WEEK 13

THE NATURE OF CRITICAL THINKING

Critical thinking is defined as the progressive ability to rationalize matters and think
vividly by connecting logical reasoning behind ideas. Historically, the very essence of
critical thinking has been a favorite topic by ancient Greek philosophers, usually
debated upon by great minds like Plato and Socrates. Today, it is commonly described
as one‟s capacity to think independently and reflect on his or her thoughts objectively,
with or without the opinions of other people.

Essentially, thinking critically and logical reasoning go hand and hand all the time.
Hence, one needs to be an active learner who seeks facts and investigates with all
means possible rather than to be a passive learner who only waits for information to
present itself as the situation permits it.

Despite criticisms, a critical thinker assumes that a presented information is just an

assumption, an opinion or a guess unless proven with proper research or apparent
evidences. He or she rejects all information that does not come with any valid backup
information and accepts everything that follows logical reasoning and comes with
evidences. For that person, those that are considered as general facts are still open to
argument as new data arise from time to time.

Critical thinkers will identify, analyze and solve problems systematically rather than by
intuition or instinct. Furthermore, information are accepted based on quality and not on
the quantity of proponents. After all, discoveries and inventions never come up through
a popular vote; they are achieved after painstakingly studying a subject matter over and
over again.

A critical thinker habitually displays the following characteristics:

 Determines the relevance and importance of arguments, questions and ideas
 Understands the connections between ideas
 Identifies inconsistent reasoning and consistent errors
 Recognizes, appraises and builds arguments
 Reflects on the justification of their own assumptions, beliefs and values
 Approaches problem solving in a systematic way, favoring objectivity over
subjectivity

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The Nature of Critical Thinking
From the aforementioned discussion, we can surmise that critical thinking means to
constantly try to solve problems and seek solutions. The key here is consistency and
adherence to the mindset of a true critical thinker.

Skills Needed in Critical Thinking

The skills that we need in order to be able to think critically are varied and include
observation, analysis, interpretation, reflection, evaluation, inference, explanation,
problem solving, and decision making.

 Objectively and critically think about a topic or subject matter

 Accurately identify what arguments are raised in a particular issue.
 Carefully evaluate the different points of view presented to understand how valid
and concrete they are.
 Recognize the weaknesses and loopholes in the presented arguments and
evidences.
 Understand all implications of every argument.
 Come up with a structured reasoning that supports any argument that you want
to raise.

The Critical Thinking Process

No matter how ideal critical thinking as the new norm may be, the fact of the matter is
that we cannot apply critical thinking at all times. We put are mental guards down. We
prefer practicality over technicality sometimes. We feel complacent and too comfortable
depending on the people we talk with. Our emotions also get in the way, making
physical and mental controls challenging. Remember how they say “Don‟t make any
decisions when you are angry and do not make promises when you are happy”?
Apparently, that is true.

It is natural to put our mental state at rest from time to time. Not all situations and
problems require critical thinking. Even common sense suffices sometimes. What„s
important is for you to have the ability to identify the situations that need critical thinking
and to be able to activate your critical thinking skills when they are needed the most.

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The Nature of Critical Thinking
Moreover, since our ability to think critically varies according to our mindset at present,
we can learn to improve this ability by developing certain routine activities and applying
them to all problems. Practice it whenever possible.

Once you understand the theory of critical thinking, improving this ability becomes more
natural and less challenging.

Ascertaining Your Goals

One of the most important aspects of critical thinking is to decide what you are aiming to
achieve and then make a decision based on a range of possibilities.

Once you have clarified that aim for yourself, you should use it as the starting point in all
future situations requiring thought and further decision making. As much as possible,
everyone around you should be aware of this goal so they can assist you whenever
there is opportunity to do so. Nevertheless, the discipline to successfully adopt the
attitude and mindset of a critical thinker should always start with yourself.

