Human Growth and Development/Principles of Human Development

Study Guide for Exam 1

Introduction

1. Major developmental concepts.

• Nature vs. nurture

Nature- Nature, unlike nurture, focuses on the deterministic genetic factors and how it
influences a person’s behaviors. The Nature approach would be viewing the world in a
heavy deterministic view, this being that there are factors such as our behaviors that are
fixed because of our genetics.

One could better grasp the understanding of the Nature approach when dissecting the
Organismic Paradigm of Development. When viewing the organismic paradigm of
development in order to grasp the understanding one must dissect the worldview in which
this paradigm is operating, this worldview would be one of materialism/evolution. The
organismic paradigm emphasizes that humans are organisms that demonstrate the laws of
biology, similar to that of the Nature view which emphasizes that humans and their
behavior are determined/controlled by deterministic forces such as our genetics.

An example that would favor the nature perspective would be the Mechanistic paradigm which
highlights that the human being is basically a machine, strictly a deterministic view. Like
the nature point of view, the mechanistic paradigm emphasizes evolution, adaptations that
occur over an extended amount of time to increase the likelihood of the survival of a
particular species. The mechanistic paradigm also points out that we are controlled by
deterministic forces, this being as stated earlier our genetics. From a nature perspective,
human beings are machines and their behavior is due to the individual’s genetics, not based
on the environment the individual was raised around or if they had learned a certain
behavior from another key figure in their life.

Nurture- Nurture, unlike nature, focuses on the individual’s environment, as well as the learned
behaviors from key figures in the individual’s life such as the mother, father, and other
immediate role models in the individual’s life. An example that could be derived from
nurture would be observational learning, social learning, derived from a social cognitive
theory developed by Albert Bandura. One of the most famous experiments that highlight
observational learning would be the bobo doll experiment. In this experiment, children were
exposed to a video where they observed an adult hitting the doll, and when the kids were
sent into the room alone with the bobo doll, the children, after observing the adult hit the
bobo doll, also mirrored this same behavior. Though it is important to highlight that the
children only did so after witnessing this aggressive behavior after observing the adult do
this behavior.

• Continuity (gradual, incremental, quantitative change) vs. discontinuity (stage-like,

qualitative change)
o Continuity- change occurs smoothly over time, consistency in characteristics,
quantitative changes. This would be a slow gradual process in changes such as
evolution or adaptation.
 ▪ Developmental theorists such as Vogsky (give examples of Vogsky
here explaining his view of human development)
• Not possessing new skills, but developing more advanced skills
that were already present in some form in the child.
• He assumes that development is a slow gradual process.
• This would be a great example for Scaffolding

o Discontinuity- change in characteristics, rapid discontinuous changes, this would

be described as more abrupt change. (give examples here of Freudian view so
basically his developmental theory of humans 0-12 I think) easiest one to
describe. Or it may be safe to go with Erikson!
▪ Developmental theorists such as Piaget, Freud, and Erikson are
discontinuous, assumes a series of sequential stages in which skills
emerge at certain points of development, in a set universal sequence,
children and adults have separate fundamental qualities and
characteristics

• Also, what influences or causes of development are there in a Christian developmental

framework, in addition to nature and nurture?
o When working from within a Christian framework I believe it is salient to point
out the main focal points. These focus points are that man is made in the image
of God, imago Dei, and because of this man was given a mind, will, and
emotions in the likeness of God. Though because of the second fall, this being in
the garden with Adam and Eve eating of the fruit, man now has been tainted
with sin and needed God’s son to sacrifice himself so that we may live. With sin
entering the world this has damaged our likeness of God, this being that our
mind, will, and emotions though are made in the likeness of God, are far from
perfect as Gods clearly are. Sin is could be best described as the original
pathology and because of this, sin affects our life in all domains such as the bio,
psycho, and social. Sin affects not only our relationship with God in that it
distances us but all of the relationships within our lives. Because of sin, we are
now to grow and develop within a broken world and around broken people, and
there are consequences to being reared in a broken world because of sin.
o Being that spirituality is considered to be a part of the four-dimensional model
of human nature, I strongly believe that what affects or causes development
within the Christian developmental framework would be the additional three
dimensions. These three dimensions are biological, psycho, and social.

2. Know the four-dimensional model of human nature (biological, psycho, social, and spiritual),
and be able to explain its developmental implications.
a. Biological- Focus on genetic factors
b. Psycho- Genetics, and experience factors
c. Social- Family and environmental factors
d. Spiritual- Encounters with God, spiritual rebirth, and relationship with God and or Gods
if not coming from a Christian point of view.

