It would be larger for bigger and more important central places
• In theoretical sense, it is a collection of settlements of lesser importance
• In an isotropic surface, the distance decay function of every Goods &
Services operates proportionally in all directions
• Distance Decay function states that the interaction between two locales declines
as the distance between them increases and it is applicable for higher order
functions
• In an isotropic surface, the complementary area is always a circle with the
central place at the centre of this circle (i.e. there is uniformity)

Concept of Threshold Population

• The minimum number of service users or customers that are required for the
viability of central place functions and, therefore, the Central Place
• e.g. Minimum Population to run the primary school – Population of village
sufficient
• e.g. Minimum Population to run Higher education – Large population
required such as 2,3 villages
• e.g. Minimum Population to run a university – Population of up to a city
required
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 • e.g. Civil Aviation – Population of a metro or large city

Concept Of Range of Goods & Services

• Range is the maximum distance that a person or customer is willing to travel

to avail the central place functions offered at the Central Place
• e.g. Travel to a metro city to purchase a costly car
• e.g. spinal cord injury – travel to AIIMS, cold & cough – travel to Primary
Health Centre, etc
• Both the Threshold & Range are the properties of goods & services offered at
the central place
• e.g. Supreme Court at Delhi has maximum range and threshold

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Implications of the Concepts in Resolution of Settlement Complex under
Normative Conditions
• The Complementary Area should have the threshold population to make the
central place viable
• The Range (i.e. the distance a consumer is willing to travel) should be equal to
or more than the radius of the Complementary Area because if the range is
less than the radius, the consumer may not be willing to travel from the
periphery of the complementary area to avail the services at a central place
• For ideal resolution, the Range should be exactly equal to the radius of the
Complementary Area & the Complementary Area should have a population
exactly equal to the threshold
• For the perfect competition, neither the buyer nor seller must be at any extra
disadvantage but both are economic man & both want to maximize their profits
under the least cost consideration
• A buyer will reduce his costs by minimizing transportation costs. This he
can do if there are the maximum number of central places to facilitate
accessibility
• A seller will maximize his costs by reducing & minimizing the central
places from where he operates
• The CPT is about how the number of Central Places can best arrive where
neither the seller nor the buyer is at any extra advantage or disadvantage
(A trade-off in the number of Central Places & in the level of hierarchies of
Central Places).
• The above resolution is possible by
• The Complementary Area must have exactly the threshold level of
population
• The Range must be equal to the radius of the Complementary Area
• A higher-order central place in the hierarchy must offer all the lower
order functions too along with the highest order function relevant to its
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 hierarchical level (e.g. Delhi provides higher-order functions like
parliamentary and judicial functions and lower order functions like
Railways )
• Circular Complementary Areas are perfect (because of the maximum
area within the minimum circumference) but in circular shapes, some of
the buyers will be excluded if the complementary areas all made to
touch tangentially

• If we want full coverage, the Complementary Areas must be made to overlap

which then leads to duplication of services provided in some areas
• Christaller suggested that the next best shape in resolving the crisis is the
hexagonal lattice network where the hexagonal complementary areas touch
but don’t overlap and provide maximum coverage of the area.
• Hexagonal lattice do not provide advantage or disadvantage to any buyer
or seller

• Settlements that are higher in the hierarchy are lower in number & are far apart
(e.g. Metros such as Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, etc)
• Settlements that are lower in the hierarchy are more in number & are close (e.g.
Towns, Villages, etc)

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 • In the Hexagon,
• Big Centre i.e. Metro is 1
• Intermediate Centre i.e. Cities are 6
• Small Centre i.e. Towns are numerous, and
• sub-center i.e. Villages are still more
• Hexagons of lower orders are nested within hexagons of higher orders which
is known as the Nested Pattern of Hierarchy
• Christaller identified fixed relation between 2 connecting levels of
hierarchy (e.g. Towns and Cities) i.e. K value
• K indicates the number of Complementary areas of lower-order center
served by the next higher order center (including itself).
• K is the ratio (except 2nd Order) in which the lower-order centers are
served by the highest order central place.
• He put forward 3 types of Urban Structure pattern where
• K=3
• K=4
• K=7

K=3

• In those areas where buying and selling is most important, the Urban structure
would emerge in such a way that K=3 hierarchy will develop

K=4

• In those areas where transport cost improves, the Urban structure would
emerge in such a way that K=4 hierarchy will develop

K=7

• In those areas where the administration is centralized, the Urban structure

would emerge in such a way that K=7 hierarchy will develop

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Patterns of Hierarchy

• Based on the concepts of Central Place, Christaller tried to resolve the

settlement complex & suggested the possible location for central places for 3
types of function
• Marketing Function
• Transportation Function
• Administrative Function
• One of the lacunae of the CPT Model is that the manufacturing function is
ignored which however was corrected by August Losch.
• For every pattern of Central Place location, Christaller suggested 7 Hierarchical
Levels as efficient hierarchical organizations.

Marketing Principle (K=3)

• The lower-order central places are located at the vertices of the hexagonal
complementary areas of the next higher-order central place.
• Lower order settlement should be located as close as possible to higher-order
settlement as to minimize the distance traveled
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 • In such areas, the pattern of Urban Structure will be as shown

• In the given figure, 1 is a higher-order settlement and 2 is lower-order settlement

whereas 2 is a higher-order settlement for 3 which is a lower order settlement
• This structure would reduce distance travelled
• Here, 6 lower-order settlements will be located around a higher order
settlement (Total 7 hierarchical levels) such as 2 around 1, 3 around 2, and so on
• If ‘A’ is the area of the complementary area of higher-order and ‘a’ is the
complementary area of the next lower level Central Place, then
A = (6 x (1/3)a) + a
A = 2a + a, i.e. high order settlement serving the population of 2 lower order and
its own
A = 3a
A/a = 3 = K

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 • This implies that every higher-order center supports 3 next lower order
centers
• Thus,
• Highest order centre = 1
• Next Lower Order center = 3
• Next lower-order = 9
• Next lower-order = 27 & so on till VII
• In K=3, the number of Central Places is minimized to benefit both the service
providers & buyers

Transportation Principle (K=4)

• According to Christaller, for transportation resolution of space, the lower order

centers must be located at the midpoint of the sides of the higher-order
complimentary area.
• The criteria is to minimize the length of roads to join all adjacent pairs of central
places
• Here, the lower-order center is not on the apex but on midpoints of sides to
ensure the maximum number of settlements lie on a straight line route.
• Thus, each settlement is on the boundary of two rather than three hexagons
• A = (6 x (1/2)a) + a
A = 3a + a
A = 4a
A/a = 4 = K

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 • K=4 implies that a higher-order center can support 4 next lower level centres
• In K=4 principle, the length of the road is such that it connects the maximum
number of Central Places
• Route that connects higher order centre also have lower order centre on them
to minimize the transportation cost
• Each lower-order centre is equidistant from only 2 higher-order centre, so the
population gets divided into half
• Each higher-order centre is surrounded by 6 lower-order centre
• Thus, a higher-order centre is serving the complimentary area of 3 lower-order
centre and its own area
• i.e. A = 3a + a = 4a

Administrative Principle (K=7)

• It develops in areas of highly centralised administration

• For efficient administration, there must be no duplication of decision making
and that’s possible when the lower order complementary areas are nested
entirely within the higher order complementary areas
• Here, the higher order settlement serves complementary areas of all 6 lower
order settlement
• Thus, shared element is eliminated
• This K=7 i.e. 6+1 , which implies that each higher order centre supports 7 next
lower level centres or higher order centre supports entire complementary area
of 6 lower order and its own area

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Evaluation
Positives

• One of the Locational Triads

• Basis of many models in Human Geography
• Innovative concepts of Normative assumptions
• The models have been used for urban planning and the hexagonal lattice
network is the principle in which cell phone operators divide the mobile
communication areas
• It provides the rationale for efficient division of space & function
• It was first-time such theory was put forward
• CPT has been used as an integral part of planning in countries like Germany
where reclaimed land from sea used CPT for relocating settlements
• It helps us in identifying the role of settlement as a place of trade exchange
& extent to which this has influenced the nature of emerging settlement pattern
in any region
• It tries to seek some order in spacing & interrelationship of
settlements i.e. Settlements not `arbitrarily located but there is logic &
rationality behind their location

Applicability to India
• Christaller suggested 7 levels of hierarchy but for administration in India,
there are 6 levels
• National Capital
• State Capital
• District Headquarter
• Tehsil Town
• Block Level
• Gram Panchayat which may itself include one or more revenue villages
• This is closest to Christaller’s perfection
• For administrative principle, K=7, but India has 28 states and 8 Union Territories
i.e. 36 entities
• Every state has, on average, 15-20 districts
• There are more than 6 lakh villages, so in the case of India, Applicability is quite
difficult.
• In India, while determining the capital of Telangana, CPT was used.

Limits
• A normative theory based on simplifying assumptions will never depict reality. It
gives a false sense of Objectivity and is not practically applicable as it is in the
real sense.
• An Isotropic Surface is rarely found in real world
• Behaviour of consumer & seller not always rational
• Man not always an optimizer rather he is a satisfier
• The hexagonal pattern of the central place is rarely found (Region up to which
goods & services provided by central place)

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 • The theory is suitable primarily for agricultural regions because modern factors
such as communication, transport, etc have reduced the distance between
buyer and seller. Rather, the world has been reduced to the level of a village
• It ignores manufacturing which is one of the most Central Place functions
• The fixed value of K gives a poor approximation of reality and
• K=3, Buying and selling important
• K=4, Transport
• K=7, Administrative,
• All take place together in real-world in Urban areas

Loschien Landscape/Modification
• Christaller’s model has been modified by an economist & geographer with a
view to render this model practical & applicable to the real world.
• It was given by August Losch through the study of Iowa State in 1940.
• His model has an empirical inductive approach and provides a moderate critic
(since he accepts many parts of Christaller).
• It was also the first attempt to develop a general theory of location with a major
emphasis on demand
• ASSUMPTIONS:
• He simplified the world to a flat uniform plain and held supply constant
and assumed that demand for produce decrease with an increase in price.
If a Price increase was the result of an increase in transportation cost, then
demand of the product would decrease with distance from a production
center. Losch treated each function as having a separate range, threshold,
and hexagonal hinterland.
• Based on the Urban places of entire Germany in which he took
consideration of 150 Goods & Services
• He sought to explain the size and shape of market areas within which a
location would command the largest revenue
• The basis of concepts of Losch was much similar to those of Christaller
original theory i.e.
• Based on Normative assumptions
• Isotropic surface, rational & economic man
• The basic concept of threshold, range, complementary were the
same
• The hexagonal lattice pattern was also used by Losch as the best
approximation towards the circle
• However, he raised objections to
• The variability of ‘K’ which denotes the centrality
• He has allowed ‘K’ to vary freely which means that it is different for various
goods & services
• Losch considered 150 Goods & services and was antithetical to the
overgeneralization of Goods & Services into 3 principles
• He prepared 150 Hexagons for the selected Goods & Services and
superimposed them with higher-order at the base and lowest order at
the top and rotated all the hexagons until the rich and poor sectors

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 have emerged – such sectors were demarcated on the basis of the cost of
commodity or services.
• Thus, Losch suggested a nesting pattern for 150 functions & therefore, a
much extensive, continuous values of K & not just 3 values (3,4,7)
• Although the surface is isotropic, Losch suggested that the distribution of
Central Place is not really uniform.
• Central Place & Service providers agglomerate to benefit from
economies of Scale (i.e. when the scale of service becomes bigger,
costs are shared) such as Common labour market, common customer
base, and sometimes common infrastructure & raw material needs
• Therefore, there is a tendency where certain regions specialize in some types of
function and services such that type of services & goods may not be available in
other parts of the settlement complex.
• He found that Central place as the primate city (main dominant city) located
in the center of a circle & the circle was divided into alternate bands of 12
sectors – 6 city rich sectors and 6 city poor sectors implying that city rich regions
have an agglomeration of certain function and city poor will have relatively less
of these function.
• Transportation lines radiate from the center & many hierarchies of settlements
interwoven together (For eg- Delhi Metro).
• The landscape so produced has a densely populated & congested settlement
pattern with greater randomness & spatial organization of Christaller is absent.
• This model is more applicable to the underdeveloped & developing landscape
and 3rd world countries.
• His model is based on demand & production of various Goods & Services which
are concentrated in Metropolis.

