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Spray Dryers: Modeling and Simulation

a b c b d
V. S. Birchal , L. Huang , A. S. Mujumdar & M. L. Passos
a
UNI-BH, Centro Universitário de Belo Horizonte , Brazil
b
Mechanical Engineering Department , National University of Singapore , Kent Ridge
Crescent, Singapore
c
Research Institute of Chemical Industry of Forest Products, Chinese Academy of Forestry ,
Nanjing, China
d
Centro de Secagem, Dep. de Engenharia Química , Universidade Federal de São Carlos ,
São Carlos, SP, Brazil
Published online: 06 Feb 2007.

To cite this article: V. S. Birchal , L. Huang , A. S. Mujumdar & M. L. Passos (2006) Spray Dryers: Modeling and Simulation,
Drying Technology: An International Journal, 24:3, 359-371, DOI: 10.1080/07373930600564431

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 Drying Technology, 24: 359–371, 2006
Copyright # 2006 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0737-3937 print/1532-2300 online
DOI: 10.1080/07373930600564431
Spray Dryers: Modeling and Simulation
V. S. Birchal,1 L. Huang,2,3 A. S. Mujumdar,2 and M. L. Passos4
1
UNI-BH, Centro Universit
ario de Belo Horizonte, Brazil
2
Mechanical Engineering Department, National University of Singapore,
Kent Ridge Crescent, Singapore
3
Research Institute of Chemical Industry of Forest Products, Chinese Academy of Forestry,
Nanjing, China
4
Centro de Secagem, Dep. de Engenharia Quı́mica, Universidade Federal de São Carlos,
São Carlos, SP, Brazil
Downloaded by [National Sun Yat-Sen University] at 22:18 25 August 2014
This work presents a simulation study of the spray dryer oper-
ation using the whole milk suspension as the emulsion to be dried.
Two approaches are used to obtain a general description of this
operation. The first approach comprises a population balance
model, in which drops and particles make up the discrete phase
and are distributed into temporal compartments following their resi-
dence time in the dryer. Air is the continuous and well-mixed phase.
Mass and energy balances are developed for each phase, taking into
account their interactions. Constitutive model equations to describe
the drop swelling and drying mechanisms as well as the heat and
mass transfer between particles and hot air are also analyzed. The
set of algebraic-differential equations obtained in this approach is
solved by DASSL numerical code. The second approach involves
a three-dimensional model solved by a computational fluid dynamic
(CFD) code. The continuous air phase follows the time-averaged
Navier-Stokes equations coupled with the RNG turbulence model
while particle equations are set up in the Lagrangian model using
the stochastic method to predict the particle trajectories. Experi-
ments carried out in a pilot spray dryer generate input data for both
model approaches. Results are compared to lead to a better under-
standing of the spray dryer operation.
Keywords Spray-dryer modeling comparison; Particle distri-
bution; CFD; Numerical simulation
INTRODUCTION
Spray drying is a well-known industrial technique used
on a large scale for drying of liquids into powders, includ-
ing ones that are thermally very sensitive. Over the past
decade, research in modeling this operation has involved
empirical designs for industrial application.[1,2] Subsequent
investigations have focused on describing the drying
kinetics of discrete drops immersed into a current of hot
Correspondence: Dr. Maria Laura Passos, Drying Research
Center, Chemical Eng. Dept., Federal University of São Carlos;
P.O. Box 676, Rodovia Washington Luiz km 235, 13565-905
São Carlos, SP, Brazil; E-mail: merilau@microplanet.com.br
359
air.[3–5] By incorporating these drying kinetic models to
the mass and energy balances for air and solid phases as
a function of the particle residence time into the spray
chamber, the overall drying operation could be simu-
lated,[6,7] leading to continual improvements in the spray
dryer control and its performance.[8,9]
However, designing a full-scale spray dryer involves ser-
ious difficulties and unreliability, not only because of the
large size, but also because of the complexity involved in
