PRE-TEST ON MICROBIOLOGY

1. What is microbiology? Microbiology is the study of microbes.

2. What is parasitology? Parasitology is the study of parasites.
3. What are the branches of science related to Microbiology & Parasitology?
 Bacteriology
 Parasitology
 Mycology – fungus
 Virology – virus
 Immunology
 Microbial genetics – study of heredity & variation of organisms
4. Who is the father of Microbiology? Louis Pasteur
5. 3 scopes of microbiology in relation to its impact (in what particular field/area) [uses of
microbiology]
 Medicine
 Agriculture
 Food science
 Ecology (balance of the system)
 Genetics
 Biochemistry
6. 5 ways to prevent infection
 Hand washing
 Avoid borrowing items
 Proper waste disposal
 Personal hygiene
 Use of Proper Personal Equipment
 Avoid skin contact – proper precaution
 Respiratory hygiene – coughing
 Practice safe sex
 Disinfection
 Regulation of vitamins
7. Identify 4 types of organisms
 Bacteria
 Protozoa
 Algae
 Virus
8. Composition of epidemiologic triad
 Host
 Environment
 Agent

9. Specific examples of parasites

  Malaria
 Scabies
 Amoebiasis
 Threadworms
10. Examples of bodily fluids used in microbiology
 Blood
 Saliva
 Feces
 Urine
11. Infection control in the environment
 Proper waste disposal
 Information dissemination
12. Examples of mode of transmission of disease
 Direct contact
 Droplets
 Vector (mosquito)
 Vehicle (food)
 Airborne route
13. Types of handwashing
 Medical
 Surgical

MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY

Microbiology
 The study of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, viruses, archaea, fungi and
protozoa (microorganisms)
 The study of microorganisms, those being unicellular, multicellular or acellular
o Unicellular: one cell is the entire organism
o Multicellular: hundreds, thousands or even billion of cells can make up the
entire organisms
o Acellular: viruses and other infectious agents such as prions and viroid

Microbiology has an impact on:

 Medicine
 Agriculture
 Food technology
 Ecology
 Genetics
 Biochemistry
 Immunology

Disease Prevention and Control

 Handwashing
 Protective devices
 Sterilization
 Cross infection
 Food preparation

Definition of Terms
 Airborne transmission: spread of infection by droplet or dust through the air, covering a
distance beyond 3 feet.
 Droplet transmission: spread of infection through respiratory droplets that occurs when
people sneeze, cough and exhale, covering a distance of less than 3 feet.
 Asepsis: freedom from contamination of infection; the reduction of microorganisms to a
level that will not cause an infection
o Medical asepsis: maintaining a clean environment or technique in performing a
task
 Inhibits growth and spread of pathogenic microorganisms
 Clean technique
o Surgical asepsis: maintaining a sterile environment or technique in informing
 Bacterial count (good if small amount)
 Destroys all microorganisms and their spores
 Sterile technique
 Cohorting: imposed grouping of clients who are exposed to or suffering from infection
or a specific condition.
  Handwashing: a method of cleaning the hands with water or other liquid with or
without soap or other detergents and friction. It is considered as the most basic method
of preventing in infection.
 Infection: invasion and multiplication of disease-causing organisms in the body or a part
of the body.
 Iatrogenic infection: infection caused by medical personnel, treatment procedures or
the hospital environment.
o Healthy carrier  not proper handwashing or doings of the health practitioners
 Nosocomial infection: hospital acquired infection.

Epidemiology
 the study of disease in human population.
 the study of factors that determine the frequency, distribution and determinants of
diseases in human populations, and ways to prevent, control or eradicate diseases in
populations.