Merits
• Removes limiting constraints from Christaller’s model allowing more
variation in threshold sphere of influence & K values (providing practical
applicability in today’s scenario).
• Does not assume that settlement is based only on 3 aspects of Marketing,
Transport & Administration functions but by Combination of many (150 Goods
& Services & developed over 40 networks)
• Maximum purchases would be made locally.

Criticism
• Overemphasis on demand
• Abstract Nature and failure to take into consideration the problems arising
from the locational interdependence of manufacturing industries & plants
• Complicated & difficult to understand but it is more close to reality
• Overlapping of networks creates the problem of cartographic representation
and are difficult to understand
• CPT – applicable to those countries with sparse populations and Losch – with
dense populations.

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Comparison
CHRISTALLER LOSCH

CPT is applicable where the landscape is fully Applicable where the landscape is not fully
developed i.e. all settlement patterns, hierarchical developed rather it is in a stage of development
levels, ordering, spacing, etc are at the fullest level and spatial organization based on the
of development geometrical pattern is absent

It is applicable in developed countries It is applicable in developing countries

It is closer to Rank Size rule It is closer to the Primate City concept

It is based on supply factor and every Central It is based on demand and Central place is a
place provides services to the Complimentary production center, not merely a provider of
Area service

It is based on services sector based economy It is based on a manufacturing-based economy

It is an idealistic and normative model It is more practical and applicable

It cannot show the regional disparity of It shows regional economic differences by

development dividing the landscape in rich and poor.

It doesn’t show the fixed number of

It has a fixed hierarchy and at each hierarchical
hierarchies. It has more randomness and the
level, the number of settlements is also fixed e.g.
different hierarchical settlements are mixed and
1,6,36,216, etc.
interwoven

‘K’ value fixed to vary e.g. Marketing Principle =

1,3,9,etc ; Traffic Principle = 1,4,16,etc; ‘K’ value is free to vary
Administrative Principle= 1,7,49, etc.

All Goods & Services have been accommodated in

Total number of Goods & Services = 150
3 principles

Lesser empirical validity Much higher empirical validity

Sociological Approach Economist Approach

Christaller’s Model is based on top to But, in Losch, flow is from lower to higher, and
bottom analysis and the flow is from higher the emergence of primate city or central place is
hierarchy to lower hierarchy. due to the polarisation of economic activities

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 CPT signifies Centrifugal forces Losch signifies Centripetal forces

CPT is based on South West Germany Losch is based on the State of Iowa, USA

Critical Evaluation of Christaller

• The normative models can’t have a universal application (based on assumptions
& doesn’t include dynamism & subjectivity) but they are used as parameters to
measure the reality and deviations from it
• Such models are measured on 2 principles
• Principle of Desirability – whether such models are desirable or not
• Principle of Universal Applicability – How far applicable
• Such models are highly desirable since they provide scientific temperament and
structure to the subject matter
• These models are Stochastic laws (half-true), which reveal the reality and the
unreal at the same time
• Their basic principles/tenets are unquestionable
• However, universal validity must not be sought as they are based on idealistic
and normative principles
• In the critical evaluation, the modifications introduced by Losch reflect the major
discrepancies of Christaller e.g. the fixed variability of ‘K’, supply-based model
instead of demand-based, complex nesting pattern, space geometry, gross
generalization of Goods & Services into 3 principles

Von Thunen theory of Agricultural Location

Von Thunen conceived the idea of a land-use model in both urban and rural
landscapes around a city on an isotropic landscape. His idea is basically how
economic rent decreases from the center of a city to its periphery.

His system of land use around a city with no trade alliance with any other country
is ring-shaped. Near the city, he envisages rings of the forest, crop rotation,
horticulture, and dairying. His theory stresses more on agricultural land use
around a city rather than the land use within the city.

Ricardo gave the concept of Economic Rent, and Von Thunen gave the concept
of Locational Rent.

Von Thunen theory of Agricultural Location

The agricultural location theory is a normative economic model that was first
presented by Johann Heinrich von Thünen, a Prussian landowner, in 1826 in a book
called Der Isolierate Stat (Isolated State).

This theory is based on the concept of Economic Rent which is prevalent in farm
market distance relationships. The agricultural location theory is one of the earliest
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attempts to explain the pattern of land use in economic terms which
was proposed by Von Thunen.

Von Thunen’s location theory on agriculture is based on the study of an agriculture

field in Germany. In this model, Von Thunen explains the crop productivity and land
use pattern changes when we go away from the market.

The main aims of the Von Thunen Model of Agriculture were to explain why and
how agricultural land use pattern varies when we go away from the market. It
also explains the hierarchy of agricultural crops based on profit-making capacity.

First, the following basic terminology needs to understand to a better

understanding of the model.

• Crop productivity: It is measured by the ratio of agriculture output to the input

of per unit agriculture areas.
• Crop intensity or intensive farming: At least two or more crops are grown a
year of particular agricultural land. In these methods, the large lever of inputs
such as money, fertilizer, and labor are used to get a high yield per unit of
agricultural land.
• Extensive farming: Less than two crops in a year are cropped in a larger
agriculture area with a lower yield. Low level of inputs applied as compare to
intensive farming.
• Mixed cropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece
of land. For example, wheat + gram
• Hinterland: It is an isolated region that is away from the coastline or river.
• Isolated state: The land is completely flat having equal soil fertility & climate and
has no river or mountain.

Economic rent – Economic rent is defined as the net income accruing to an area of
land above the net income of land at the economic margin of production. The
economic rent of a crop increases if the location of agricultural land is near the market
due to less transportation cost. Von Thunen’s concept of economic rent is also known
as locational rent since the economic rent is estimated by the location of agricultural
land.

Basic Assumptions in the Von Thunen Model

1. The isolated state comprises of one market area and an agricultural

hinterland.
2. The market receives goods only from the hinterland and the hinterland sells
goods only to the market.
3. The hinterland ships its surpluses to no other market except the city.
4. There is a homogeneous physical environment, including a uniform Plain
around the City.
5. Farmers are settled in the hinterland who wish to maximize the profit.
6. There is only one mode of transport that is horse wagon is used.
7. Transportation cost is directly proportional to distance. The higher the
distance higher the transport cost.

He had two basic postulates –

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 1. The intensity of the production of particular crop declines with the distance
from the Market. Here the intensity of production means the amount of inputs
per unit area of the land.
2. The type of land use will vary with distance from the Market.

Using these two principles and basic assumptions, the model tried to give the
optimal land use pattern which will give farmers maximum profit or rent. Since a
farmer is an economic person and hence they will farm those crops which will give
more total profit or rent.

He observed that particular activities were focused in certain zones around the
center, ideally this would then lead to a system of concentric rings with every ring
specializing in different agricultural activities based on transportation costs, weight,
and Perishability.

Von Thunen developed an agricultural location model with 2 prominent parts-

Agricultural land use and economic rent.

Economic Rent
Few geographers later termed it as locational rent as well. This is the basic principle
of Thunen’s analysis, where he argued that different types of land use produce
different net returns per unit area. The price a farmer obtains can be calculated
easily- the price at the market minus the cost of transporting it to the market.

Economic rent is the measure of the advantage of one piece of land over another.
Since all farmers receive the same price at the market and production costs are also
assumed to be the same, the only advantage one piece of land has over another is its
location from the market. So, if it’s closer to the market its locational rent is higher
and it reduces with the distance from the market i.e.

LR= Y (m-c) – Ytd,

Where LR= locational rent per unit of land,

Y= yield per unit of land, m= market price per unit of land,
c= production cost per unit of product,
t= transport rate per unit of distance,
d= distance from the market.

Von Thunen theory of agricultural location

1. Intensity Theory
2. Crop theory

Intensity Theory
Due to the rise in transportation cost, intensive cultivation is most suitable near
the city centre. Therefore, the intensity of production of a particular crop declines with
distance from the market.

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Crop theory
According to crop theory, there will be a variation in the land use with distance and
the factors responsible for the variation in the land use pattern are market price of a
particular crop, transportation cost, production cost and yield per unit of land. The crop
theory of Von Thunen can be understood by taking the following two cases.

Case- 1: When two crops P and Q have the same production cost and yield but having
different transport costs and market prices. If P is costlier to transport and has a higher
market price then crop P will be grown closer to the market than Q. Due to the higher
transportation cost of crop P, the location rent of P decreases more rapidly.

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Case- 2: When two crops X and Y have the same production and transportation cost
(per tonne/km) but different market price and yield per unit of land. If X has a higher
yield and lower market price than Y, it will be grown closer to the market than Y.

Concentric zonal rings of agricultural production

Von Thunen recognized following six concentric zonal rings of agricultural
production.

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Zone-1: Market Gardening and milk production
Zone-1 would be dedicated to cash cropping. Due to deficiency of food preservation
facilities, primitive modes of transportation, and the highly perish nature of products,
market gardening, and milk production were most suitable in this zone.

Zone-2: Firewood and Lumbering production

The second zone was marked by the production of firewood. Due to heavy bulkiness
and primitive transportation modes, wood was comparatively costly to be shipped. It
was also used as a fuel and building material. However, the outer limit of this zone was
marked by wood which was highly in demand in the market.

Zone-3: Grain crops with no fallow land

Unlike zone-2, the zone-3 was marked by food grains. Rye was the most important
market product of this zone, having no fallow land. The cropping intensity of this
zone was highest as compared to zone-4 and zone-5. Most importantly, grains could
be stored, easy to transport and last longer than milk products. Also, the agricultural
land would be cheaper farther away from the market.

Zone-4: Grain crops with 14% of fallow land

This zone was marked by 14% of fallow land, having less crop intensity as compared
to zone-3. The farmers of this zone usually practised seven years crop rotation with
one year each rotation of rye, barley and oats, three-year rotation of pastures and one
year as fallow land.

Zone-5: Three field system

Like zone-2, this zone was marked by extensive cultivation having 33% of land as
fallow. The farmers of this zone practised three-field system, having 1/3rd of land as
crop field, 1/3rd as pastures and rest left for fallow land.

Zone-6: Livestock ranching (Grazing)

The market products of this zone would be of two types namely, livestock and by-
products of milk like cheese, butter, etc. which would not highly perishable. Also, the
reduction in the volume of these by-products made them cost-effective in terms of
transportation.

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Modifications in Von Thunen model of agricultural location
Von Thunen himself considered the potentially distorting effect of improved
transportation routes as navigable waterways, roads, and railways on which
transportation was speedier and costs only about one-tenth (along waterway) that of
land transportation.

As important cities generally have access to a navigable waterway, Thunen introduced

a stream into his “Isolated State” resulting in the elongation of the production zone
roughly along the stream.

Zone-1 was least changed in shape; zone -2 extended in a narrow band for some
distance in each direction from the city, but it was no longer an enclosed zone and
instead of approaching close to the town it seems more likely that woodlands would
have been situated at some distance up and down the stream.