measuring and describing the flow, heat, and mass transfer
mechanisms within the drying chamber. The lack of experi-
mental data also adds to the uncertainty when building
physical models representative of industrial spray dryers.
There is a serious lack of detailed experimental data within
a running spray dryer due to the hostile environment
within the chamber. Thus, there is little feedback of experi-
mental knowledge into the models, which need to be
validated and refined further. Full-scale spray drying simu-
lations using the rapidly evolving CFD technology is one
possible solution to this problem, since its applications in
modeling and scaling-up the spray dryer operation have
become well understood.
For the last few years, CFD computer codes have been
used to describe the complex air and solids flow inside the
spray chamber.[10–12] More recently, probabilistic models
have been incorporated into these codes to simulate drop
coalescence as well as particle collision with agglomer-
ation.[13,14] In view of the fact that CFD simulations incor-
porate numerous models within them, one is not certain a
priori of their applicability to the problem at hand. There-
fore, more studies must be carried out because the CFD
code is a potential tool for modeling the spray dryer oper-
ation.[15,16] Note that knowledge about particle cohesion
and wall adhesion is still very poor, making it difficult
to predict product quality as function of the spray dryer
 360 BIRCHAL ET AL.
operating variables. As pointed out by Langrish and
Flecther,[17] this is a big challenge for the next few years.
Brazilian research in spray drying has been mostly
empirical in nature, focusing on industrial applications in
food industries,[18–20] pharmaceuticals,[21,22] and diverse
powdered products.[23,24] Recent works in modeling and
simulation of spray drying operations in producing rare-
earth oxides[25] and whole milk powder[26] focus on Euler-
ian and Lagrangian approaches for developing time-overall
mass and energy balances and on the core-shrinkage model
for describing the drying kinetics. Based on experimental
data and results of the latter work, Huang et al.[27] have
developed a 3D-CFD simulation program based on the
commercial soft code FLUENT 6.1 for describing the
three-dimensional flow, heat, and mass transfer mechan-
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isms inside the spray chamber during the drying of concen-
trated milk emulsion.
Note that, in the industrial production of milk powder,
drying is the most important process step for defining the
final quality of the product.[28] As is well-known in the
international competitive market, milk powder and its
by-products have characteristics crucial to its acceptance
and commercialization. Since the milk powder quality is
FIG. 1. Pilot spray dryer used in the experimental work.
greatly affected by the drying conditions, knowledge of
the spray-drying technology is essential for controlling
its operational variables in order to obtain a high-quality
product.[29–31]
Therefore, the objective of the present work is to com-
bine both simulation results[26,27] and to analyze the overall
performance of the co-current spray dryer fitted with a
rotary disk atomizer in producing instant milk powder at
high quality. Following the spray dryer model comparison
presented by Oakley,[32] the one proposed by Birchal and
Passos[26] is rate based with simplified particle motion with
a 2A level of fidelity, which applies to overall process simu-
lation, optimization, and control since the run time in an
1800 MHz PC is between 5 to 60 s. The model simulation
developed by Huang et al.[27] is rate based with full simula-
tion of particle motion with a 2B level of fidelity, which
applies to detailed designs based on the investigation of
aerodynamics and product quality. Its run time in an
1800 MHz PC is expected to be more than 5 h.
In the next section, the two models are presented briefly,
focusing on the basic assumptions, experimental apparatus,
inlet parameters, and numerical solution considerations.
Note that the model equations, solution, and validation
 SPRAY DRYERS: MODELING AND SIMULATION 361