There are things that get in the way of every simple decision making. We all carry with
us a range of likes and dislikes, personal preferences and learned behaviors developed
throughout our lives; they are the hallmarks of being human. A major contribution to
ensuring that we apply critical thinking is to be aware of these personal characteristics,
preferences and biases, and make allowance for them when considering the next
possible steps, whether they are at the pre-action consideration stage or as part of a
rethink caused by unexpected or unforeseen impediments to continued progress.

The more we understand ourselves, the faster we can develop critical thinking.

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The Nature of Critical Thinking
The Benefit of Foresight

Critical thinking can never be completed without a keen foresight. Foresight is defined
as the ability to predict future actions, which enables a person to proactively create
solutions to impending problems. Essentially, applying foresight to critical thinking
allows a person to remain three steps ahead in any situation, giving him or her certain
level of control.

Foresight is not just any random guessing game. It requires inference using existing
information gathered through systematic research, keen observation and careful
analysis. In a way, we can say that this is the ability to make tentative conclusions and
plan logical arguments ahead of time. This is described as the most important element
of critical thinking, more often than not.

The elements needing consideration are generally numerous and varied. In many
cases, consideration of one element from a different perspective will reveal potential
dangers in pursuing our decision.

For instance, moving a business activity to a new location may improve potential output
considerably but it may also lead to the loss of skilled workers if the distance moved is
too great. Which of these is the more important consideration? Is there some way of
lessening the conflict?

This scenario shows problems that have yet to arise. Thus, one needs to set his or her
eyes to the future to as if multiple possible outcomes have already unfolded.

These are the sort of problems that may arise from incomplete critical thinking, a
demonstration perhaps of the critical importance of good critical thinking.

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The Nature of Critical Thinking
In Summary:

 Critical thinking aims to come up with the most favorable results in any situation.
This is only possible after collecting and evaluation information culled from as
many reliable sources as possible.

 Critical thinking entails an objective self-evaluation of strengths, weaknesses,

preferences and expected outcomes, no matter how uncomfortable it may feel at
first.

 Critical thinking requires the development and use of foresight.

 Decisions made with critical thinking require assessment of projected outcomes

after application. This allows proactive solutions as soon as negative outcomes
are projected.

 Critical thinking does not stop at the application of decisions and their evaluation.
Changes are also implemented if there is still room for improvement. For a critical
thinker, no solution is permanent as problems constantly change.

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The Nature of Critical Thinking
 WEEK 14
CHARACTERISTICS OF A CRITICAL THINKER

Critical thinking is more than just the accumulation of facts and knowledge; it’s a way of
approaching whatever is presently occupying your mind so that you can come up with
the best possible conclusion.

If you are hoping to reach your full potential and make your mark on the world, cultivate
the following 16 characteristics of critical thinkers.

1. Observation

Observation is considered as one of the first innate critical thinking skills that people
learn as a child. You observe when you perceive your environment to be more aware of
the world around us. As you observe, you also take mental notes of relevant details,
which you can use to develop deeper insight and a more profound understanding of the
world.

2. Curiosity

Curiosity is a core trait of many successful leaders. It is prerequisite to learning. Without

it, there would be fewer discoveries and fewer inventions. Furthermore, there would be
less radical principles as people would have been afraid to challenge the status quo,
resulting to dormancy in our society.

Being inherently inquisitive and interested in the world and people around you is a
hallmark of leaders who are critical thinkers. Rather than taking everything at face
value, a curious person will wonder why something is the way it is, and will not be afraid
to impose changes as deemed necessary.

Curiosity forces you to keep an open mind and propels you to gain deeper knowledge --
all of which are also fundamental to being a lifelong learner.

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Characteristics of a Critical Thinker
3. Objectivity

A critical thinker remains objective despite the situation being affective and personal.
That person is able to distinguish facts from opinions, logic from emotions and reality
from wishful thinking. Moreover, judgment is not dictated by other compelling people.