Since the transportation cost of wood was very high vis-a-vis its value; the river-side
location was the most favoured location for this form of production.

The provision of only “one market” was also subsequently removed by Von
Thunen. The consideration of a minor market center with its own small tributary
area apparently with the production of Zone-1 type opens up the possibility of
numerous towns of roughly equal importance with intermingled production zones
that modify each other. This leads towards the extreme complexity in the real world
where the zonation around the individual cities is rudimentary or indistinguishable.

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The following are the modification introduced in the classical model of Von Thunen.

• Introduction of a navigable river into his Isolated State.

• Elongation of production zones along the river.
• Extension of Zone-2 in a narrow band.
• Consideration of more than one market center or minor market centers.
• Possibility of numerous small towns of equal importance.
• Intermixing of production zones due to numerous towns.

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Critical Analysis
The theory of agricultural location was presented by von Thunen in the early 19th
century. Since then, several scholars including geographers have applied it in
various parts of the world and have pointed out certain aspects that are not
applicable in a way as pointed out by von Thunen.

Many aspects of this model have changed due to development in the agricultural
systems, transportation system, and also due to other technological
developments. There are also certain regional geo-economic factors that not only
direct but determine the pattern of agricultural land use.

The main points raised by scholars regarding this theory are as follows:

• The conditions described in this model, i.e., in an isolated state, are hardly
available in any region of the world. There are internal variations in climatic
and soil conditions. Von Thunen’s assumptions that there are no spatial
variations in soil types and climate are rare.
• It is not necessary that all types of farming systems as described by von
Thunen in his theory exist in all the regions. In many European countries
location of types of farming in relation to the market are no longer in existence.
• Thunen’s measures of economic rent and intensity are difficult to test
because of their complexity. The measurement of the number of man-days
worked in a year, the cost of labour per hectare, or the cost of total inputs per
hectare is not uniform in intensive and extensive types of farming. Similar is the
case with the measures of intensity,
• Von Thunen himself has admitted that with the change in location of
transportation or market center the pattern of land use will also change.
• The location of the transport link and its direction used to change the
pattern of agricultural land use is depicted in Figure.

• Similarly, if there are two market centres, the pattern of land use will be
according to Figure below

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 • The situation will be entirely different when there are several market
centres in a region.

• During the past 190 years, there have been sizeable changes in agricultural land
use and the economy with which it interacts. The most important of the
changes have been improvements in transportation technology; these
improvements now permit a space-time convergence of distant places, thereby
expanding the scale of possible economic organization. In von Thunen’s day,
heavily loaded horse-drawn carts moved to market at the rate of about 1 mile an
hour.

• The von Thunen model is also static and deterministic. Today, we know that
economic growth and changes in demand will alter the spatial patterns of
agricultural systems and land use, which in turn influence the rate of
change. It might be possible to postulate a dynamic von Thunen model that
could be applied to the changing conditions.

But, the model, despite these possible manipulations, is really static, since, it
represents a land-use system at one point in time, Von Thunen was not concerned
with transitional changes, since, he and most of the direct extenders of his model
assumed that any change in technology, demand, or transport cost would
automatically be accompanied by an adjustment in the land-use system.
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The Von Thunian model was developed in the early 19th century, since then, conditions
have entirely been changed. Therefore, it is not desirable to accept this model in its
original form as observed by many scholars. But this model is still considered to be
significant in many ways.

Weber Model of Industrial Location

In Geography Optional for UPSC, You have to read the 3 Model of Locational Theories
i.e.

1. Von Thunen’s model of agricultural location

2. Alfred Weber’s Theory of Industrial Location
3. Central place theory

These 3 models are called ‘Location Triad‘.

Central theme of Industrial location theory has been the concept of optimum
location i.e. finding out best location where profit is maximum and cost is
minimum.

The profit can be maximum—

• Where the cost of manufacturing is least due to the presence of Raw

Material, Market, etc.
• Where Revenue is maximum.

But such locations are rarely available e.g. SAIL Plant has Raw Material within its
vicinity but not market so Transportation cost is more.

Theories of Weber & Losch

• Question of cost & revenue was studies separately by 2 scholars
• Least Cost Theory of Weber
• Maximum Revenue Theory of Losch
• Weber: Assumption was that demand is uniform (i.e. price is same everywhere)
& where ever cost of manufacturing will be minimum, profit will be maximum.
Therefore, known as Least Cost Theory
• Losch: Presumed cost of manufacturing to be same everywhere, so the industry
is located where demand is maximum and therefore the price is maximum,
hence maximum revenue is generated.

Weber’s Model
• Weber propounded the theory in 1909
• It is also called ‘Least Cost Location Theory‘ and was published in his classical
work ‘Uber den Stanford der Industrien‘

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 • It has probably had more influence on Industrial location theory than any
other single contribution
• The model is a device for analyzing the location of industry, which he elaborated
as ‘Locational Triangle’
• It is an idealistic model of industrial location based on a set of criteria &
simplifying assumption
• It is a normative deductive model (considering man as economic and rational
who conclude things based on facts/experiences/logical reasoning) which
speaks partial truth and doesn’t claim the universal application of theory
• However, in idealistic conditions, such models can be aptly applied. Such
models are known as Stochastic Models.
• Weber (German Scholar) presented his theory in 1909 on the basis of his studies
of industries in South Germany
• Weber’s model provided the foundation for variable cost analysis which
dominated the study of Industrial location for many decades.

Objectives

• To ascertain the minimum cost location of an industry, wherein Weber talked

about 3 types of costs
1. Transportation cost,
2. Labour Cost, and
3. Processing/Agglomeration Cost
• To establish that transportation cost plays a vital role in the selection of
industrial location
• To prove that irrespective of socio-economic & political conditions, the location
of industries depend on transportation cost. Transportation cost in the
location of industries is universal.

Assumptions (General and Economic)

General Assumption

• Man is economic and rational who always takes economic decisions and
rationalize its application
• Isotropic surface i.e., climate, soil fertility, physiography, etc are homogeneous
with no variability
• Equal connectivity from everywhere
• The area under consideration has a self-supporting economy / self-
sustainable system
• Perfect competition exists and the price of particular goods is identical
• There is uniformity and stability in the socio-economic and political
environment in the region.

Economic Assumption

• Demand is uniform in the market

• Transportation cost is directly proportional to / the product of – Distance,
Weight & Volume
• There is a single mode of transportation with equal connectivity everywhere

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 • There is a single market over the given landscape where all the industrial
products are sold
• Price of industrial products in the market is uniform
• The labour is static and wages are uniform in the region.

Economic Assumptions – Raw Materials Classification by Weber

Raw Material have been classified on basis of –

1. Location
2. Nature of Final Product

On the Basis of Location

1. Ubiquitous
2. Uniquitous/Localized

• Pure Raw Material – If the weight of raw material remains the same even after
processing, it is called Pure Raw Material
• Gross Raw Material – If the weight of raw material is reduced in weight after
processing, it is called Gross Raw Material

On the basis of Nature of final product

1. Weight loosing
2. Weight gaining

The factors that control the location of industries are as under –

• Influence of Transport (General Factor)

• Influence of Labour Cost (General Factor)
• Influence of Industrial Agglomeration (Local or Specific Factor)

Working out of Material Index (MI)

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 • Material Index is the weight of the inputs/Raw Material divided by the
weight of the final product.

If Material Index is less than 1 (Weight Gaining Industry), location of the industry
tends to be towards the market i.e. Market Oriented Industry.

• e.g. Cakes, Beer, etc.

If Material Index is greater than 1 (Weight Losing Industry), location of the industry
tends to be towards raw material sources i.e. Material Oriented Industry.

• e.g. Iron Steel Industry, Sugar Industry, etc.

If Material Index is equal to 1 (Same Weight, Neither Weight gaining nor Weight
losing Industry), Industry has a footloose location.

Types of Costs (According to Weber)

• Transportation Cost – Determined by Distance, Weight & Volume

• Processing Cost – It is less where more than 3 industries are agglomerated. i.e.,
Use of common infrastructure e.g. Industrial zones in Mumbai, Delhi, Automobile
agglomerations in Pune, etc
• Labour Cost – Away from the market, the labor cost diminishes
• A product may require one or more Raw material, depending upon the relative
location of the market & raw material source.
• We get different geometric patterns/locations along which industry could be
located –
• Linear (when single raw material is present)
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 • Non-Linear (when more than one raw material is present)
• Triangular (when 2 raw materials are present)
• Rectangular (when 3 raw materials present) and so on

Transportation Cost Analysis

1) Based on the nature of Raw Material & Location of the market, Weber worked on
various permutation & combinations to assert various locations where profit could be
maximized & least cost occurs.

A. If there is a Single Market & Single Raw Material,

1. If Raw Material is Gross & Ubiquitous, Industry will be located at the market,
since away from the market transportation cost of finished goods increases.
2. If Raw Material is Pure & Fixed (Weight Gaining/Uniquitous), Industry will be
located at the Market because Raw Material is weight gaining & final product
has greater volume & weight.
3. If Raw Material is Gross & Fixed (Weight Losing), Industry will be located at
the Raw Material source as the final product has lesser weight than Raw
Material and transportation cost of Raw Material is more
• e.g. Coal and Iron Ore are weight-losing Raw Materials in Iron Steel
Industry.

B. If there is a Single market & 2 Raw materials (RM1 & RM2) – a Triangle pattern is
formed where the Material Index of each Raw Material & the distance of the market
from Raw Material decides the location.

In case of 2 Raw Materials, there are 4 possible locations with a triangular set up –

• (i) If RM1 is Pure & Fixed, RM2 is Gross & Fixed & 3 points(RM1, RM2 & market)
are equidistant from each other – Industry can be located either at the
market or at RM2.
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 • (ii) If RM1 is Gross & Ubiquitous, RM2 is Gross & Fixed – Industry will be located
at RM2.

• (iii) If RM1 is Gross & Fixed and RM2 is also Gross & Fixed, the preferred site of
the industry is well defined upon relative weight loosing of Raw Material.
• e.g. Iron & steel (2-ton coal & 2-ton iron ore produce 1-ton steel)
• In this case, Weber considered a complex situation & suggested a
centroid location (P) for the industry.
• Since RM1 & RM2 both are fixed & gross – they exert an equal pull.
• Based on Distance Minimization Principle, optimum location P will be
closer to the RM sources to save transportation costs.
• The midpoint between RM1 and RM2 is O, which can’t be the optimum
location because marketing also exacts its pull & P is the optimum

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 location from where RM1 and RM2 are at the economic distance & also
the optimum distance from the market.
• The least transport cost point P is the point at which the total cost of
moving raw materials and finished products is the least.
• The location of an industry in a triangular area is closely influenced by the
nature of raw material and the Material Index of each raw material.
• If P is shifted along with transportation line MO throughout the market,
the transportation cost of Raw Material will be more as the distance of Raw
Material from Industry will increase and profit will be less e.g. For Iron &
steel industry, 1 Tonne of steel requires 2 Tonne each of Coal and Iron
Ore, so optimum location of Industry P will be near to raw material, due
to cost of transportation.

• (iv) If RM1 is Pure & Fixed and RM2 is Pure & Fixed: – For weight gaining
industry, optimum location P will be closer to the market because Raw
Materials gain weight as they are processed into the final product.
• e.g. In Bakery Industry, 1 T of Sugar and 1 T of Wheat flour make 4 T of
Cake
• To save transportation costs, such industries are located near the
market.

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 • (v) If both Raw Material are ubiquitous, then ideal location of plant is market.