Definition of Terms
 Infectious disease: a disease that is caused by invasion and multiplication of pathogenic
microorganisms.
o INFECTION
o A disease that is caused by a pathogen
 Communicable disease: an infectious disease that is easily transmitted from one person
to one person to another, in direct or indirect contact with fomites and vectors.
o Fomites: transmission of infectious diseases by objects
o Vectors: mosquito (carrier)
o Example: person to person
 Influenza, Gonorrhea
 Contagious disease: a communicable disease that is easily transmitted from one person
to another
o Example: influenza vs. gonorrhea
 Zoonotic diseases: infectious diseases that human acquire from animal sources
o Examples:
 Rabies: serious infection of the nervous system that is caused by a virus –
from animal bite – bats, coyotes, raccoons and skunks
 Anthrax: Bacillus anthracis (flu-like)
 Tularemia: Francisella tularensis – serious potential bioterrorist threat
because it is one of the most infectious pathogenic bacteria known-
inhalation
 West Nile virus: mosquito-borne disease
 Incidence Rate: the number of new cases of that disease in a defined population during
a specified time period.
 Morbidity Rate: the number of new cases of a particular disease that occurred during a
specified time period and per a specially defined population
  Prevalence Rate: PERIOD of PREVALENCE of a particular disease
o It is the number of cases of the disease existing in a given population during a
specific period
o Example: “G”
 Point Relevance of a particular disease
o It is the number of cases of the disease existing in a given population at a
particular moment in time
o Example: malaria
 Mortality rate: death rate
o the ratio of the number of people who died of a particular disease during a
specified time period per a specified population (usually per 1,000; 1,0000 or
100,000 population)
 Sporadic: disease that occurs only rarely and without regularity (sporadically) within the
population of a particular geographic areas.
o Example: tetanus, rabies, plague
 Endemic: disease that is always present within a population
o Example: dengue, cholera, typhoid, leptospirosis, salmonellosis, shingellosis
 Epidemic: diseases that occur in a greater than usual number of cases in a particular
region and usually occurs within a relatively short period of time.
o Example: dengue, cholera, typhoid, leptospirosis
 Pandemic: disease that occurs in epidemic proportions in many countries
simultaneously – sometimes worldwide.
o Example: HIV/AIDS; Avian/bird flu H1N1
Basic Concept of Epidemiology
 Epidemiology is the study of the occurrence, distribution and determinants of health
problems and diseases in human population or communities and the use of this
knowledge for prevention and control of diseases.
 The primary unit of concern is a group of persons not any single person. Therefore,
epidemiology deals with population pathology not the clinical pathology.

Main Aims of Epidemiology

1. Describe the disease patterns in human populations
o Descriptive epidemiology: describes the distribution and size of disease problems
in human populations
2. Identify the causes of diseases
o Analytical epidemiology: Identify the etiological factors in the pathogenesis of
disease
3. Provide data essential for the management, evaluation, and planning of services for
the prevention, control and treatment of disease.
o Experimental epidemiology

The ultimate aim of epidemiology is

 to eliminate or reduce the health problem or its consequences
  to improve medical care and provide administrative guidance for community health
services
 to promote the health and well-being of society as a whole

Scope of Epidemiology
 Disease definition: characteristics or combination of character that best discriminate
disease from non-diseased
 Disease occurrence: the rate of development of new case in population. The proportion
of current disease within population
 Disease causation: the risk factors for disease development and their relative strength
with respect to an individual and population
 Disease outcome: the outcome following disease onset and of the risk factors.
 Disease management: the relative effectiveness of proposed therapeutic interventions
 Disease prevention: the relative effectiveness of proposed preventive strategies
including screening

Uses of Epidemiology
 To study the history of the health and diseases and projecting it in the future
o Studies trends of a disease for the prediction of trends
o Results of studies are useful in planning for health services and public health
 Community diagnosis of the presence, nature and distribution of health and diseases
among the population
o What diseases, conditions, injuries, disorders, disabilities, defects causing illness,
health problems, or death in a community or region
 Estimate the individual’s chances and risks of disease
 To study the working of health services
o How well do public health and health services meet the problems and needs of
the population
o Effectiveness; efficiency; quality; access; availability of services to treat, control
or prevent disease
 Help on completing the clinical picture of diseases
o Identification and diagnostic process to establish that a condition exists or that a
person has a specific disease
o Cause effect relationships are determined, e.g. strep throat can cause rheumatic
fever
 Identification of syndromes from the distribution of clinical phenomena among sections
of the population.
o Help to establish and set criteria to define syndromes, some examples are:
Down, fetal alcohol, sudden death in infants, etcetera.
 Determine the causes and sources of diseases
o Findings allow for control prevention, and elimination of the causes of disease,
conditions, injury, disability, or death
Benefits of Epidemiology for Nursing
1. Model for quantitative nursing research
2. Strategy for evaluating clinical nursing research literature
3. Framework for thinking for clinical decisions
4. Mechanism for the effective and efficient planning and delivery of nursing services to
those who most need them
5. Opportunity to enrich current nursing concepts or to create new and mutually
enhancing shared theory