Nevertheless, being objective does not mean losing all your personal beliefs, biases
and preferences. It only means being aware of your own weaknesses, and knowing how
to separate subjectivity from objectivity. It is also the first step to becoming an analytical
thinker.

4. Introspection

Introspection is the state of being aware of your own manner of thinking and train of
thoughts. It means knowing when to shift thoughts or to stop altogether.

Introspection allows you to stay alert and attentive at all times. It is also a good quality
to have when self-reflecting on your decisions and actions.

5. Analytical thinking

Critical thinkers are innate analytical thinkers, and analytical thinkers are on their way to
becoming critical thinkers.. The ability to analyze information is key when looking at
anything, whether it is a piece of business document, statistical data or a pressing
situation.

To analyze information, you need to break information down to its component parts and
evaluate how well those parts function together and separately. Analysis relies on
observation—on gathering and evaluating evidence so you can come to a meaningful
conclusion.

6. Identifying biases

Critical thinkers challenge their own beliefs by verifying the sources of their information
and looking for alternative sources. Doing this helps you understand your own biases
and question your preconceived notions.

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Characteristics of a Critical Thinker
7. Determining relevance

When gathering information, you should not be distracted by the reputation of the
source, the complexity of the data and the popularity of the information. Only look at its
relevance to the topic and the arguments that you are planning to raise.

8. Inference

Information does not always come with a summary that spells out exactly what it
means. Critical thinkers need to assess the information and draw conclusions based on
raw data. Inference is the ability to extrapolate meaning from data and discover
potential outcomes when assessing a scenario.

It is also important to understand the difference between inference and assumptions.

For example, if you see data that someone weighs 100 kilograms, you might assume
they are overweight or unhealthy. However, other data points like height and body
composition may alter that conclusion since the normality of weight depends on the
combination of weight and height, also known as the body-mass index (BMI).

9. Compassion and empathy

At first, having compassion and empathy may seem like a negative quality for critical
thinkers. After all, being sentimental and emotional can skew our perception of a
situation. However, the point of having compassion is to have concern for others and to
value the welfare of other people.

10. Humility

Humility is the willingness to acknowledge one’s shortcomings and see one’s positive
attributes in an accurate way. It makes us aware of our own assets and flaws, which
shows how open minded you are and willing to learn.

When you have intellectual humility, you are open to other people’s viewpoints. This is
without saying that you accept all viewpoints presented in front of you. You only
acknowledge their existence, but not their validity.

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Characteristics of a Critical Thinker
You are also able to recognize when you are wrong, and you are willing to challenge
your own beliefs when beneficial.

11. Willing to challenge the status quo

Critical thinking means questioning long-established beliefs and practices, and refusing
to adhere to traditional methods. Critical thinkers are looking for smart, thoughtful
answers and methods that take into account all the current and relevant information and
practices available. Their willingness to challenge the status quo may seem
controversial, but it is an essential part of the innovative and creative mind of a critical
thinker.

By challenging the status quo, you acknowledge that everything can change and has to
be changed when deemed necessary.

12. Open-mindedness

Critical thinkers avoid launching into a frenzied argument or taking sides—they want to
hear all perspectives. Critical thinkers do not jump to conclusions right away. They
approach a question or situation with an open mind and embrace other opinions and
views.

13. Awareness of common thinking errors

Critical thinkers do not allow their logic and reasoning to become clouded by illusions
and misconceptions. They are aware of the common logical fallacies, which are errors
in reasoning that often creep into arguments and debates. Some common errors in
thinking include:
 Circular reasoning, in which the premise of an argument or a conclusion is used
as support for the argument itself.
 Cognitive shortcut bias, in which you stubbornly stick to a favored view or
argument when other more effective possibilities or explanations exist.

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Characteristics of a Critical Thinker
  Confusing correlation with causation. In other words, asserting that when two
things happen together, one causes the other. Without direct evidence, this
assumption isn’t justified.