are detailed earlier.[26,27] This work involves a comparative
analysis of results for evaluating the drying performance.
As shown by results, both simulations are complemented
and should be improved together for further application
in the industrial milk powder drying process.
SPRAY DRYER MODEL APPROACHES
A co-current spray dryer fitted with a rotating disk
atomizer is the one commonly used in dairy industries to
produce milk powder. Figure 1 and Table 1 show details
of the pilot spray dryer used in this study.
Model 1: Euler-Lagrange with a Simplified Particle Motion
The formulation of the first model approach, which
describes the overall drying operation, is based on the
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The gas phase, formed of air and vapor, behaves
as an ideal mixture and flows inside the dryer as
a perfect mixture.

The suspension is properly atomized, forming
spherical, homogeneous, and uniform drops,
which are well mixed inside the chamber without
interacting with one another.

Both phases flow concurrently in a such way that

Individual drying rate is described by the water
evaporation transfer from a single particle to
the gas phase.

Individual heat exchange rate is described by the
convective heat transfer mechanism from the gas
to a single particle.

Overall drying (or heat transfer rate) must be a

following assumptions:[26] weight sum of individual rates of all particles

that remain in the dryer.

Hot air and milk suspension are continuously
injected into the top of the dryer chamber at
Drying kinetics is represented by two distinct per-
uniform rates. iods, shown in Fig. 2. The first one, in which free

TABLE 1
Dimensions and details of the pilot spray dryer[25,26]
Apparatus Specifications
Spray dryer (see Fig. 1) Model: PSD-52 from APV-ANHIDRO, built in stainless steel type AISI 316;
maximum capacity of water evaporation: 9.25 kg=h at Tg0 ¼ 350C and
Tg ¼ 90C; wall thickness ¼ 0.005 m; total height ¼ 2.25 m
Drying chamber Diameter ¼ 1 m; cylinder height ¼ 1.6 m; thermal isolation: stagnant air layer
compressed between the inner and outer dryer walls
Suspension feed and atomizer Suspension injected to atomizer by a Multifix pump (model: Mini-Z) with 0.4
bar of maximum suction pressure, 1.5 bar of maximum pressure for flow rate
from 0.4 to 13 L=h; rotating disc atomizer model CE-63 (dD ¼ 0.063 m of
disc diameter with four holes, NF ¼ 4, of diameter dF ¼ 0.0024 m) attached
to an electrical motor (Bosh 1210) of 0.5 kW (maximum rotation velocity
¼ 50,000 rpm); mean initial drop diameter (Sauter diameter), dp0 in mm:
" #
4 ½F ð1 þ W0 Þ0:24
dp0 ¼ 1:4  10 ð1Þ
ðvatom dD Þ0:83 ðNF dF Þ0:12

Air entrance, measurement,
and control
Air and powder exits
Air heater and measurements
Air injected tangentially by an Elektror (model HRD-1=5T of 1 kW) blower
into a cylindrical air distributor camera (0.095 m of diameter and 0.04 m
height) with perforated wall surrounding the atomizer at the top center of
dryer (see details in Fig. 1); air flow rate measured by a Pitot tube attached
to a micro-manometer
Air outlet pipe located at the bottom with 0.05 m of diameter and a geometric
configuration shown in Fig. 1; powder outlet container attached to the coni-
cal bottom of the dryer (see Fig. 1)
Electrical system, built by SAN Electro Heat, thermal isolated, located just
after the blower; air temperatures measured by two PT-100 sensors and ther-
mocouples inserted into air pipeline (at inlet and at outlet) attached to a digi-
tal controller (model E5EK Omron) and register (EDM 35 Carlo Gavazzi
Ind. A=S)
 362
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FIG. 2. Schematic representation of the drying kinetic mechanisms used
in Model 1.
water is evaporated from drops until a thin semi-
permeable crust is formed on the particle surface,
and the second one, characterized by the thicken-
ing of this crust as predicted by the shrinking core
model.[26]

Drop shrinks in the first period of drying, follow-
ing the amount of water evaporated.

Heat flows from hot air to drops or particles and
temperature gradients inside the particles are
negligible.