The four-dimensional factors that contribute to the person’s development are placed in a
hierarchy from being able to operate solely on natural science methods/natural laws
 incorporating quantitative and qualitative measures, the two bottom dimensions being
biological, then psychological. The next two factors within the four-dimensional model though
are elevated to a higher hierarchal position due to the complexity of their dynamic and the
multiple factors that encompass the Social factor of an individual’s life and becoming even
more complex accounting for all the factors that make up an individual’s spiritual
development. The reason for this would be that the social and spiritual development of the
individual’s life cannot be studied solely just using the scientific method or abiding by the
natural laws, because these two developmental dimensions include uniquely human and divine
activity and in order to understand the two higher dimensions one must be able to grasp the
concepts of the two lower dimensions and use that knowledge in tandem with the word.
The four-dimensional model, although is placed in a hierarchy based on complexity,
each level of the dimension, starting with biology at the very bottom working all the way up to
the spiritual dimension, relies on one another in order for the individual to progress in their
development as a whole. The implications and consequences if the lower developmental stages
are damaged will result in impairment to mature their development in the two higher
developmental stages, this being social and spiritual. The biological and psychological are
foundations for the individual’s development to build upon in their social and spiritual
development. When the two bottom dimensions are matured, this allows for the individual to
flourish properly, and with this flourishment, the individual is able to mature the social and
spiritual dimensions. When operating out of the spiritual dimension this is said to be where
individuals flourish the most, this indirectly and directly brings glory to God. Though for
individuals who are non-believers there is creation grace, which allows for all things to flourish
under God’s love and sovereignty, even when the individual is a non-believer. However, when
individuals do not operate out of a spiritual dimension or within the worldview of God, the
individual is not able to fully mature in any dimension fully. In order to do so, one must
understand the natural laws as well as know the word, including having a genuine relationship
with God.

3. Know the unique models of developmental research: cross-sectional, longitudinal, and cross-
sequential. Understand which one focuses on no cohort, one cohort, and multiple cohorts, and
why that is important.

Major Theoretical Approaches

1. Mechanistic – The mechanistic paradigm operates out of a deterministic view, viewing the
individual as a machine with moving parts. When operating out of a mechanistic worldview,
the human origin is based on evolution.

• Learning theory: have a basic understanding of classical conditioning and operant

conditioning.
o Classical conditioning, derived from Ivan Pavlov, is the pairing of an unconditioned
stimulus and unconditioned response, and over time pairing a conditioned stimulus to
trigger the desired conditioned response. Ivan Pavlov is most famous for his
experimentation with powered meat, a bell, and saliva. Pavlov noticed that when the
dog knew it was about to eat, seeing the food, the response of this was the dog
salivating. Approaching this scenario from a learning theory perspective, in this
scenario the unconditioned stimulus, (UCS), was the food, and the unconditioned
response, (UR), was the saliva. Pavlov then took a bell and paired the bell with the food,
 this being the neutral stimulus, (NS). When the a (NS) is paired with a (UCS) to elicit
the (UCR), over time the (NS) can then be associated with the (UCS) that was eliciting
the initial (UCR). The (NS) then becomes the conditioned stimulus, (CS), when
introduced by itself and when it elicits the (UCR), which would then become the
conditioned response (CR).
o Operant conditioning, derived from B.F. Skinner is similar to that of classical
conditioning. Though Skinner focuses on only one pair of stimulus and response for a
given behavior. Reinforcement and punishment, as well as extrinsic motivation, are at
the center of operant conditioning. The goal for operant conditioning would be to
increase the frequency of the desired behavior and decrease the frequency of the
undesired behavior, this being through using rewards, which is known as reinforcement.
In order to decrease the frequency of a particular behavior or increase the frequency of
the desired behavior one would take something away, this is known as punishment.

• Social learning theory: Albert Bandura, modeling/observational learning, reciprocal