14. Effective communication

It is hard to strictly define effective communication as a person’s effectiveness varies

depending on the situation and the people involved. In general, though, a person is said
to be an effective communication when the 7Cs of effective communications are
observed both in oral and written forms: clarity, clarity, conciseness, concreteness,
correctness, coherence, completeness and courtesy.

15. Creative thinking

Effective critical thinkers are also largely creative thinkers. Creative thinkers reject
standardized formats for problem solving. They think outside the box and dare to defy
standards when deemed more beneficial. They have a wide range of interests and
adopt multiple perspectives on a problem. They are also open to experimenting with
different methods and considering different viewpoints.

The biggest difference between critical thinkers and creative thinkers is that creativity is
associated with generating ideas, while critical thinking is associated with analyzing and
appraising those ideas. Creativity is important to bringing in novel ideas; critical thinking
can bring those ideas into clearer focus.

Incidentally, creativity is also considered as the extension of the 7Cs of effective

communication, sometimes calling it the 9Cs of effective communication with the
inclusion of “creativity” together with “credibility.”

16. Active listening

Attentive listening is often classified into two: active listening and passive listening. Both
involve intent listening, which is good as it shows genuine interest, but between the two,
only active listening shows adequate feedback.

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Characteristics of a Critical Thinker
Attentive listening, in as far as communications is concerned, is great, but being a
passive listener may not always be the best option. Hence, one has to practice active
listening and make his or her presence feel in the group. This is known as the precursor
to assertiveness as one has to participate in the discussion first before asserting
opinions.

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Characteristics of a Critical Thinker
 WEEK 15
THE CHALLENGES AND BARRIERS TO
CRITICAL THINKING IN THE 21ST CENTURY

The ability to think critically is one skill separating innovators and leaders from followers.
It combats the power of advertisers and capitalistic media, unmasks the unscrupulous
and pretentious, and exposes unsupported arguments.

Students enjoy learning the skill because they immediately see how it gives them more
control. They argue better in school. They persuade people around them much easier.
They build confidence to influence others.

Critical thinking is simple. It is merely the ability to understand why things are the way
they are and to understand the potential consequences of actions.

A World of Illusions

In particular, people adopt false ideas for several reasons:

 People believe stories because they are the ones available (due to lack of other
source)
 Beliefs may justify past actions (to pacify guilt and protect pride)
 People may not recognize the significance of their own perceptions (due to low
self-esteem and poor sense of self-worth)
 People may not want to question their beliefs (to avoid disappointing or painful
reality)

These reasons, on their own, can already be considered as challenges that hinder
people from critically thinking in the modern times. Hence, you must learn to identify the
common barriers to critical thinking in the 21st century, avoid them, adapt to them or
accept them as they are if no choice is available.

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The Challenges and Barriers to Critical Thinking in the 21 Century
Barriers in the 21st Century

Aside from the emergence of fake news, which is considered as the biggest challenge
after the advent of the internet and social media in particular, people in this generation
are facing other barriers that affect the critical thinking process.

1. Egocentric Thinking

Egocentric thinking is a natural tendency to view everything in relation to oneself,

sometimes to a point of having narcissistic or messianic mindsets. This type of thinking
leads to the inability to sympathize with others or analyze and evaluate various
perspectives. Sadly, since most egocentric people are not willing or cannot see this
character flaw within them, this increases the difficulty in overcoming the barrier.

As students explore themselves and their rightful places where they can fill accepted
and appreciated, egocentric thinking may become more apparent. After all, they need
experiences, opportunities for debate, brainstorming sessions, and the chance to ask
meaningful questions in order to recognize and understand the viewpoints of others.
Problem arises when initial victory or compliment gets into their head, making them
think that one opportune moment of success in the past can define all of their future
actions and decisions.