Labour Cost Analysis

• Labour has been considered ubiquitous & static and the savings on labour
increase away from the market.
• If any industry is located on Market, Labour cost is maximum

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 • Transportation costs also increases away from the market & the optimum
location P depending on whether the industry is weight gaining or weight
losing.
• Weber projected that optimum location P can be further shifted to L if the
saving on labour is more than the extra transportation cost incurred leading
to extra profit.
• Displacement of industries are thus motivated by profit maximization and to
reduce the labour cost, industries can be shifted away from the centroid of the
location Δ.
• Weber constructed cost-contour circles called Isodopanes, which are
transportation cost circles such as L1, L2, etc
• These circles have same transportation and labour cost on all points
• L3 is the critical isodopane where the saving on labour & extra transportation
cost equalizes beyond which no extra profit can be earned.
• L4 is not a desired location as Transportation cost increases beyond the saving
on Labour cost
• In the given example – L2 is the best location where profit can be earned
• Isodopanes – Lines joining the points of equal additional transportation cost
of the two materials and delivering the product to the market.

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 • Isotimes – Lines joining the points of additional equal transport costs of Raw
material to the cheap labour centre.
• These costs are additional transportation cost when the location is changed for
cheap labour
• All along the Isotimes, transportation cost is same per unit distance.

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Processing Cost Analysis

• Weber suggested that if 3 or more industries are located at a single

point, the processing cost can be reduced , because of common use of
infrastructure such as electricity, roads, etc & saving on processing cost can be
made
• This is called the agglomeration effect which is the interference of 3 (at least
3) critical isodopane
• New industries should come up at the agglomeration area & even the existing
industries can be shifted to it e.g. In Mumbai, Industries come up due to
agglomeration effect
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 • But such shifting of Industries is again based on the saving on processing & extra
transportation cost.

Application

• Weber’s model has no universal application because it is an idealistic &

normative deductive model. However, it can be applied in USA and Europe Man
is neither economic nor rational and can act differently in different situation
• Even isotropic surface is hypothetical situation
• Thus, such models are bound to have deviation from reality
• But they act as parameters for measurement of reality & departure from
reality.

USA

• W-Isard- has applied Weber’s model in the USA for Weight losing Industry
• Coal from Pennsylvania & North Appalachians
• Iron ore from Lake superior &
• Market at New England region & transportation line as St. Lawrence lake
region
• All the Iron & Steel industries are found in a cluster which are similar to optimum
location as delivered by Weber
• For example- Industries at Pittsburgh, Youngtown, Buffalo, Chicago are closer to
the raw material.

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Europe

• It was further applied in Europe for weight gaining industries like Bakery
• Market is the London-Rotterdam triangle
• Sugar is produced in Poland, Russia & Some parts of Germany
• Wheat flour in Ukraine, Hungary & Romania, Bulgaria, etc
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 • Bakery industries mostly in BENELUX (Belgium, Netherland, Luxembourg).

Application in India

• India- TISCO, Jamshedpur

• Raw Material is the most important determinant for the location of the
TISCO plant in Jamshedpur
• Haematite Iron ore –Gurumahisani and Noamundi, Singhbhum within 100
km
• Coal- Jharia (Jharkhand) & Raniganj (WB), within 200 Km
• Calcutta- Port & Industrialized hinterland for market within 250 km
• Water- Subarnarekha river for cooling purpose
• Labour- Cheap & abundant: Bihar, Chota Nagpur (Tribal), Orissa.
• Good transport facility
• NH6 (Mumbai-Kolkata)
• NH5 (Chennai-Kolkata)

Applicability

• 19th & 20th century industrial location reflects resemblance with the
model but modern industrial locations are affected by many other factors e.g.
Iron & Steel in USA, Bakery in Europe, etc
• Transportation principle lost significance but the relationship between
distance, volume & transportation costs still holds good
• Labour principle lost its significance due to high mobility & demand for
skilled labour. However, developing countries still attract MNCs for their low
labour costs. e.g. Around 11 million people work in middle east as labour due to
mobility, Skilled Labour demand is rising, etc
• Agglomeration principle has high validity even today. E.g. Cluster Approach,
SEZs, Export Oriented Units, Export Processing Zones, etc are based on these
principles
• Post liberalization & globalization, industry considers both domestic & foreign
market so preferred the location has become ports now for easy transportation
• Presently, Raw Material is also received from foreign countries. Also, the
quality of Raw materials has attained greater significance which was not
mentioned in Weber’s Model. For E.g. Quality Iron ore in India is imported from
Australia
• Revolution in transportation facilities like refrigerated transportation has
influenced locations greatly and nowadays, even perishable products can be
transported to any distance. E.g.- Milk products from Gujarat are sent as far as to
Kolkata today
• Modern transportation facilities have made the bulk carrying easier &
cheaper even for the longer distance

Criticism

• Many assumptions made were unrealistic and such conditions are rarely
found in real world

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 • The greatest challenge came from the Maximum Revenue Theory of
Losch where the demand was not fixed rather cost was fixed because demand
fluctuated in the market which is more practical
• Weber considers only 2 Raw Materials but many industries required more
than 2 Raw Materials
• Single market for industries is also an insufficient assumption e.g. Cotton
Industry in India has to market all over the country
• Too much emphasis on transport cost. Even the labour cost analysis & the
agglomeration effects have been calculated in relation to the transport Cost. In
modern days, Processing Cost has become more significant than transportation
cost
• Transportation cost is proportionate to distance & weight but RM
transportation is cheaper than finished goods. Also with an increase in distance,
transportation cost decreases
• After the revolution in transportation & communication sectors, his model has
become redundant because faster & cheaper modes of transportation like
railways, waterways have reduced the role of transportation as the imposing
factor
• Price is fixed for products but the price always fluctuates & is controlled by
demand & supply mechanism
• Assumed perfect competition which in long run is difficult to sustain
• Role of influence of agglomeration factors ignored other factors such as space
problem, energy crisis, etc. as agglomeration provides many other benefits
• Historical factors such as Inertia not taken in account e.g. India had Mumbai,
Delhi, Kolkata as industrial cities before independence so it was a natural choice
of Industries post-independence
• Physiographic & Climatic hazards & Geographical landscapes have been
idealized into isotropic surfaces. Thus, this model has lesser practically
• Ignored Social, Political & other Human Considerations. In India, during the
2nd Five Year Plan, Government intervention led to the expansion of Iron & Steel
industry, Government policy on the SSI locator in India reverses the trend
visualized by Weber.
• An export-oriented unit would prefer a port location to have easy shipment
rather than the least transport cost location of Weber
• Increased complexity of industrial organization with single product
factory of 20th century replaced by multi-product international corporation.
Thus Weber theory difficult to apply
• Entrepreneur do not have full knowledge of facts, thus they opt for a range of
suboptimal locations rather than optimum location
• He gave more emphasis to supply, while the role of demand in the location of
the industry has been ignored.

Heartland and Rimland theory

• These theories talk about the evolution of Geopolitics of the world
• Geopolitics is made up of 2 words, Geo & Politics which refers to the changes in
Polity of the world due to Geographical factors

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 • The geopolitical history of the world has undergone a spatiotemporal
analysis by political thinkers & geographers who had seen political history as
the causation of geographical factors
• The conflict between land & sea power was 1st hypothesized by Alfred
Thayer Mahan in his book “The Influence of Sea Power upon History” who
emphasized that Sea Power is superior to Land Power because of easy & faster
movement, port facilities, better trade, etc
• Sea Power refers to countries having a large sea boundary and Land Power
refers to countries that are landlocked or have a large land boundary e.g. India
has a long coastline while Nepal is a landlocked country
• However, a British Political Geographer Prof. H. J. Mackinder contradicted his
theory and proposed a reverse, antithetical spatial model of Land & Sea
Power conflict where the Supremacy of Land Power was due to its location,
inaccessibility from all sides, and resource pass.

Mackinder’s Heartland Theory

• Mackinder’s theory is a spatial analysis of the geopolitics in terms of
its location, accessibility, and natural resource base
• His theory has laid down the principle of geographical causation of
history which means that the pulsations in human history have been caused by
the geographical conditions
• Mackinder interpreted history as essentially a struggle between Land & Sea
Power and presented his paper “The Geographical Pivot of History” in order to
elucidate his formula of ‘Geographical Causation in World History‘
• The political history of the world, fates of civilization, and the changing
paradigms of nations have been majestically controlled by Geographical
Causation.
• Mackinder theorised the hypothesis of Geopolitical rivalry between Land
Power and Sea Power and thus conflict led to several wars.

Actual Mackinder’s Theory

• He postulated the resource theory & location as a resource

• The natural resource endowment is the basis of sustenance of a country & its
supremacy over others as well since natural resources are found on Land e.g.
Nuclear Energy requires Uranium as a Raw material which is found mainly in
Land
• On the basis of physical map of the world, Mackinder concluded that on the
global scale, the earth surface consisted of a huge & continuous landmass
(Europe, Asia, and Africa) and some isolated Islands e.g. North and South
America, Australia, Great Britain, and Japan.
• He named this huge united landmass of Europe, Asia & Africa as the ‘World
Island’ which accounts for 2/3rd of the total land area of Earth, being 11 Mn. Sq.
Km and also about 7/8th or 88% of the total population of the world
• The concept of World Island is central to the theoretical precepts of
Mackinder
• The rest of the continents supported the only 1/8th of the mankind
• The concept of Heartland was later used in cold war discourse to denote an era
of Eurasia

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 • Mackinder suggested that the Columbian era of Sea Power (Age of Discoveries
with Columbus, Marco Polo, etc ) which had given Europe its pivotal role for
the past 4 centuries (Colonial Era), was coming to a close & was being eclipsed
by the ascendancy of Land-based powers & in particular with a new
‘Geopolitical pivot of History’ namely the Heartland of Europe-Asia.

Three Tiers

• Mackinder divided the world into 3 Tier spatially organized system

• In 1903, he published a book titled “Geographical Pivot of History” containing
the following map.

The 3 tiers were –

1. PIVOT AREA/HEARTLAND – It is surrounded by mountains on three sides and

by the ice-bound Arctic on the North
• It consisted of the whole Siberia & parts of Central Asia (Kazakhstan,
Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Turkmenistan)
• It was surrounded by the vast icefields of Arctic in North, the Urals in
West, Central Asian Highlands in South & East Siberian Highlands in
East
• It was thus termed as a “Natural Fortress or the Uppermost Citadel of
the world” as it was not accessible to sea powers
• The pivot area has a concentration of all-natural resources – mineral,
water, soil, forest, etc.
2. INNER CRESCENT – The Pivot Area was pictured by Mackinder as surrounded
by an ‘Inner’ or ‘Marginal’ Crescent, consisting of an arch of coastland &
characterized by drainage into navigable seas
• This inner or marginal crescent considered of the whole of Eurasia
outside the heartland
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 • It symbolizes the Sea Power and includes –
1. Europe
2. South West Asia
3. North Africa
4. India
5. China (some parts of China is in pivot area also)
• Most of the Human civilizations are located in the crescent and it is co-
terminus with the old world i.e. Pre-Columbian
3. OUTER/INSULAR CRESCENT – Outside the Inner or Marginal crescent lay
Mackinder’s 3rd tier, which he named as the Outer or Insular crescent
• Mackinder suggested it to have no geographical significance in the
contemporary world
• It included the New World (North America, South America, Other parts
of Africa, Pacific Islands, Oceania)
• It is designated as Outer Crescent because of their complete insularity
from the mainland of Eurasia

• For Mackinder, the concept of World Island is central to this theoretical

percept
• For him, whoever could gain control of ‘World Island’ would be in an almost
unstoppable position to dominate the entire globe

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 • In his opinion, the heartland having Agricultural resources could conquer
Europe, Middle East & Far East
• The inner and outer crescent would follow later

Modified Concept of Strategic Heartland, 1919

• In 1919, he modified his theory & presented in his book “Democratic Ideals and
Reality”
• It was a much elaborate theory & probably the most voluminous work in the
entire political geography
• The Pivot Area was modified & he called it Heartland.