determinism, self-efficacy, human agent.
o Observational learning (social learning)-The Bobo doll research
Documented the influence of modeling of others on one’s behavior. Seeing someone get
rewarded, through observational learning provides enough of an incentive to shape
behavior, which would then be modeling. Children mostly model important figures in
their lives such as parents, and other significant others that play a key role in their life.
o Reciprocal determinism- is a triadic interaction among behavior, the person
representing the cognitive events that affect behavior and perceptions, and the
environment.
o (self-efficacy paraphrased)- couldn’t find it lol
o Self-efficacy- is the set of beliefs related to one’s capability to act acc. to one’s
standards. The cognitive ground of personal agency. (but for Christians, God is
the ultimate source of all good, not self
• Human-agent- Human agency is similar to that of free will, this pertaining to the
choices and behaviors a human makes, although encompasses a theological and
psychological aspect. Huamn agency consists of the decisions and behaviors a human
carries out but is taken into consideration that we must view and recognize that even
though humans are made in the image of God, we are broken because of the original
pathology, this being a sin. One must then look at the psychological perspective, this
encompassing the choices we make based on our genetics, this being our biology, and
taking into consideration our environment, so a sociocultural aspect. Human agency
could then be described as decisions and behaviors one makes when taking into account
a spiritual aspect, recognizing that we are sinners and have faults that, as well as taking
into consideration the bio-sociocultural aspect, so the individuals genetics and social
environment.

• Information processing model: long-term memory, short-term or working memory,

metacognition.
o Long-term Memory- No storage limits but there are increases over childhood in:
knowledge-base (number of items/facts.words/stored)
▪ Long term memory- (LTP) is defined as an enduring form of memory that last
dats, weeks, months, or years, LTM gas a very large capacity.
▪ Knowledge-base (number of items/facts/words stored)
 Encoding: visual, auditory, semantic, kinesthic
Storage
Retrieval
• Short-term memory- growing processing capacity
o Younger children are not able to hold as much info in STM but it may not be due to
capacity limits. Possible that it is due to limits in processing speed or less automaticity
(some skills, like reading, become more automatic as child gets older).
o Short term memory- (STM) A form of memory that usually lasts only seconds, ora s
long as rehearsal continues. Working memory can be considered a portion of STM
where information can be manipulated.
o Working memory- Working memory can be viewed as a subset of short term memory.
Working memory refers to the ability to actively manipulate information in your short
term memory, to solve a problem or make use of the information.
Go through this with neuro-textbook

• Behavior genetics: polygenic traits, multifactorial traits, the difference between genotype
and phenotype, heritability, epigenetics, types of research to tease out genetic influence.
• Polygenic traits: Psychological traits that are influenced by more than one gene, like same-sex
attraction and intelligence
• Multifactorial traits: Psychological traits that are influenced by more than one factor (includes
genetics, in utero experience, environments to which one is exposed), like same-sex attraction
and intelligence.
• Genotype-phenotype: the first is the genes one carries, the second are the expression of just
those genes that had an influence. People may carry some of the genes for schizophrenia (part
of their genotype), yet never develop schizophrenia (their phenotype).
• Heritability: a number less than 1.0 that indicates how much of the variation in a population on
a particular trait is due to the influence of genetics. For example, the heritability of intelligence
is about .50, meaning that about 50% of the variation in intelligence in the American
population is due to genetics; the heritability of generalized anxiety disorder is about .30.
• Epigenetics: The study of genetic activation due to environmental influence, e.g., some young
adults develop schizophrenia because of excessive stress in their prior development.

2. Organismic

• Piaget: equilibration, assimilation, accommodation; scheme, object permanence,

egocentrism, and operation, conservation (an example of operation).
o Schemas- are cognitive structures that help organize mental representations
related to a particular experience. Schema then provides the basis for
understanding, whereby meaning is attributed to the experience.
o Assimilation- means that the infant absorbs information in a manner consistent
with an established way of thinking. What is perceived is made to fit into
existing schemas.
o Accommodation- New schemas are created through the process of
accommodation where existing cognitive structures are altered to make space for
new stimuli or schemas.
o Equilibrium- represents an infants ability to efficiently place novel stimuli into
existing or new structures that facilitate meaning and understanding.
 o Operation- referred to the ability to act upon an object in one’s mind. One is
able to perform mental actions on the world of objects within the world.
▪ A classic example of an operation being performed would be that the
child understands and can grasp that when pouring a liquid from one
short round glass to a tall skinny glass, the amount of liquid does not
change. So an example would be pouring milk from one large mug, into
a skinny tall glass, this may be perceived as though one glass may have
more than the other but the child is able to conceptualize that it’s the
same amount of liquid in different forms.