2. Groupthink

Groupthink is described as a mental phenomenon where people belonging to the same

group adopt the same manner of thinking and the same principles, regardless of how
irrational or illogical they are, for the sake of maintaining a harmonious relationship or
reputation. This is how online trends start, as people start supporting trending opinions
to feel relevant, acknowledged and given importance, to point when they no longer care
if what they say online reflects their true opinions and values or not.

Groupthink can lead to unhealthy decision-making patterns. Like egocentric thinking, it

is difficult to overcome. Breaking the cycle requires individuals to stand apart from the
group and question opinions, thoughts, and popular ideas. This can be especially
difficult for adolescents, but teachers can play a key role in encouraging independent
thought and action in students.

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The Challenges and Barriers to Critical Thinking in the 21 Century
3. Drone Mentality

If you have a drone mentality, this means you do not pay attention to what is going on
around you. You only pay attention to your point of view from atop, not minding what
really happens on the ground at face value. Daily routines often lead to a drone
mentality and can prevent or cause a loss of critical thinking skills. This is especially true
when your mind automatically ignores stressors even when they are necessary for you
to understand reality.

This mentality is dangerous in a classroom because learners forget how to respond to

new circumstances. It also causes them to shy away from challenges for the sake of
ease and convenience. They prefer to stay cooped up in their comfort zones, possibly
due to fear of getting rejection, getting embarrassed in front of other people, or feeling
disappointed of themselves.

Teachers are students should be in constant connection with each other to remove
whatever barrier there is that makes learning awkward and frightening at times.

4. Social Conditioning

Unwanted assumptions and stereotyping lead to social conditioning. Commercialism

and capitalism do not seem to help either as they dominate media with information
controlled by profit-based desires. This social conditioning blinds us from the realization
that we are making assumptions and stereotyping in the first place. We often think not
the way we should, but how capitalists want us to think.

The ability to think outside of the spectrum is a priceless asset because most students
do not realize they are being conditioned to think a certain way. Thus, completely
owning one’s thoughts is a special characteristic that not everyone gets to enjoy.

Teachers can help their learners by presenting objective information and then by
subsequently providing different interpretations, which may be used by students as
examples to create their own interpretations later on.

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The Challenges and Barriers to Critical Thinking in the 21 Century
5. Biased Experiences

Personal biases can prohibit critical thinking because they prevent the thinker from
being fair, inquisitive and open-minded. This kind of thinking can also prevent an
individual from using experience, reasoning and common sense to make informed
decisions.

6. Time Pressure

It is especially important that teachers do their best to create a learning schedule that is
not hindered by time constraints. However, since this is not possible for all activities and
quizzes due to class scheduling concerns, students should also adhere to set rules and
instructions to avoid experiencing any problems.

Prioritization, nonetheless, is becoming a challenge for many learners belonging to the

younger generation due to the advent of the internet, especially with social media and
online games readily accessible for everyone. Hence, it is of utmost importance for all
learners to clearly identify and understand their goals in life, which should comprise their
priority list.

7. Intolerance and Arrogance

Intolerance and arrogance are never characteristics that will match the descriptions of
genuine critical thinkers. Furthermore, finding solutions is almost impossible while
having close-mindedness. Without critical thinking skills, people usually react
thoughtlessly and recklessly to situations. Nonetheless, what they should do is assess
and take responsibility for their decisions and action while also accepting the rewards or
consequences that follow those decisions and actions.

Intolerance and arrogance undermine creativity, which, consequentially, leaves no room

for other suggestions for problem-solving. If learners believe no better solution to a
problem exists, a teacher must have students question their logic.
 What do I think about this topic?
 What could be the reason behind this thought?
 Where and how did I know about this information?
 What does the information imply?

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The Challenges and Barriers to Critical Thinking in the 21 Century
  Would it be more beneficial if I change my view?

Critical thinkers do not accept information presented in front of them right away. They sort
out and filter what needs to be accepted and what needs to be rejected. That is only
possible if you keep asking questions and challenging the veracity of information presented
to you.