Modified Strategic Heartland

• He redefined Heartland as the region to which sea power can be refused access
• Heartland was much larger & it included the Volga Basin, Steppes, Himalayas,
Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Asia Minor, etc
• Because of the fall of the Russian empire and the emergence of the USSR as a
superpower (Bolshevik Revolution), Mackinder became more assertive in his
theory of Heartland
• The world power seemed to be centralized around the Heartland which he said
had all the resources and natural defense by the physiographic factors
• It is invincible and represents the supremacy of Land Power
• He considered the South West Ukrainian Steppes as the only gateway to the
Heartland – It was called South Western Corridor
• His 2nd tier or the Inner Crescent now included the British Isles & the whole of
Africa
• The outer crescent consisted of New WorldMackinder’s famous dictum caught
the attention of the World –

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 • “Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland?”
• “Who rules Heartland commands the World-Island?”
• “Who rules the World-Island commands the World?”
• The key to control the Heartland, Mackinder later argued, lay in Eastern Europe
• The ‘Heartland’ is the strongest fortress on Earth, commanding resources of a
huge Trans-Continental Area. Any power that could organize it effectively was
bound to emerge as a great power in world politics.

Modified Concept of Midland basin, 1943

• Until 1919, Mackinder had confined his attention to Eurasia and the old world and
did not give any attention to the New World
• In the 1920s, he claimed that the west of Europe and east of North America are
physical complements of one another
• During the Second World War, Mackinder’s theory was put to test. The Heartland
could have become the focus of power if either Russia had united with Germany
or Russia had been overthrown by China or Japan
• In the 2nd World War (1939-45), the USA emerged as another superpower and
the intense geopolitical rivalry between USSR and US-UK combine was
foreseeable
• The outcome of World War was palpable in the early 1940s, therefore Mackinder
was quick to reverse his theory before his death in 1943, in a magazine, “Foreign
Affair”, where he published his theory – “The Round World and the Winning of
the Peace”
• In the paper, Mackinder clearly recognized that the two sides of the North
Atlantic were bound together
• He postulated a new idea of Midland Basin, where he included US-UK combine
as the parallel world power to the Heartland (Mainly, USSR)
• Midland Basin included the countries that surrounded the Midland Ocean i.e.
Western Europe (France, Belgium, Britain, etc) and North America
• He regarded this area as an effective counterbalance to the emerging political
power potential of Eurasian Heartland

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 • He stated that the UK & New England regions of the USA (older regions of 6
colonies) have a single race of people, uniform cultures, isotropic geographical
conditions, similar resource base. Thus, they are one civilization.

• The North Atlantic water present no obstacle to their interaction rather it is a

facilitator due to similar features
• Thus, there is a definite political communion between these 2 nations and at the
geopolitical front, the present a unitary coherent picture
• Thus, there are 2 power centers in World –
• Heartland (Mainly, USSR)
• Midland Basin (Mainly, US-UK combine)
• In 1943, he excluded from the heartland that part of the Soviet Union lying to the
east of the Yenisei River. He named it as Lena Land.
• Owing to its rugged topography and forest cover, this region was of little
economic value
• He envisioned the 2 centers of power- Heartland & Midland, to be surrounded &
insulated by a guide of deserts – Sahara, Arabian, Iranian, Tibetan, and
Mongolian, extending through the rugged and desolate Lena Land to Alaska, the
Canadian Arctic, and the deserts of Western America
• Mackinder thought that this empty land and deserts will prevent the spread of
conflict to the outside world.

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Applications of the Mackinder’s Theory
The applications of the Mackinder’s Theory can be divided into –

• Pre Cold War

• Cold War
• Post-Cold War

Pre Cold War (before 1945)

• Bolshevik Revolution & emergence of Russia as a Superpower (Land Power)

• Outcome of 1st World War and the defeat of Germany (Sea Power)
• World Geopolitics hovering around East Europe
• Spread of Communism in East Europe under influence of USSR
• Contemporary history between 1st World War and 2nd World War has many
events that can lead us to believe that Mackinder was true in his conviction.

Cold War (1945-91)

• Heartland was represented by USSR & Midland by US-UK combine in the

modified theory of Mackinder of 1943
• Cold War was a conflict between Capitalism & Socialism and not a proper war
• Most of the geopolitics was centered around either East Europe or West Asia
which had the resources as well as peripheral location or transition location
forming part of Inner Crescent
• Present Geopolitics can also be linked to it including Crimean Annexation, West
Asian Crisis which are a part of Inner Crescent
• Major events were –
• Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) – It demonstrated the power of Heartland &
Midland as depicted by Mackinder in 1943
• The event also showed power balance in the world which depicted 2
centre of powers in the world
• The installation of missiles in East Europe by the USA was
counteracted by USSR, installing the missiles at Cuba to threaten the
USA
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 • West Asian Crisis – It was where both USSR and USA were involved in
forming a strategic alignment with countries to assert their power e.g.
USSR with Iraq and Afghanistan, the USA with Saudi Arabia/Israel
• Geopolitics of India – Withdrawal of the UK from the Indian Ocean which
was called the British Lake (1850s-1973) (initially Portuguese lake) and also
loss of control of Suez Canal to Egypt. USA intervened in the Indian Ocean
under the pretext that USSR can politicize and colonize the region and
hence the region needs a power balance. So, the USA started constructing
Naval Bases in the Indian Ocean. Wars in Indian Ocean such as Vietnam
War, Korean War, etc showed Power Balance.

Post-Cold War (After 1991)

• Unipolar world emerged with the USA and the Heartland had fallen
• With Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, the future can witness the re-
emergence of Russia
• Russia has lost its economic power/Superpower but not the defense
technology, strategic alignments
• A possible strategic triad between Moscow, Beijing, and New Delhi (BRICS)
• Multiple Alignments are taking place now and the world is shifting towards a
Multipolar World.

Criticism

• He simplified history in a deterministic fashion as a struggle between land and

sea powers, which is far from truth. History is influenced by Physical, Socio-
Economic and Cultural factors with conflict of interest and not just Geographical
Factors
• Mackinder constructed his theory on basis of Mercator’s Map Projection and he
thought that the USA & Russia are 1000s of miles apart and that Arctic ice fields
are largely expansive. But, actually, the USA is hundreds of miles from Siberia
(Bering Strait)
• He wrongly equated power potential with the sheer geographical area, a factor
that made him to overinflate the resources & power potential of the inner Asian
Heartland e.g. the Sahara Desert has a vast area but barren, without any
resources
• He tried to explain the present and prognosticate the future in terms of
technology that has become outdated
• He overlooked the fact that Heartland was a region of permanent difficulties
because of its interior location and owing to the extremes of Climate. It is too
cold in winter and parts of it are hot and dry in summer, therefore owing to these
Locational climatic factors, the Heartland is at a relatively disadvantage as
compared to other larger & well-endowed area
• He could not foresee the air age and his theories are a product of the zenith of
the Rail age in Europe. Heartland is easily accessible, crossing all the barriers,
with the help of airplanes
• Heartland is not as resourceful as it is made out to be and the greater part of
Heartland is a wasteland, incapable of supporting a large population
• With the development of technology and fast-moving fighters, ballistic and
cruise missiles, the fortress i.e. Heartland now lay open to air raids from all sides,
as much as any other place
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 • Nuclear deterrence is the new policy that emerged after the Japan Bombings
• It is a fact that geopolitics has migrated from Germany to North America after
the 2nd World War and in the current scenario, Geopolitics is shifting towards
Asia with China and India emerging as new power centers
• Geographical causation of history is questionable – Geographical factors are
subordinate to man’s technology (Possibilistic thought – which says a man can
overcome barriers by various means)
• With the rapid growth of Science & Technology, the Surface configuration of
Earth has become much less significant politically than it was than it was at the
time when Mackinder presented his ‘pivot area’
• The real world was not flat but spherical, and the flat earth map used by
Mackinder to utilize the pivot area thesis has led to a false sense of world
geography.

Spykman’s Rimland Theory

• In 1944, Spykman as the point of critic or antithetic to the Heartland
Theory presented his work titled “The Rimland Theory” in his book – “The
Geography of Peace”
• He gave a different interpretation of the relative importance of
Heartland (Land Power) vis-a-vis the surrounding Inner and Outer Crescent
• His theory has been based on the 2 basic postulates of Mackinder –
• Geographical Causation of History
• The conflict between Land Power and Seapower
• Spykman, based on the same premises, built a new geopolitical model where
the Sea Power was supreme and Land Power being inaccessible is inferior
• Sea Power has faster movement, greater accessibility while Land can be
inaccessible due to hills, rivers, deserts, etc
• Sea Powers have more than 2/3rd population of the world and thus full of
human & technological resources. Most of the population is located on Coastal
areas
• Spykman considered geographical features as important determinants in
foreign policy because of its emphasis on spatial variations
• In medieval human history and the pre-modern era, Naval Power had
supremacy over the Land power as they had Navigation Technology, Ships, etc.
e.g. British, French, German, Portuguese, Spanish, Italy were all sea powers and
whole world became the colonial house of these countries
• Spykman gave emphasis on maritime mobility as the basis of a new type of
geopolitical structure
• According to Spykman, it is the sea power that governs the relationships
between Old and New Worlds
• To Spykman, the Heartland appeared “less important than the
Rimland” as Heartland could not support a large population due to extremes
of climate in Central Siberia
• He was convinced that it is a combination of land and sea powers controlling the
Rimland that would in all probability control the “essential power relations of
the world”.

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2 Tier System (Inner Core & Rimland)
He divided the world in 2 tier system –

A. Inner Core

• It is similar to the Heartland

• He said that Heartland is a region of Physiographic difficulties with barriers and
extreme climatic constraints such as Siberia
• The resources are dormant
• Human Population is absent
• It is neither a natural fortress nor the protected Land
• It is pilferated from many parts allowing access to others such as the central
Asian deserts, Steppes, Low mountains, River Valleys are several gateways
• Moreover, this region is inhabited by Tribals and has primitive civilization and by
no means it can affect the geopolitics of the world. It is a Land of Miseries with no
prosperity.

B. Rimland

• Similar to the Inner Crescent and has all the majestic sea powers, which scripted
the history of modern civilization
• All the area of Rimland is connected to water i.e. The seas or oceans e.g. China,
India, ASEAN Countries, Gulf Countries, etc
• To Spykman – “Heartland appeared less important than the Rimland” and his
famous dictum was
• “Who controls the Rimland rules Eurasia, Who rules Eurasia controls
the destinies of the World”

Writing at the time when the 2nd World War was still on, Spykman advocated that
the allied powers such as Britain, France, etc should base their future foreign
policy on preventing any consolidation of Rimland and the enemy.