In disease prevention and control,

 The epidemiologist helps to control a disease when he identifies it, describes its
epidemiology, demonstrates its existence in a community and investigates its source.
 Primary control: disease prevention is the ideal control measure; it aims to prevent the
initial development of the disease
 Secondary control: consists of diagnosis and treatment; it aims to reduce the severity
and prevent complications.
 Tertiary control: involves rehabilitation of the disabled and correction of defect or
impairment.

 Viroids: are the smallest infectious pathogens known; composedly solely of a short
strand of circular, single-stranded RNA that has no protein coating.
o The protein coating – gives its virulence, if there’s none it means it doesn’t have
the ability to cause a disease
o Virulence: ability to cause disease
 Prions: are misfolded proteins (all microbes are protein in nature) with the ability to
transmit their misfolded shape onto normal variants of the same protein; characterize
several fatal and transmissible neurodegenerative disease in humans and many other
animals
 o Neurogenerative disease
 Multiple Sclerosis: affects the Nervous System
 Transmission of impulse (degenerative)
 Lower to higher extremities  respiratory
 Respiratory arrest
 Virus: is a small infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of an
organism.
o it can infect all types of life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms,
including bacteria and archaea.
o Host: human
o Common colds: coryza
 Archaea: single-celled microorganisms with structure similar to bacteria; obligate
microbes anaerobes living in environments low in oxygen (eg. water, soil)
o Obligate anaerobes: need anaerobic (no oxygen)
 Bacteria: microscopic single-celled organisms with various shapes: spherical, rod, spiral
and comma.
o SPHERICAL
 Cocci – Staphylococcus aureus
 Gram positive
 Boils, carbuncles, furuncles
 Drug of use: Cloxacillin (penicillin-based drug)
 Type 1 hypersensitivity
√ Rashes
√ DOB
√ Reddish eyes (dilation)
√ Swelling of eyebags
√ Periorbital edema: swell
o RODS
 Bacilli - Mycobacterium tuberculosis
 Pulmonary Tuberculosis
 Gram negative: pink
 Gram positive: violet/blue
 Mantoux Test for PTB (PPD) is exposed.
 Inject antigen on the volar part of the arm (vein free)
 Check for area of induration (elevated)
√ Induration is when the infected area increased in size.
√ After 24-72 hours check for increase the size in
diameter 10 mm or more.  General population
exposed.
√ If the redness is 5-10 mm in size, that means there’s a
TB.
 MDT: Rifampicin & int. isoniazid ethambutol
 Sputum Test: Identify the presence of bacilli (present or active)
  Active: TB DOTS
o SPIRAL
 Treponema pallidum: Syphilis
 Syphilis  cardiac syphilis  penicillin
 P2A: Pyrazinamide
 Allergic in penicillin intervention: Cephalosporin
o COMMA
 Vibrio comma
 Flu like symptoms (symptomatic treatment)
 Signs – objective
 Symptoms – subjective (feeling of a person)
 Signs + symptoms = syndrome
 Wong’s Pain Scale – subjective
 Cyanobacteria: also known as Cyanophyta, are the phylum of a bacteria that obtain
their energy through photosynthesis and are the only photosynthetic prokaryotes able
to produce oxygen.
 Algae: are a diverse group of aquatic organisms that have the ability to conduct
photosynthesis. Certain algae are familiar to most people; for instance, seaweeds (such
as kelp or phytoplankton).
 Protozoa: an informal term for single-celled eukaryotes, either free-living or parasitic,
which feed on organic matter such as other microorganisms or organic tissues or debris.
o Entamoeba coli
o Entamoeba histolytica
o Enchomas vaginalis
 Fungi: kingdom of usually multicellular eukaryotic organisms that are heterotrophs
(cannot make their own food)
o Molds
o Yeasts (beer)
o Mushrooms (cultured)