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The Challenges and Barriers to Critical Thinking in the 21 Century
 WEEK 16
CRITICAL THINKING AND CRITICAL READING

How are critical reading and critical thinking different but still closely related with each
other?

Critical reading is definite as a technique for discovering information and ideas within a
text while critical thinking is a technique for evaluating information and ideas, and for
deciding what to accept and believe.

Critical reading refers to a careful, active, reflective, analytic reading. Critical thinking
involves reflecting on the validity of what you have read in light of our prior knowledge
and understanding of the world.

For example, read the argument below which you may find humorous but relatable:

Teenagers are buying expensive clothes to let them rot inside their closets.

Using the aforementioned sentence as example, critical reading will help you determine
from a linguistic and semantic point of view if the word “teenagers” collectively refers to
“all teenagers” and if the word “rot” may be taken from a figurative sense. On the other
hand, critical thinking can help you figure out whether you agree with the applicability of
the statement in present setting and if you can relate to it from a personal standpoint.

With the definitions and explanations given, we can assume that critical reading
appears, at least on most occasions, before critical thinking. Only once we have fully
understood a text (critical reading) can we truly evaluate its assertions (critical thinking).

Critical Thinking and Critical Reading 1

The Two Together in Harmony

In reality, critical reading and critical thinking work together. Both are crucial parts—
usually standing on different ends—of the same intricate yet worthwhile cycle of
progressive analysis and evaluation. Critical thinking allows us to monitor our
comprehension as we read.

Critical thinking depends on critical reading. You can think critically about a text (critical
thinking) only if you have understood it (critical reading). We raise objective arguments
based on facts and evidences, which we critically think about only after painstakingly
researching for them through critical reading.

The Usefulness of the Distinction

Students might wonder why there is still a useful distinction between critical reading and
critical thinking when they belong to the same process and are closely linked with each
other.

The usefulness of the distinction lies in its reminder that we must read each text on its
own merits, not imposing our prior knowledge or views on it. While we must evaluate
ideas as we read, we must not distort the meaning within a text just because we have a
dissenting prior knowledge. Remember that to think critically is to learn and re-learn
actively, and that is only possible if we keep our mind open for new information.

Critical Thinking and Critical Reading 2

Reading Critically: Verifying and Validating the Text

Certain tasks must be done when performing critical reading, regardless of the nature of
the text and the type of topic involved. A writer must:
 address a specific topic
 define terms clearly
 present logical, logical and objective evidences
 account for the common knowledge
 explain the exceptions, if there are any
 show that the causes are able to precede effects
 show conclusions based on logic through arguments supported by evidences

Thinking Critically: Evaluating the Evidence

We often read to gather information that we can apply and perform. While correcting
inaccurate information is easier when we simply read to learn new information, the
same might not be the case when we read for practical application. That is, correcting
something in your head is faster and easier than correcting your wrong action that arose
from reading wrong information. There will be consequences involved at this point.
Hence, we must decide what to accept as true and useful before applying them into any
task.

As readers, we want to accept as fact only that which is actually true. To evaluate a
conclusion, we must evaluate the evidence upon which that conclusion is based. We
do not want just any information; we want reliable information culled from reliable
sources.

Critical Thinking and Critical Reading 3

CRITICAL THINKING BY A CRITICAL READER

No one always acts purely objectively and rationally. It is of human nature to be

subjective and irrational at times.