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Application

• In the era of Colonisation, Sea Power like the British, French, Portugal, Spain
captured/demonstrated their superiority. The Naval power was significant
• Formation of the Indian Ocean Rim (including Australia & NZ) is an effort to
consolidate the rimland through Regional Groupings such as BISMTEC, IOR-ARC,
etc
• Other groups like ASEAN have a focus on similar objectives
• Geopolitics of the Indian Ocean & all the world superpowers have entered the
Indian Ocean – this also signifies the importance of Rimland e.g. Raisina
Dialogue, Pivot to Asia policy of USA
• K.M. Pannicker had remarked in the 1970s –
• “Who controls the Rimland has India at its mercy”
• USA intervention in West Asia & Gulf Countries
• During the cold war period – Eastern Europe was the zone of contention
between the superpowers –
• Cuban Missile Crisis
• National Missile Defence Strategy of USA
• After 1950, all major wars were fought in Rimland –
• North-South Korea
• Sino India
• Arab Israel War
• Indo Pak war
• Gulf crisis
• Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq war
• With the defeat of Germany in the 2nd World War and the emergence of the
USSR as the sole master of Heartland, Spykman’s prescription became the basis
of American policies of Containment of Communism
• NATO, Baghdad Pact & subsequently, CENTO (Central Treaty Organization) &
SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) were made by the USA to keep an

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 eye on the defense of Rimland mainly European and Asian Countries, and to
prevent the Soviet influence in warm waters of Rimland.

Criticism

• Criticised on the ground of Advancement of war technology and Nuclear

deterrence
• Spykman underestimated the role of the world community & UNO in promoting
world peace
• World today is a global village and international law doesn’t permit territorial
expansion i.e. Ratzel’s Lebensraum was no longer applicable which considered
State as a living organism and motivated Hitler for a Greater German Reich
• It is the time of Economic imperialism and not that of Political colonization e.g.
Flooding of Indian Markets by Chinese Goods.

Why Rimland is important than Heartland

• Rimland has more importance over Heartland because of the following reasons
–
• At least 40% of the world resources are in the Rimland area such as Oil,
Continental Shelf resources, etc
• Rimland countries have huge population e.g. India, China, etc
• Rimland countries are undergoing war against terror, the war against
weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs)
• Rimland consists mostly of developing Nations such as India, CLMV
countries, Indonesia, etc.

Growth Pole and Growth Centre Theory

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 • Economic development is the highest coveted goal for an economy and nation.
• Various policy frameworks, economic plans, strategies are formulated by
respective govt. to resurrect the economic stagnancy
• The theory of Growth Pole & Growth Centre have been proposed by French
economists with a view to resurrecting the French economy with propulsive
growth in a short span of time.
• Growth Pole Theory is an inductive economic model with a geographical
analysis of space. (Inductive means from particular to general)
• Growth Pole was proposed by Francois Perroux in 1955 as a part of economic
planning in France, He was concerned with the phenomenon of economic
development and with the process of structural change.
• The concept of Growth Centre however was proposed by Boudeville as a part
of his studies in Minas Gerais (Iron ore mines- largest in Brazil).
• Boudeville gave a regional character and a specific geographic
content to Perroux’s conception.

Growth Pole Theory

• Francois Perroux attempted to explain how the modern process of economic
growth deviated from the stationary conception of equilibrium growth. His
arguments were based on Schumpeter’s theories of the role of innovations
and large-scale firms.
• In Schumpeter’s analysis, development occurs as a result of
discontinuous spurts in a dynamic world. The cause of discontinuous
spurts is the innovative entrepreneur whose activities take place in large-
scale firms. These firms are able to dominate their environment in the
sense of exercising reversible and partially reversible influences on other
economic units by reason of their dimension and negotiating strength,
and by the nature of their operations.
• A Growth Pole (GP) is a dynamic and highly integrated set of
industries organized around a propulsive leading industry.
• E.g- the TISCO plant (Iron & steel) which leads to the establishment of a
dynamic & integrated set of industries around it and is linked to it. Then
the whole region around this TISCO will be known as the Growth Pole
which will propel the growth of the whole region.
• The central idea of the growth poles theory is that economic development, or
growth, is not uniform over an entire region, but instead takes place around
a specific pole (or cluster). This pole is often characterized by core (key)
industries around which linked industries develop, mainly through direct and
indirect effects. Core industries can involve a wide variety of sectors such as
automotive, aeronautical, agribusiness, electronics, steel, petrochemical, etc.
• Direct effects imply the core industry is purchasing goods and services from
its suppliers (upstream linked industries) or providing goods and services to
its customers (downstream linked industries).
• Indirect effects can involve the demand for goods and services by people
employed by the core and linked industries supporting the development and
expansion of economic activities such as retail.
• The expansion of the core industry implies the expansion of output,
employment, related investments, as well as new technologies and new
industrial sectors.

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Growth Pole Model
The growth pole model is based on following postulates:

1. Concept of economic space: This theory was devised to revive France’s

economy. Hence we are talking mainly about the economy.
2. Concept of a leading industry: A leading industry is one that is basic and
fundamental to the growth of other complementary, parasitic, peripheral
industries. Cotton Textile was the leading industry in Lancashire which invited
industries, manufacturing machinery (complementary industry) for cotton
textile as the machines were demanded by the cotton textile industry.
3. Concept of the propulsive firm: A propulsive firm means the accumulation of
factors of production and the risk-taking capacity to venture into new economic
sectors. A firm can be internal to an industry that functions as a part of the
industry to propel its growth and proliferation. A Firm can also be external to the
industries which can develop certain industries in various economic sectors.
4. Concept of polarisation: Polarisation means centralization (concentration) of
factors of production, resources- both physical & human, labour- both skilled &
unskilled in an area. The place which develops infrastructure grows in centrality
and pulls capital, resources, labours, entrepreneurship from the surrounding
area. This is an essential stage for the development of the growth pole.
5. Concept of linkages: Linkages means the forward and backward linkage of an
industry or an economic system that is functional and interdependent and
characterized by epiphytic (parasitic) tendencies E.g. Motor vehicles industry has
forward linkages with the marketing, advertising, insurance, and backward
linkages with iron & steel industry, rubber industry, etc Backward linkage: An
industry which encourages investment in the earlier stage of production by
expanding its demand for inputs Forward linkage: An industry which
encourages investment in the subsequent stage of production. E.g: Loan and
Banking services requirement by the motor vehicle industry
6. Concept of Agglomeration: Agglomeration means the accumulation of a
number of basic & heavy industries with their respective set of ancillary
industries and their linkage. It involves the growth of infrastructure, R&D.

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Stages of Development

1. STATIONARY GROWTH: It is the stage of economic stagnancy and no utilization

of resources, immobile capital, immobile capital & labour, and lesser propensity
to development.
2. CENTRALISATION: It means factors of production are moving towards the
economic space and new ventures, economic activities have been initiated
3. POLARISATION: It reflects the cumulative causation as suggested by Myrdal and
a leading industry or a propulsive firm develops at the point of centralization
over the economic space. In polarisation, the economic growth has started and
the backwash effect (by Gunner Myrdal) can be seen which drains out the
resources from surroundings, rendering them poor and backwardness
surrounds the growth pole.
4. AGGLOMERATIVE PHASE: The backwash effect is more accentuated and the
surrounding areas are desertified while the centre develops into the growth pole
(set of integrated and dynamic industries) and it is disproportionately larger than
the other urban centres. Thus, the growth pole is developed over the economic
space where polarisation and agglomeration have taken place.
5. TRICKLE DOWN: This is the last phase of Growth Pole development. Trickle-
down is synonymous to the spread-out effect (no scope for further development
in the Growth Pole region) as suggested by Gunner Myrdal. Trickle-down was
coined by Hirschmann. The benefits spread out in the otherwise desertified
region. This stage is marked by
• i) Decentralisation of industries
• ii) Dispersal of capital investments
• iii) Diffusion of innovation
• iv) Diversification of industries (venturing into other industries or products)
• Thus the whole landscape develops and economic equilibrium is
established and due to the trickling down of benefits, the backward areas
can be developed into developed areas.

Keeping in mind the Growth Pole Concept, India in 2nd Five Year Plan (Nehru-
Mahalonobis Model) has established Iron & Steel Plant in Durgapur, Bhillai, and
Rourkela which will act as leading industry and result in the development of the area
and ultimately by Trickle Down effect. But it has not achieved that much due to any
trickle-down effect.

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Critical Evaluation

1. The Growth Pole concept was intended for rapid economic growth in a short
span of time. But in the place of its origin, it failed as reflected in the “Paris
and the French Desert” (It means Paris developed and the surrounding area
didn’t due to no trickle-down effect)
2. Trickle-down stage and decentralization etc. have not operated the way it
was proposed in the model. Growth Pole kept on growing at the cost of
surroundings and benefits could not outgrow in the backward areas and it led to
an ever-widening regional disparity.
3. Growth Pole was projected as an alternative model to the CPT (Central Place
Theory) where an idealistic distribution of various centres (production, service
provider centres) were organized. But it could not serve the purpose of the
overall development of a country.
4. Economic space has been criticized by many scholars and Boudeville
replaced it with geographical space. Economic space remains a mere fanciful
idea, while geographical space was a larger reality. In the case of Paris,
Economic space was feasible as Paris has minerals in the west, agriculture in the
east, coasts in the south, and population in the North- such a thing is fanciful in
India and the majority of other places.

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Difference between Growth Pole and Growth Centre
Growth Pole
French Concept proposed by Perroux
Based on study of France with Paris & the
surroundings
Based on the idea of economic space, It is an
economic & abstract concept and not exist in
reality Requires large scale & Huge capital
investment
Economic space means where the factor of
production can be centralized such that propulsive
economic growth can be introduced on the basis
of a leading industry or a propulsive firm. It means
any point on the surface where resources, land,
labour; enterprise can function together and
produce the maximum results. Economic space
follows the principle of optimum location as
proposed in Weber’s model, which is based on 3
principles- Profit maximization, distance
minimization, and least cost. Economic space is
based on polarisation or agglomeration effect,
where a number of basic and heavy industries with
their backward and forward linkages develop.
Based on agglomeration effect ( 3or more
industries and their linkages)
Growth Pole is generally proposed at the
National Level. It has inter-regional co-relation.
Can be applied in a country with a small
geographical extent
Requisite of growth pole in country is 1
Growth Pole functions at the highest hierarchy
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Growth Centre
American Concept proposed by Boudeville
Based on study of Minas Geras (Brazil)
Based on idea of Geographical space GC
development is closely linked to development of
GP
Geographical space means such location which are
governed by the principle of accessibility, nearness,
location, resource base or such geographical
factors which themselves are responsible for
propulsive growth.
E.g.- The development of satellite towns along the
major transport lines is a geographical space,
where new industries can be installed as a part of
urban decentralization. The location of the iron &
steel industry in Chota Nagpur is the occupation of
Geographic Space. Similarly, Minas Geras (Brazil)
with rich deposits of iron ore and Manganese ore is
a geographical space where a leading industry like
iron & steel can be developed.
Based on cumulative effect (can be based on one
industry or firm)
Growth center is generally proposed at the
regional/local. An instrument of regional
development. It promotes local goals and has
intraregional characteristics
Large geographical extent
Growth centres could be many
Growth centre functions at lower hierarchy, below
the Growth Pole
 Growth Pole is the centre of diffusion of Growth centre is intended to utilize the local
innovation, centre for research and development, resources and develop the local or regional
capital accumulation, capital reinvestment, and economy. It does not intend to draw resources
employment generation. from all the places and can’t have R&D

GP signify greater centripetal forces and behave as It signifies centrifugal forces and dispersal of
the largest economic magnet in a country. It seeks economic activities. It seeks overall growth and
short span growth long-term growth.

GP has negative results even in the French GC has positive connotations since it is resource-
experience. E.g. After the growth of Paris, the based development, diffused growth,
surrounding region was bereft of development decentralized, function at the regional level and it
and it was titled “Paris and the French Desert”. contemplates growth of while landscape.