PROKARYOTE EUKARYOTE
Cell size 0.2 – 2 um in diameter 10-100 um in diameter
Membrane-enclosed Absent Present (Lysosomes, Golgi,
organelles ER, Mitochondria)
Nucleus Exhibit characteristics of More complex cells with
life but do not have the true nucleus and many
complex system of membrane-bound
membranes and organelles organelles

NO NUCLEUS
Flagella Consist of two protein Complex, consist of
building blocks multiple microtubules
(has flagella) (more flagella)
 Glycocalyx (carbohydrate-
enriched coating used for
the recognition of the cell
wall)
Cell wall
Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm
Ribosomes
Synthesis of protein
Cell division
Chromosome (DNA)
Sexual recombination
MICROBIAL GROWTH
A. Physical Requirements
 Temperature
 Psychrophiles – cold loving - 0 ° C (-20° C ¿ 10° C ¿
o Pseudomonas aeruginosa (hospital acquired)
- present as a capsule or - present in some cells that
slime layer lacks a cell wall
(cover thin layer)
Usually present, chemically When present, chemically
complex (peptidoglycan) simple
a. N- acetylglucosamine (cellulose and chitin)
b. N- acetylmuramic acid - polymer of N-
c. Tetrapeptide side chain acetylglucosamine (found
d. Peptide chain in exoskeletons of
crustaceans = covering)
No carbohydrates and Sterols and carbohydrates
generally lacks sterols – that serve as receptors
complex lipid (source of
fats and carbohydrate
energies)
No cytoskeleton or With cytoskeleton –
cytoplasmic streaming system of fibers;
cytoplasmic streaming –
movement of cytoplasm
Smaller size (70S) Larger size (80S)
Smaller size (70S) in
organelles
Binary fission (one cell Mitosis (formation of 2
divides to become 2 cells) daughter cells, each
containing same number
of chromosomes as the
parent cell)
Usually single circular Multiple linear
chromosome; typically chromosome with histones
lacks histones – CHON-
protein associated with
DNA
None; transfer of DNA only Meiosis (formation of
haploid gametes) – one set
of chromosomes
  Mesophiles – moderate temperature loving (25° C−40 ° C ¿
 Staphylococcus aureus
 Escherichia coli
 Thermophiles – heat loving (50° C−60° C ¿
 Thermus aquaticus
 pH
 most bacteria grow best a pH value between 6.5 and 7.5
 molds and yeasts: 5-6
 Saline solution
 In hypertonic solution, most microbes undergo plasmolysis
 Plasmolysis: shrinkage of the cell’s cytoplasm
 Halophiles can tolerate high salt concentrations
 Obligate versus facultative
B. Chemical Requirements
 Carbon source: all organisms require a carbon source
 Chemoheterotrophs – use an organic molecule (CHOs; CHONs; Lipids)
 Chemo/photoautotrophs – typically use CO2
 Nitrogen: needed for protein and nucleic acid synthesis
 14% of bacteria
 Oxygen
 Obligate aerobes: only aerobic growth; oxygen required
 Example: Mycobacterium tuberculosis; Pseudomonas aeruginosa
 Facultative anaerobes
 Both aerobic and anaerobic growth; greater growth in presence of oxygen.
 Example: Escherichia coli
 Obligate anaerobes
 Only anaerobic growth; ceases in presence of oxygen
 Example: Clostridium tetani
 Aerotolerant anaerobes
 Do not use oxygen to make energy, but they can survive in the presence of
oxygen.
 Example: Streptococcus mutans
 Microaerophiles
 Microorganism that requires oxygen to survive, but requires environments
containing lower levels of oxygen.
 Example: Helicobacter pylori
C. Other chemicals required
 Sulfur: 4%
 Phosphorus: 4%
 Trace elements: Potassium, Magnesium, and Calcium cofactors for enzyme
MICROBIOLOGY LABORATORY
EPIDEMIOLOGIC TRIAD