Critical thinking includes a complex combination of skills. These skills are the ones that
you should adopt and inculcate in your system:

Rationality
We are rational critical thinkers if we:
 rely on reason rather than emotion
 require evidence, ignore arguments without any valid evidence, and follow
evidence where it leads
 are concerned more with finding the best explanation than being right analyzing
apparent confusion and asking questions
 prioritize truths and facts over emotional satisfaction and ego-feeding

Self-awareness
We are self-aware critical thinkers if we:
 weigh the influences of motives and bias
 recognize our own assumptions, prejudices, biases, or points of view
 accept both our mistakes and achievements in as far as argumentation and
reasoning are concerned

Honesty
We are honest critical thinkers if we:
 recognize emotional impulses, selfish motives, nefarious purposes, or other
modes of self-deception
 recognize what we feel for what they are and not for what we want them to be

Open-mindedness
We are open-minded critical thinkers if we:
 evaluate all reasonable inferences
 set aside biases when analyzing and evaluating information
 consider a variety of possible viewpoints or perspectives
 remain open to alternative interpretations

Critical Thinking and Critical Reading 4

  accept a new explanation, model, or paradigm because it explains the evidence
better, is simpler, or has fewer inconsistencies or covers more data
 accept new priorities in response to a reevaluation of the evidence or
reassessment of our real interests, and
 do not reject unpopular views out of hand

Discipline
We are disciplined critical thinkers if we:
 are precise, meticulous, comprehensive, and exhaustive
 resist manipulation and irrational appeals
 avoid snap judgments

Judgment
We are critical thinkers with good and sound judgment if we:
 recognize the relevance and/or merit of alternative assumptions and perspectives
 recognize the extent and weight of evidence

Critical Thinking and Critical Reading 5

 WEEK 17
CRITICAL THINKING AND LOGIC

Logic is the study of the criteria used in evaluating inferences or arguments.

An inference is a process of reasoning in which a new belief is formed on the basis of or

in virtue of evidence or proof supposedly provided by other beliefs.

An argument is a collection of statements or propositions, some of which are intended

to provide support or evidence in favor of one of the others.

A statement or proposition is something that can either be true or false. We usually think
of a statement as a declarative sentence, or part of a sentence.

The premises of an argument are those statements or propositions in it that are

intended to provide the support or evidence.

The conclusion of an argument is that statement or proposition for which the premises
are intended to provide support (in short, it is the point the argument is trying to make).

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Critical Thinking and Logic
Some Example Arguments

God is defined as the most perfect being. A perfect being must have every trait or
property that it's better to have than not to have. It is better to exist than not to
exist. Therefore, God exists.

It has rained more than 15 inches per year in London every year for the past 30
years. So you can safely bet it will rain more than 15 inches in London this year.

Professor Santos said that the ratio of female to male students in the class was
exactly 3:1. This means that there are 112 female students in the class, because
there are 148 students in the class total.

The Encyclopaedia Britannica has an article on symbiosis. It stands to reason

that the Encyclopedia Americana has an article on symbiosis as well, since the
two reference works tend to cover the same topics.

1 is a prime number. 3 is a prime number. 5 is a prime number. 7 is a prime

number. Therefore, all odd integers between 0 and 8 are prime numbers.

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Critical Thinking and Logic
Inductive Logic and Deductive Logic

The distinction actually has to do with how strong the author of an argument intends the
evidence or support to be.

An argument is deductive if the author intends it to be so strong that it is impossible for

the premises to be true and the conclusion to be false, or in other words, that the
conclusion follows necessarily from the premises. A deductive argument attempts
(successfully or unsuccessfully) to provide full proof of the conclusion.

An argument is inductive if the author intends it only to be so strong that it is

improbable that the premises could be true and the conclusion false, or in other words,
that the conclusion is likely if the premises are true. An inductive argument only
attempts (successfully or unsuccessfully) to provide evidence for the likely truth of the
conclusion, rather than outright proof.

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Critical Thinking and Logic
Validity and Soundness

A deductive argument is valid if it has a form that would make it impossible for the
premises to be true and the conclusion false, or if the conclusion follows necessarily
from the premises.

To test whether an argument is valid, you should first imagine that the premises are
true—whether or not they actually are—and then ask yourself, without appealing to any
other knowledge you have, could you still imagine the conclusion being false? If you
can, the argument is invalid. If you can't, then the argument is valid.