GC is based on industries as well as the growth of

GP is a mere economic concept and is based on
services. E.g – Schools, Colleges, Health services
industrial units, propulsive firms.
etc

R.P. Mishra:

• Indianised the theory of GP and GC (by integrating GPT, CPT, and Spatial
Diffusion Theory) in his own way and presented a new hypothesis on Growth
Focii (GF).
• GF is a low-order functional, an economic hub that functions at Block/Tehsil
level. It was not based on industrialization rather it relies on the development of
service centres.
• E.g A block-level market with an education centre, health centre, entertainment
centre, evolving social institutions, social organizations, and development of
social capital, making people more conscious, aware, knowledgeable to their
growth perspectives, Thus, GF is based on the concept of local renaissance and
development of the service sector.
• It was to act below the growth centres and the growth point. Thus for the
regional development perspective, the following model can be applied.

Difference between Central Place theory (CPT) and Growth Pole theory (GPT)
CPT GPT

CPT is normative, deductive based on idealistic It is an empirical, inductive model

assumptions. based on data surveys and observations.

CPT assumes that equal distribution of resources and GPT assumes the unequal/
settlements over the landscape. heterogeneous landscape

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 GPT is based on various stages of
CPT applies to the fully developed landscape of a country
development

It has a complete picture and network of the various

hierarchical patterns of function at different levels. GP doesn’t have a hierarchy and it is the
E.g. – 7 level hierarchy CPT is a much more comprehensive single most important magnet of a
model of planning which includes GP at H1, GC at H2, country.
Growth Pole at H3, etc.

GPT signifies centralisation, polarisation,

CPT signifies diffusion, dispersal, decentralization
agglomeration

CPT is based on mainly the supply factor from various GPT is based on demand and
settlements at different hierarchical levels. production.

Based on industries, firms, productions,

Based on services
manufacturing

CPT signifies centrifugal forces and the flow from top to GPT signifies centripetal
bottom. forces and bottom to top.

Rostow’s Model of Stages of Growth

At the end of the Second World War (1939-45), there was a renewal of interest in the
subject of development economics, and the stages of growth once again preoccupied
many scholars. As a non-communist manifesto, W. W. Rostow’s stages of economic
growth (1960, 1971) is a foray into positioning the sweep of modern economic history
under capitalism into neat and hopeful epochs.

Geographers often seek to categorize places using a scale of development,

frequently dividing nations into the “developed” and “developing,” “first world” and
“third world,” or “core” and “periphery.” All of these labels are based on judging a
country’s development, but this raises the question: What exactly does it mean to be
“developed,” and why have some countries developed while others have not? Since
the beginning of the 20th century, geographers and those involved with the vast field
of Development Studies have sought to answer this question, and in the process, have
come up with many different models to explain this phenomenon.

Prior to Rostow, approaches to development had been based on the assumption

that “modernization” was characterized by the Western world (wealthier, more
powerful countries at the time), which were able to advance from the initial stages of
underdevelopment. Accordingly, other countries should model themselves after the
West, aspiring to a “modern” state of capitalism and liberal democracy. Using these
ideas, Rostow penned his classic “Stages of Economic Growth” in 1960,

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which presented five steps through which all countries must pass to become
developed.

Rostow’s Model of Stages of Economic Growth

Rostow’s Stages of Growth model is one of the major historical models of
economic growth. It was published by American economist Walt Whitman Rostow in
1960.

W. Rostow formulated the best-known non-spatial model in 1955 in which five

stages of economic development were identified.

In his view, at the beginning, a traditional society witnessed a few stages before
attaining the level of the age of mass consumption. Rostow’s stages of economic
development are shown below.

1. Traditional society
2. Preconditions for take-off
3. Take-off
4. Drive to maturity
5. Age of High mass consumption

1. Traditional Society
The traditional society has been defined as one where limited production functions are
characterized by pre-Newtonian technology. The social structure is hierarchical,
political power is confined in the hands of a feudal aristocracy. More than 75 percent
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of the population is engaged in agriculture i.e. this stage is characterized by a
subsistent, agricultural-based economy with intensive labor and low levels of trading,
and a population that does not have a scientific perspective on the world and
technology.

2. Preconditions to Take-off
The second stage is a transitional phase, the preconditions-, of which were initiated
mainly by four forces: the Renaissance, the New Monarchy, the New World (Political
revolution), and the New Religion or the Reformation. These forces were cardinal
factors behind the changes in social attitudes, values, etc.

The pre-conditions are brought about by external factors. In most parts of Britain,
the situation changed with the domination of Napoleon whose victory set in new
revolutionary ideas. The preconditions for industrial development demand changes
in non-industrial sectors, viz., (i) a buildup of social overhead capital, particularly in
transport sectors; (ii) agricultural practices witnessing technological up-gradation,
which leads to rising agricultural productivity; and (iii) import expansion.

These conditions mainly comprise fundamental changes in the social, political and
economic fields; for example:

• (a) A change in society’s attitudes towards science, risk-taking, and profit-

earning;
• (b) The adaptability of the labour force;
• (c) Political sovereignty;
• (d) Development of a centralized tax system and financial institutions; and(e) The
construction of certain economic and social infrastructure like railways, ports,
power generation, and educational institutions. India did some of these things in
the First Five Year plan period (1951-56).

It is evident from above that in this second stage of growth foundations for economic
transformation are laid. The people start using modern science and technology for
increasing productivity in both agriculture and industry.

Further, there is a change in the attitude of the people who start viewing the world
where there are possibilities of future growth. A new class of entrepreneurs emerges
in the society who mobilize savings and undertake investment in new enterprises and
bear risks and uncertainty. In the sphere of political organization, it is during this stage
that an effective centralized nation-state starts emerging.

Thus in the stage of precondition for take-off Rostow views agriculture as performing
three roles, first, agriculture must produce sufficient food-grains to meet the demand
of the growing population and of the workers who get employment in agriculture.

Secondly, increase in agricultural incomes would lead to the demand for industrial
products and stimulate industrial investment.

Thirdly, expanding agriculture must provide much of the savings needed for the
expansion of the industrial sector.

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3. The “Take-off” Stage
This is the crucial stage which covers a relatively brief period of two to three
decades in which the economy transforms itself in such a way that economic
growth subsequently takes place more or less automatically. “The take-off” is
defined as “the interval during which the rate of investment increases in such a
way that real output per capita rises and this initial increase carries with it radical
changes in the techniques of production and the disposition of income flows which
perpetuate the new scale of investment and perpetuate thereby the rising trend in per
capita output.”

Thus, the term “take-off ” implies three things: first, the proportion of investment to
national income must rise from 5% to 10% and more so as to outstrip the likely
population growth; secondly, the period must be relatively short so that it should show
the characteristics of an economic revolution; and thirdly, it must culminate in self-
sustaining and self-generating economic growth.

Thus, during the take-off stage, the desire to achieve economic growth to raise the
living standards dominates society. Revolutionary changes occur in both
agriculture and industry and productivity levels sharply increase.

There are greater urbanization and urban labour force increases. In a relatively short
period of a decade or two, both the basic structure of the economy and social and
political structure is changed So that a self-sustaining growth rate can be maintained.

It is worth noting that in the opinion of Rostow, the rise of the new elite (i.e. new
entrepreneurial class) and the establishment of a nation-state are crucial for economic
development.

4. Drive to Maturity
The drive to maturity is the phase when the society has been able to apply a wide
range of technology to development processes enabling it to achieve a long
sustained economic growth extending well over four decades.

At this stage, there are some important changes:

1. The workforce becomes more skilled. People prefer to reside in urban areas. Real
wages gallop, and workers are more organized to ensure social and economic
security,
2. The rugged entrepreneurs yield place to a new generation of sophisticated
managers and chief executive officers,
3. Society gets exhausted by the pace of industrialization and seeks changes that
would lead to further change.

5. Age of High Mass Consumption

The age of high mass-consumption has been characterized by the consumption of
durable commodities, household gadgets, automobiles, etc. Society pays more
attention to demand than supply, to problems of consumption than problems of
production and welfare of the people.

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There are three forces which increase welfare during the post-maturity phase:

1. The national policy is geared to enhance power and spreads its influence beyond
national frontiers;
2. For achieving the goal of a welfare state, the government makes provisions for
more equitable distribution of income, social security, leisure to the workforce;
3. Commercial centers of cheaper automobiles, houses, and sophisticated
household devices, etc., are set up.

Criticism of Rostow’s Model

Rostow’s model has been criticized by economists and social scientists belonging to
other disciplines.

The major criticisms are noted below:

1. Traditional society is not a pre-requisite qualification for development. Countries

like the USA, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand were not ‘traditional’ when they were
born.

2. The precondition phase is not necessary before the take-off. It is hard to believe
on the available evidence that a phase of agricultural revolution and build-up of
overhead social capital in transport must precede the take-off.

3. Stages tend to overlap. Countries such as New Zealand and Denmark experienced
take-off as a result of agricultural development. In their cases, the different stages
postulated by W.W. Rostow are not distinct.

4. There are indiscrepancies in the matter of take-off. Rostow himself was skeptical
regarding the date of take-off. This is suggested by his paradoxical reference to the
years 1937 and 1952 as the years of India’s take-off. He did not consider the possibilities
of economic recession during takeoff. The analysis of take-off hardly takes into account
the impact of historical heritage, extent of backwardness, and other associated factors.

Regarding the essential conditions for take-off, some shortcomings are found:

• (a) The rate of productive investment to over 10 percent of net national product
is found to be arbitrary.
• (b) Rostow’s emphasis on the role of some leading sectors like textiles, railroad,
etc., in the take-off can hardly be proved.
• (c) In the third condition, Rostow argued in favor of mobilizing domestic capital
which is no different from the first condition.

5. The drive to maturity is confusing. The stage contains all the features of the take-off,
e.g., net investment over 10 percent of national income, development of the latest
production techniques, etc. Therefore, the need for a separate stage where growth is
self-sustained is no longer required. In reality, no growth is absolutely self-sustaining or
self-limiting.

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6. Chronological order is not maintained in the stage of high mass
consumption. Some countries like Canada and Australia entered this stage even
before attaining maturity.

7. The concept of take-off ideally fits the case of developing countries. Rostow’s idea of
over 10 percent capital formation and development.

Laws of International Boundaries and Frontiers

Boundary
It implies the physical limit of sovereignty and jurisdiction of a state; it is a
manifestation of integration and is oriented inwards.

Its characteristics are as follows:

1. It is still possible to recognize frontier characteristics in boundaries, especially in

sparsely populated regions, such as deserts. This leads to minimum friction. An
example is a boundary between Spain and Portugal.
2. It is an appropriate concept for the modern state where all that is within the
boundary is bound together by common law, economy, physical features, idea,
or creed with a government or central authority in effective control of the
territory and activities within the boundaries.
3. It may be reached by expanding into frontiers when the natural limits are
reached. For instance, the westward expansions of the USA into desert frontiers
till the coastlines were reached.
4. It is an outer line of effective control of the central government keeping the
enemy out and the resources in.
5. It is a legal-political phenomenon which is not created but fixed by the political
decision-makers.
6. It signifies differences in goals, ideology, structure, interests, etc. from those of
the neighboring states.

Frontier
In the past, during the political evolutions of a state, states were separated by areas,
not lines. The function of the intervening area was to prevent direct contact between
the neighboring states and it was referred to as a frontier.

A frontier, can, thus, be defined as a politico-geographical area, lying beyond defined

borders of a political unit into which expansion could take place (for instance,
European penetration into the Zulu-Natal area and, in modern times, Antarctica). It is a
physical and moral concept which implied looking outwards and moving outwards.
Some frontiers have occurred where two nations advance from different directions,
leading to boundary disputes.