The dryer chamber is not necessarily isolated ther-
mally; therefore, the gas phase can lose heat
through the dryer walls to the ambient air.
To determine the mass and energy balances of the par-
ticle population in the dryer, the effective contribution of
each particle to the overall drying and heat exchange rates
must be specified. This contribution is directly related to
the residence time distribution of particles in the dryer,
which can be expressed as a function of the age distribution
of these particles in relation to the mean particle residence
time. Although the particle residence time distribution is
assumed to be described by the perfect mixture model,
other different models can be easily incorporated into the
model program to describe such a function.
BIRCHAL ET AL.
Since particles can and do take different routes inside
the drying chamber, it is necessary to distinguish, at any
time t, that particle fraction of ages less than or equal to t
that is removed from the dryer and that particle fraction of
ages greater than to t that is kept inside the chamber. In
these fractions, it is also necessary to differentiate the age
of each group of particle for determining, at each time t,
the water evaporation rate and the rate of heat exchanged
with the gas phase, as well as the overall mean particle tem-
perature and moisture content. This requires that same-age
particles are grouped together into n temporal compart-
ments, as shown in Fig. 3. This temporal compartmentali-
zation method is fully justified by the drying model, because
particles of the same age have the same diameter, moisture
content, and temperature. Since drop coalescence and drop
breakage are both neglected and drops are assumed to be
in perfect mixing, particles of the same age, belonging to
the same temporal compartment, can be found in different
spatial positions inside the drying chamber.
As shown by Birchal and Passos,[26] Model 1 comprises a
set of constitutive algebraic equations that describe mass and
heat transfer between gas and single particles, the drying
kinetics of a single particle surrounded by gas and functions
of the particle residence time distribution inside the cham-
ber; a group of differential equations that express the mass
and energy balances for a single particle and a continuous
gas phase; and a set of algebraic equations that express the
overall distributed balances of particles inside the chamber.
This model presents two adjustable parameters, the coef-
ficient of vapor diffusion through the particle crust (see
Fig. 2), Diff, and the overall coefficient of heat transfer
between wall dryer and ambient air, hwall. Appendix A sum-
marizes some of the most important equations of Model 1.
Numerical methods are employed to solve the Model 1
due to the complexity of the differential-algebraic equation
FIG. 3. Compartment model representation according to particle
number and age.[26]
 SPRAY DRYERS: MODELING AND SIMULATION
system (DAE). Transforming this system into one of ordi-
nary differential equations should involve a series of
algebraic operations and serious problems with the model
convergence while simulating the beginning of the drying
operation.[8] Birchal and Passos[26] have proposed a new
method to solve directly the DAE model system by applying
the DASSL code,[33] which transforms DAE system into a
set of algebraic equations, whose solution is obtained by
Newton methods. This code, developed in the FORTRAN
language, has been incorporated into a computational
FORTRAN program, containing: the initial conditions
and the sequential order of equations to be solved with
the corresponding code callings and the solution feedback
to the program. In addition, there are specific subroutines
for calculating the air, vapor, water, and drop properties as
Downloaded by [National Sun Yat-Sen University] at 22:18 25 August 2014
well as the equilibrium data on both phases linked to the
main program.
The convergence problem in this model solution has
been solved by using different discretization times during
the simulation. Since, in the first temporal compartment,
values and tendencies of temperature and gas humidity
are unknown, problems with the DASSL initialization
can emerge. Besides, at the beginning of the drying oper-
ation, there are fast and abrupt changes in the particle
temperature and moisture content profiles. To optimize
the computer program, a time refining in the first temporal
compartment is used by subdividing it into temporal
TABLE 2
Input parameters for model simulation
Input parameters (Model 1 and Model 2)
Inlet air condition:
Temperature Tg0 (C)
Mass flow rate (dry air) G (kg=s)
Absolute humidity (dry basis) Y0
Pressure P (Pa)
Milk emulsion inlet condition:
Temperature Tp0 (C)
Mass flow rate (dry solids) F (kg=s)
Moisture content (dry basis) W0
Atomization condition:
Disc rotating velocity vatom (rpm)
Mean Sauter drop diameter dp0 (mm)
Environmental condition:
Temperature Tamb (C)
Pressure Patm (Pa)
Drying chamber characteristics:
Height (m)
Diameter (m)
Wall thickness (m)
Wall material ¼ stainless steel AISI 316
363
subcompartments with a smaller time interval. Preliminary
simulations have established the minimum temporal
compartment and subcompartment numbers required to
guarantee convergence.[26]
To estimate the two adjustable model parameters, Diff
and hwall, the weighty least-squares method was used to