Note that validity does not have to do with the actual truth or falsity of the premises. It
only has to do with what would follow from them if they were true. A valid argument can
have false premises. For example:

All toasters are items made of gold.

All items made of gold are time-travel devices.
Therefore, all toasters are time-travel devices.

It may be hard to imagine these premises as true, but it is not hard to recognize that if
they were true, the conclusion would also be true.

So, there's more to an argument's being a good one than validity. To be a good
argument, an argument must also have true premises. An argument with true premises
is called factually correct.

A sound argument is an argument that is both valid and factually correct.

An invalid argument may have true or false premises, and a true or false conclusion. A
valid argument may have false premises with either a true or a false conclusion. The
only combination that is ruled out is a valid argument with true premises and a false
conclusion. Sound arguments always have true conclusions.

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Critical Thinking and Logic
Argument Form

The validity of a deductive argument is determined entirely by its form. Consider these
arguments.

All tigers are mammals.

No mammals are creatures with scales.
Therefore, no tigers are creatures with scales.

All spider monkeys are elephants.

No elephants are animals.
Therefore, no spider monkeys are animals.

These arguments share the same form: All A are B, No B is C. Therefore, No A is C. All
arguments with this form are valid. So the examples above are valid. Now consider:

All basketballs are round.

The Earth is round.
Therefore, the Earth is a basketball.

All Jedis are one with the force.

Yoda is one with the force.
Therefore, Yoda is a Jedi.

These arguments also have the same form. All A are F. X is F. Therefore, X is an A. All
arguments with this form are invalid. #4 may seem like a good argument because all the
premises and the conclusion are true (at least in fiction), but note that the conclusion
isn't made true by the premises. It could be possible for the premises to be true and the
conclusion false. #4 is invalid, and all invalid arguments are unsound. #4 is not a good
argument.

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Critical Thinking and Logic
Some Logical Pitfalls

 Begging the Question

An argument begs the question when it makes use of a premise that no one who
didn't already accept the conclusion would believe. Simply put, an argument begs
the question when it reasons in a circle or presupposes the truth of the very thing it's
trying to prove.

Example: God exists, because it says that God exists in the Bible, and everything in
the Bible is the true word of God.

 The Appeal to Ignorance Fallacy

This fallacy is committed when something is concluded to be true simply because it

hasn't been proven to be false, or is concluded to be false just because it hasn't
been proven to be true. Reasoning in such a way is invalid. Something can be true
even if no one has succeeded in showing it to be true.

Example: No one has even proven that there is life after death. Therefore, there is
no life after death.

 The Wishful Thinking Fallacy

This fallacy is committed when someone concludes that something must be true in
virtue of what he or she wants to be true (or doesn't want to be false) instead of what
the evidence suggests. Unfortunately, just because there are better consequences to
something's being true rather than false does not provide evidence that it is true.

Example: The idea of life in a universe without God would be frightening and
depressing, and very difficult to accept. Therefore, God must exist.

 The "Ad Hominem" Fallacy

This fallacy is committed when an argument or position is rejected not in virtue of its
logical merits, but rather in virtue of the character, personality, background or
motivation of the person giving the argument or holding the position. However, a

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Critical Thinking and Logic
 position can be true, and an argument can be sound, no matter how deplorable the
person is. Who holds a belief has nothing to do with whether or not it's true.

Example: Former president Clinton has argued in favor of increasing restrictions on

the sale of guns. But President Clinton is a lecherous, adulterous, untrustworthy,
draft-dodging old pervert, so his views must surely be misguided.

Opinion and Fact

An opinion is something that someone believes to be true.

A fact is something that is true.

Sometimes people disagree about what the fact of the matter is with regard to a certain
question. In those cases, there are many opinions, but only one fact. Those people
whose opinion agrees with the facts are correct; those who have other opinions are
incorrect.

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Critical Thinking and Logic