3. Psychodynamic

• Freud’s theory: The Oedipal and Elektra complex to explain sex and gender identity, stages
of Freud’s psychosexual theory.
o Oedipal complex- Freud explained that boys desire an exclusive relationship
with their mother-independent of their father-to the extent that boys want to
subconsciously eliminate their fathers
o Electra Complex- while girls desire an exclusive relationship with their father-
independent of their mother.
o The explanation for the complexes above- These complexes take place during
the genital stage, where attraction to the parent of the opposite sex and bonding
with the parent of the same sex are major developmental issues. The child
eventually concludes that the same sex in which they’re competing against can
not be defeated, and in a healthy family, the relationship between the same sex’s
▪ The psychological solution is for the child to seek to be like (identify
with) the parent of the same sex and suppress the attraction for the parent
of the opposite sex.
▪ Oral (0-2 years)
▪ Anal (2-3 years)
▪ Phallic (3-7 years)
▪ Latency (7-11 years)
▪ Genital (11 and up
o Stage one oral- This is the first stage of the child’s development, usually
happens within the first 12-18 months, and is associated with pleasure as well as
pain. Pleasure is experienced when the child receives food from a loving mother
or sucks on a thumb or some other object. Pain is experienced when the infant
has deprived form oral gratification. If waned off too early from the oral stage,
or are deprived of pleasure, then the children will grow up and develop oral type
personalities this being: greedy materialists thumb suckers, smokers, ect. But
will substitute a behavior to receive oral gratification such as smoking or pencil
biting.
o Stage two anal stage- The second stage in Freud’s development would be the
anal stage in which time control over excretion becomes the main emphasis.
What is developed here would be a reflection of strenuous or high/little
expectations of toilet training resulting in anal personalities such as: meticulous,
punctual, or tied down by petty restraints, or too little, would result in sin a
messy, disorderly person lacking in self-control.
 o Stage three- Genital stage- This stage is when the Oedipal/Electra complex
arises. The genital stage emphasizes that the child will have an attraction to the
parent of the opposite sex, and compete against the same-sex parent until proven
that the child can’t defeat the same-sex parent for the attention of the same-sex
parent, resulting in a healthy relationship where the child will identify with the
parent of the same sex. This stage is where the sexual identity is formed within
the child. The unsuccessful resolution will result in the child being confused
about their sexual identity or being preoccupied with proving their
masculinity/femineity.
o Stage four- The final stage of Freud’s human developmental theory would be
the latency stage. The latency stage emphasizes that the children from ages 6-13
will strongly form alliances and identify with the same sex. If health conditions
are met then the child will have successfully identified gender identity, and self-
esteem will firmly develop during the latency stage, But if not the will be
difficulty in relating to others increasing self-doubt and lack of self-esteem.

• Erikson’s 8 stages of psychosocial development across the lifespan.

o Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (0-18 months)
o Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (12-18 months – 3 years)
o Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (3 – 5-6 years)
o Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (5-6 years)
o Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Diffusion (adolescence)
o Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood)
o Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood)
o Stage 8: Ego Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood)

4. Contextualist

• A systems approach (not persons): Bronfenbrenner’s “ecological” model of 4 systems of

human beings and history (Chronosystem).
• Systems thinking: individuals are nested within systems of increasing complexity
• Microsystem: the immediate systems one participates in face-to-face
• Mesosystem: the relationships between one’s microsystems
• Exosystem: the systems that impinge upon one’s microsystems (parent’s job setting)
• Macrosystem: one’s culture
• Chronosystem: temporal changes in one’s culture

o Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model consists of 4 systems. These systems

described the different roles one in one’s life which deem appropriate for that
specific environment and social group. The example used in the book would be
a girl that’s in college acts differently around her sorority sisters than compared
to her engineering classes, and that’s different from how she acts at home
around her parents. The undergraduate knows when to play the different roles in
each context, but the key point is that when she transitions from one role to
another depending on the social context, the undergraduate student is not in any
distress or concern. Bronfenbrenner outlined boundaries for nested social
context, he called these ecosystems. The first and smallest system would be
 known as the microsystem which is the caregiver/child dyadic relationship. The
mesosystem is described as a system of microsystems, it involves two or more
participation settings. For example, this would include relationships for a young
boy to be classmates at school, family members, and church friends. The
exosystem consists of events that affect the developing person, examples of this
would include mom’s place of work and siblings’ soccer teams. These events
indirectly influence the developing person from a distance, usually done through
a parent or sibling. The final system would be the macrosystem, the
macrosystem is composed of one’s culture which is seen in the media,
government, and other cultural practices that are acceptable to the immediate
social context.