Agent – organisms (virus, protozoa, bacteria)

Host – living organism, or a human
Environment – clean/not

Importance of maintaining the balance of epidemiologic triad

 If there will be excessive amount of agent (there will be a disease). Bababa ang
resistance ng host, kahit + ang environment
 There will be increase amount of host and decrease in the number agent, but the
resistance of the host is significant to decrease in an environment (there will be a di
 If the environment is not sanitary, even konti ang agent and a healthy host (there will
be a disease)

Factors that affect the epidemiologic factors

 Agent: look for the virulence (the measure of degree of pathogenicity)
 Number of organisms under agent: higher number, more probability to have the
disease
 Way of entry of the pathogen: cut the transmission eg. Airborne disease, have a good
ventilation
 Host: consider the health status of the host. If decrease ang immune resistance, mas
makakaattract ng disease
 Nutritional status: must have balanced diet
 Age: extreme of age, mas attracted sa host since medyo mahina na ang immune system
 Lifestyle
 Occupation
 Substance: abuse
 Immunization: fully immunize (less ang pagkakaroon ng sakit)
 Fully immunized child in PH
 BCG: birth
 After 3 weeks: DPT 1, 2, 3
 After 9 mos: measles
 After 1 yr: Booster dose (DPT1,2,3)
 After 1 yr: Booster dose (BCG)
 Environment: climate, geographical location
 Sanitation
 Housing condition
 Availability of potable water
 Adequate waste disposal
 Adequate health care
Identify how to prevent Diarrhea:

 Diarrhea: increased in the number of frequencies. It is not after consistency.

 Consistency: lbm
 Normal waste disposal: 3 times a day to 3 times a week.
o If hindi tumatae lagi, may amoy ang breathe.
 Sira ang ngipin
 May bulate
 May inflammation sa bituka

CHAIN OF INFECTION
 Infectious agent is the pathogen (germ) that causes diseases
 Reservoir includes places in the environment where the pathogen lives (this includes
people, animals and insects, medical equipment, and soil and water)
 Portal of exit is the way the infectious agent leaves the reservoir (through open wounds,
aerosols, and splatter of body fluids including coughing, sneezing, and saliva)
 Mode of transmission is the way the infectious agent can be passed on (through direct
or indirect contact, ingestion, or inhalation)
 Portal of entry is the way the infectious agent can enter a new host (through broken
skin, the respiratory tract, mucous membranes, and catheters and tubes)
 Susceptible host can be any person (the most vulnerable of whom are receiving
healthcare, are immunocompromised, or have invasive medical devices including lines,
devices, and airways)
Methods to break the chain of infection

Prevent infection
 Increase the resistant of the host (patient) by
o Education about nutritious diet
o Enough sleep

Herd immunity
 Related to vaccination
 o In a class of 50, 47 are immunized and 3 are not immunized.
 47: herd (immunized)
o There’s still possibility to be infected but less because there are 47 protected in a
class.

Agents
 Bacteria
o Always keep your hands clean.
o Avoid touching your nose, eyes and mouth. These are entry points for viruses
and bacteria
o Avoid contact with people that are sick as they may be contagious. Do not get
close to them and do not touch objects they have used, like their utensils for
instance
o Clean your surroundings regularly, as well as the sanitary appliances you use. For
example, clean your counters and other surfaces that you touch often with your
hands. Also wash toilets and sinks in order to keep them clean. Cleaning is very
effective in killing viruses, which can survive on hard surfaces.
o Clean with soap and water or use domestic detergents
 Fungi
o Keep skin clean and dry.
o Change underwear and socks daily.
o Let your sneakers air out and wash them regularly.
o Take your shoes off at home to expose your feet to the air
 Protozoa
o Many protozoan infections can be prevented. Modern sanitary methods can
limit the contamination of food and water with the single-celled parasites, called
protozoa, which cause the condition. If you are visiting an area known to have
contaminated water, boil it before use to destroy any parasites. Insects that
carry protozoa can be killed or prevented from biting people with repellants and
screens.
 Parasites: handwashing
 Virus: if airborne (cough etiquette), good hygiene practices, get appropriate vaccine