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Boundary and Frontier—A Comparison:
1. A boundary is oriented inwards. It is a manifestation of integration, and is a
centripetal force; a frontier is oriented outwards and is a manifestation of the
spontaneous tendency to grow, of ecumene, and is a centrifugal force.

2. A boundary is created and maintained by the will of the government. It has no life of
its own, not even a material existence; a frontier is a ‘fact of life’ and exists physically on
ground as a dynamic entity.

3. A boundary is well-defined and regulated by law. It possesses uniform

characteristics. A frontier is a phenomenon of history and, like history, it is unique.

4. A boundary is a separating factor whereas a frontier provides scope for mutual

interaction and exchange.

5. Boundaries are purely political in origin and function while frontiers are transitional
between geographical regions, rather than between the states. Thus frontiers are
more geographical rather than political in nature.

6. Frontiers are phenomenon of past while boundaries belong to present.

7. A frontier whether physical, linguistic, religious, or ethnic can not be moved. It may
change its character, and lose much of its frontier function, but it must remain in-situ.
In contrast, boundaries are by no means immovable.

Classification of International Boundaries

There are two important systems of classification of international boundaries:

First is the functional, also called the genetic classification. It is a concept based on
the nature of the relationship between the boundary line and the evolution of the
cultural landscape of the State whose sovereignty it defines, delimits and separates.

Secondly, boundaries may be classified in accordance with their form that is in terms
of their demarcation and fixation on the ground. A boundary may often be drawn to
follow some conspicuous physical feature, such as a mountain range, a river, or a lake.
These are physical or physiographic boundaries.

Boundaries may also be drawn to follow a geometrical line (geometrical or straight-

line boundaries) or to separate certain ethnic communities (ethnic
or anthropogeographic boundaries). In most boundaries, however, more than one
criterion of delimitation may be involved. Most boundaries are, therefore, complex in
nature. This classification is called the morphological classification.

Genetic or Functional Classification

The genetic classification of boundaries is based on the relationship that a boundary
line had shared with the surrounding cultural landscape at the time of its
demarcation. It was derived from physical geography, although the analogy between
the mechanics of river development and the dynamics of international boundaries is
no doubt, imperfect.
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 1. Antecedent boundaries
2. Subsequent boundaries
3. Super-imposed boundaries
4. Relic or Relict boundaries

Antecedent boundaries
Boundaries that predated the evolution of the cultural landscape are
called antecedent boundaries. They are the most common type to come across in the
New World. Here international boundaries were generally agreed upon at the
conference table even before the concerned territory was fully explored, and
colonized so that they are mostly straight line geometrical boundaries.

Ex: States of USA, Alaska & Canada, Australia etc.

Subsequent boundaries
Those boundaries whose definition and demarcation had followed the evolution of
the cultural landscape are called subsequent boundaries. Such boundaries often
conform to ethnic-cultural divisions of the landscape especially the divisions of
language and religion. Most boundaries in Eastern Europe, and those between India
and Pakistan, and India and Bangladesh belong to this type. Certain subsequent
boundaries are superimposed in nature. These were also drawn after the cultural
landscape had fully evolved. The difference lies in that the subsequent type conforms
to the cultural division between neighboring communities, and was decided upon
through mutual agreement.

Super-imposed boundaries
The super-imposed type, in contrast, does not conform to the social-cultural divisions
on the ground. They were imposed upon the concerned communities, either by
outside powers or the overbearing unit between the two. Most colonial boundaries
in Africa are of this type. Truce-line boundaries also belong to this type.

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Relic or Relict boundaries
A fourth type called Relic or Relict boundaries are those boundary lines which have
currently lost political function, but which may still be discernible in the cultural
landscape. Such boundary lines result when a smaller State is absorbed by a larger
one, or when frontier boundaries between States are abandoned and redrawn.

One example is the Berlin Wall, which was built in 1961 by Soviet-controlled East
Germany to contain the portion of the city that had been given over to America,
England, and France to administer.
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Morphological Classification
Morphological boundaries are those that were drawn to follow some conspicuous
feature of the physical landscape. Since these boundaries follow some natural
feature of the physical landscape, they are sometimes wrongly referred to as natural
boundaries, as contrasted to the boundaries drawn to follow certain geometrical lines
or the divisions of language or religion. The latter is sometimes referred to as artificial
boundaries. This distinction is, however, not correct. All boundaries are man-made,
hence all are artificial.

• Physiographic Boundaries
• Mountain Boundaries
• Rivers as International Boundaries
• Boundaries in Lakes and Straits
• Forest, Swamp, and Deserts

Mountain Boundaries

They have been the most favored type since they have traditionally served as natural
barriers. Being firmly fixed on the ground, mountain boundaries were considered to be
highly stable.

However, revolutionary changes in transport and communication, and the opening of

the sky as a highway, has greatly reduced their function as protective barriers. As
the Chinese invasion of India across the Himalayas has proved, even the loftiest of
the mountain ranges are no longer impregnable. The location of the boundary line
along with a mountain range often poses difficult problems, since most mountain
ranges do not possess a well-defined crest line. Even where the crest lines exist, they
are often divided by transverse valleys. Besides, most mountain ranges consist of
several semi-parallel ranges, each with its separate crest line. Therefore, contrary to
popular belief, the coincidence between the crest line and the water divide between
streams flowing down its opposite slopes, is seldom found.

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Both the Indus and the Brahmaputra originate in the Mansarower lakes and thus drain
both the Himalayan and the trans-Himalayan regions to the sea by the combined river
system of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra.

Rivers as international boundaries:

Many international boundaries are based on river streams. Theadvantages of selecting

a river as boundary are:

1. It is a clearly marked feature on the map;

2. It is a more narrowly defined (almost linear) feature than mountains and hills;
and
3. Wide, unfordable streams had previously served as barriers to communication,
and, as such, were thought to possess some military value by serving as possible
lines of defense against an advancing army.

Irrespective of these advantages the choice of rivers as international boundaries has

seldom proved satisfactory. First drainage basins generally tend to exert a unifying
rather than a separating influence, since rivers and their valleys provide lines of
movements that promote social and commercial intercourse. River basins generally
consist of fertile alluvial plains supporting dense populations. Therefore, an
international boundary drawn along or across a river disrupts settled communities and
creates problems in river water utilization and management. The India-Pakistan
boundary through the Indus basin and the Indo-Bangladesh boundary are two
important cases in point.

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Once a river is selected to serve as the boundary between two adjacent States, the
problem arises as to how to locate the boundary line. Generally, the boundary line may
follow the median line or the middle of the navigable channel, or it may adopt one of
the shorelines. A median line may be defined as the line joining all points which are
equidistant from the nearest points on opposite shores. The main difficulty in the
adoption of the median line as the boundary is that it makes an equal division of the
water surface rather than its volume. The adoption of the navigable channel’s inter-
State boundary presents its own set of problems owing to its highly zigzag course
and frequent changes in its position that may lead to recurrent dislocation of life
along the border zone.

Location of the boundary through a navigable lake poses equally difficult problems,
though no dislocation of settled communities may be involved.

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Theories of the evolution of Boundaries and Frontiers

1. Core-periphery model
• Arbitrary Process
• Arbitration Process
• Evolutionary Process
2. Organismic theory
3. British Imperialist theory
4. Contractualist theory

Organic State Theory (Friedrich Ratzel)

• The organic theory, along with the Heartland and Rimland theories, falls under
political geography, otherwise known as geopolitics.
• Geopolitics refers to how politics plays a role in geography and influences
different geographic attributes such as political borders. The term geopolitics
once had a negative connotation, due to the organic theory, and in this paper,
we shall discuss the reason for this.
• It was theorized in 1897 by Friedrich Ratzel, a nineteenth-century German
geographer and ethnographer. The name “organic theory” comes from Ratzel’s
assertion that political entities, such as countries, behave in a way not too
dissimilar from that of living organisms.
• More specifically, to survive, a political entity requires nourishment to gain
political power. This nourishment came in the form of a term he coined
called Lebensraum, which translates from German to “living space.” He was
referring to the physical territory.

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 • Therefore, we can say that organic theory states that political entities
continually seek nourishment in the form of gaining territories to survive in
the same way that a living organism seeks nourishment from food to
survive.
• States are like living organisms and have a life cycle with similar stages:
• Youth
• Maturity
• Old age
• Youthful states are identified by:
• Population growth
• Stable cultural identity
• Mature states are defined by:
• Population stability
• Cultural evolution
• Old states are defined by:
• Decreasing population
• Break-down of cultural identity
• Essentially, the analogy is that food for an organism is territory for a country, and
the more territory that it conquers the more that the particular political entity
can sustain and preserve itself. As a result, the organic theory implies that for a
political entity to maintain control, it invariably needs to seek out Lebensraum
and go out and conquer all the territory that it possibly can, and complacency is
not an option. Otherwise, it risks its security and is always vulnerable to attacks
because other political entities also behave in this organic way and will try to
conquer as much territory as they can as well for the purpose of self-
preservation.
• You can compare it to the competition among living organisms for the scarce
resource of food, which is their form of nourishment.

Importance and Examples of Organic theory

• Organic theory was another explanation of how and why certain political entities
behaved the way that they did. Many political scientists, geographers, and
ethnographers took this theory of aiming to use what happened in the past
to explain what could happen in the future.
• Its primary goal was to help influence policy in a certain way so that certain
political entities can sustain themselves and predict the way other countries,
particularly those currently on the aggressive or with an aggressive nature, will
behave given a particular set of circumstances.
• In its use as a political tool, organic theory was often used as a justification of
relentless and aggressive conquering. The idea behind it was self-preservation.
The argument was that if one political entity didn’t actively seek new territory
and expanded, then its territory was susceptible and prone to outside attack
from other political entities who sought the same nourishment.
• To see the examples of the organic theory in play, you don’t need to look far. All
great empires and political entities throughout history have focused on
expansion. There has been no political entity in the world focused on voluntary
contraction. The closest thing that occurred in history to voluntary contraction is
the split of the Roman Empire its Western and Eastern halves, the latter going
on to become the Byzantine Empire. This split was not entirely voluntary,

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 however, as it had to be done due to administrative difficulties within the
empire.
• You don’t see this happening as much in the modern era due to plenty of
pacts, agreements, and treaties calling for ceasefires. Bodies such as
the United Nations enforce such accords. However, the innate nature of a state
behaving according to the organic theory is still visible. If a country is unable to
conquer a territory, then it does the second-best option: it intervenes in
external affairs for its gains. An example of this would be the Western
intervention in the Middle East.
• Another way you can see the organic theory at work in the modern world is
through self-determination. Many marginalized ethnic groups, or those who
believe that they deserve their political entity, such as stateless nations aim to
separate from the entity that they are currently under the control of.
However, if that larger entity lets self-determination run its course, that means it
loses territory and therefore, nutrition. For example, India does not want to lose
the state of Kashmir to Pakistan because that would mean that Pakistan
would gain territory and support its organic behavior, and India would lose
nutrition in this case.
• There have been many rebuttals to the organic theory. In 1899, Sir William
Crookes, a British scientist, said that territorial expansion is not the only thing
that can act as nutrition and that technological advances can also solidify a
political entity. This argument may explain why more developed nations are
more politically stable and less likely to invade and conquer.
• So, Organic theory is the idea that countries behave like organisms in that
they seek nutrition to survive. The nutrition in the country’s case is land
territory. It was used by Adolf Hitler to justify his ruthless expansion of Nazi
Germany.

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