• Vygotsky: See handouts: internalization, intersubjectivity, scaffolding, Zone of Proximal

Development, 4 stages of individual development with social support, “just enough”
support.
o Zone proximal development- the Zone contains the range of tasks that a child
cannot yet accomplish without the active assistance of parents other with greater
knowledge capabilities. The zone of proximal development makes new
possibilities real as the child’s skill base is expanded through interpersonal
relationships. Skills beyond the child’s immediate potential cannot be magically
realized within the zone of proximal development. An example would be that
Eduardo’s dad will not be able to help Eduardo master a game of chess, but
within the zone of proximal development, dad can help Eduardo develop new
problem-solving capabilities that extend from the puzzle.
o Scaffolding- scaffolding falls within the zone of proximal development, in the
same way, that construction workers use ladders and scaffolds around a building
in order to give workers access to every part of the emerging structure.
Caregivers can provide a scaffold of development that optimally extends just
slightly beyond the child’s abilities but never so far beyond as to create
unreasonable expectations that end in certain failure.
o Four stages of individual development
o Just enough support
o Internalization
o Intersubjectivity

• Narrative approach: Dan McAdams

• Human development consists in the unfolding of one’s story, and the emergence of one
as actor (with a developing personality) into an agent (with developing goals and
values) into an author of one’s own story, so that one can create new developments

• Lene Jensen’s Cultural Developmental model of moral development: Autonomy,

Community, Divinity.

5. Humanistic
 • Abraham Maslow

• Carl Rogers

6. Transpersonal

• Ken Wilber

7. Christian

• Why is a Christian model potentially the most comprehensive model of human

development? How does Christianity transform the secular models through
recontextualizing them in a different worldview? And what are some of the distinctives of a
Christian model of human development?

• Know the different stages of the theories of Freud, Erikson, Lene Arnette Jensen, and
especially Piaget and Vygotsky.

The Reciprocating Self Theory

1. What is a reciprocating self? How is it related to the Trinity? What is the relation between
particularity, relatedness, and reciprocity?

2. Explain the four overarching themes of the Balswick book: covenant love (unconditional love),
grace, empowering, and intimacy. Also, be familiar with their corollaries in parenting: support,
monitoring, intervention, and control (though these were not emphasized as much in the book
as reciprocity). How are they all related to the social dimension of human development?

3. Know some of the defining features of the Relational Developmental Systems (RDS) paradigm
of Richard Lerner. What is attractive about the model for the book’s Christian authors?

Case Study: Given an example case study in the exam, how are the following questions on the
next page best explained?

Redemptive-Historical for Exam 1: Ted

Ted was an only child. His parents were both Christians, and they did family devotions when he was
young and brought him to church every week, but they had extremely high standards for Ted’s
behavior and performance in school, and were unyielding regarding their expectations (e.g., throughout
junior high, they required that him to play baseball every year, even though he didn’t like it and said he
wasn’t very good at it, partly because after every game, they would go over everything that happened,
and typically focus on and criticize his mistakes). He described his childhood as feeling like he was
always “walking a tightrope,” trying hard to keep them happy.

Ted was a terrific student. He graduated in the top 10% of his class in high school and graduated
Magna Cum Laude at the University of Illinois Business School. He also enjoys playing the banjo in a
bluegrass band.
Now Ted is a 43-year-old married man, a father of four, and a hard-working, highly successful Vice
President of a bank in town. However, he suffers from chronic worrying, so intense that he has
difficulty concentrating on tasks at work, focusing on what others are saying to him, and sleeping for
no more than three hours a night. He also struggles with anger and bitterness toward people who don’t
give him 100% or toward those who criticize him.

Ted came back to Christianity a few years ago, and was recently baptized 2 years ago. He says he has
developed a growing sense of conviction regarding his shortcomings and sins, and is spending
consistent time with God in his devotional life. He reports having times when he really feels close to
God and enjoys worship, but other times when he feels dead spiritually. He now asks his family and
co-workers for forgiveness when he sins against them.

Redemptive-Historical Exam 1 Case Study: Ted (Genesis 1-4)

1. Creation Development (Genesis 1-2):

a. What was the nature of this person, by virtue of creation grace?

b. Who was in this person’s family, by virtue of divine sovereignty?

c. What was this person’s physical environment, by virtue of divine sovereignty?

d. As a developing human being, at what stage of development was this person?

2. Fall Development (Genesis 3:1-19):

 a. What was the bio-psycho-social-spiritual damage to this person, due to a fallen world?

b. What damage resulted due to this person’s use of free will and choosing personal sin?

3. Redemption Development (Genesis 3:15, 20-24):

a. Is there any evidence of spiritual rebirth?

b. Is there any evidence of spiritual growth and maturity?

4. Counseling: Given the developmental information above, what insights might be used in
counseling this client? (Genesis 4:7)

a. Are there any counseling insights due to this person’s bio-psycho-social development?

b. Are there any counseling insights due to this person’s spiritual development?

c. Cite a Bible verse and the life principle it teaches, that addresses this client’s challenges.