represent the residue or error function. An optimization
subroutine, based on the particle swarm optimization heu-
ristic method[34] has been implemented and added to the
main program, resulting in a rapid convergence to the over-
all minimum of this error function.
Specifically, for the whole milk emulsion and the pilot
spray dryer used (see Figure 1), Diff and hwall have been esti-
mated as 4.1  109 m2=s and 7.3 W=m2K. Also, statistical
correlations for predicting physical properties of the whole
milk powder, obtained by the factorial experiment design pro-
cedure,[28] have been incorporated to this model program.
Input parameters of this Model 1 computer program
are shown in Tables 2 and 3, as well as the experimental
data used in the case simulation. Moreover, as recom-
mended by Clement et al.,[8] the mean particle residence
time, srp, is supposed to be the same as that of the gas
(srp ¼ sr ¼ qgVSD=G) and the maximum particle residence
time is taken as 3 srp (Ds ¼ 3 srp=n). As shown in Appen-
dix A, for the concurrent gas-particle flow, the overall
mean relative velocity between these two phases is low
enough to be assumed null.[26]
Experimental value (for case simulation)
180
0.041
0.0015
ffiPatm
51
0.00056
1.04
42,000
49 [from Eq. (1)]
27.5
1.013  105
1.6
1.0
0.005
Cpwall ¼ 460.8 J=(kg K)
qwall ¼ 7820 kg=m3
 364 BIRCHAL ET AL.
TABLE 3
Properties of the whole milk emulsion used
Main properties of whole milk emulsion used
Solids density qs (kg=m3)
Specific heat of dry solids Cps (J=K kg)
Sorption equilibrium curve[28]
Density at inlet condition qsusp (kg=m3)
Apparent viscosity at inlet condition lsusp (kg=m s)
Fat content (% dry basis)
Model 2: Euler-Lagrange with a Full Simulation
of Particle Motion
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The second model approach is based on three-
dimensional flow (gas and solids) investigated numerically
with a 3D-CFD FLUENT-code, version 6.1.[27] Differen-
tial mass, energy, and momentum balance equations for
the continuous gas phase are formulated following the
Eulerian theory of Newtonian fluid. Therefore, the pre-
dicted fluid flow results are obtained by solving numeri-
cally the time-averaged Navier-Stokes equations coupled
with the RNG k-e turbulence model. The turbulence inten-
sity is assumed to be 3.5% and the turbulence length
0.1 m.[27] This turbulent model is chosen because it consi-
ders the swirling flow in the drying chamber.[16]
Based on the predicted gas flow field, the Lagrangian
model determines droplet or particle trajectories by solving
the force balance equation for each particle, taking into
account the discrete phase inertia, aerodynamic drag, and
gravity forces. Other forces, as cohesive and adhesive ones
between particles and particle-wall, are supposed null in
this preliminary computer program version.[27]
The heat transfer rate from the continuous gas phase to
the discrete particle phase is determined by estimating the
convective heat transfer coefficient between these two
phases, using the Nu (Nusselt) vs. Re (Reynolds) empirical
correlation for a single sphere that falls into the air
stream.[3–5,27] The relative velocity between air and particle
is determined locally by solving the gas and solids momen-
tum balance equations. Note that, in Model 1, the overall
mean relative velocity between these phases is supposed
null and the averaged Nu number is always equal to 2.[26]
In this CFD approach, the local Nu number is greater than
2 or, at least, equal to 2.
The drying model, used in this second approach, is the
one available in the FLUENT code.[35] Therefore, in the
first period of drying concentrated milk emulsion, the con-
stant rate of vaporization is determined by estimating the
convective mass transfer coefficient between air and par-
ticle. Analogously to heat transfer, the Sh (Sherwood) vs.
Re correlation for a single sphere falling into the air stream
has been used to predict the convective vapor mass transfer
Experimental value
1273
1.04  103
W  ¼ ðb12 þ b13 TÞðln RHÞa with: a ¼ 0.621;
b12 ¼ 0.109; b13 ¼ 2.02  104 K1 and T in K
1082.7 experimental error ¼ 0.4 kg=m3
12.4  103
29
coefficient. In the second period of drying, the droplet boil-
ing model is applied to estimate the convective boiling of a
single drop when its temperature has reached the boiling
point and while its mass exceeds the non-volatile fraction
of water in the particle (calculated by the sorption equilib-
rium).[27] Appendix B presents a summary of the most
important equations used in Fluent code.
To improve the estimation of the falling drying rate,
Huang et al.[36] have modified this droplet boiling model
introducing the normalized drying rate, as shown in
Fig. 4. Since the shape of such curve of the normalized
drying rate versus the dimensionless moisture content ratio
depends on the suspension characteristics and must be
defined as an input data, additional drying experiments
are needed for implementing this modified drying model.
Because of this need, in this preliminary CFD program ver-
sion, the droplet boiling model (without any modification)
has been used. Note that Huang et al.[36] have also
developed a power law model for the falling rate kinetics
which can be input into the FLUENT code.
For the pilot spray dryer used in this work, the GAM-
BIT program[35] was employed to generate the T-type grid
design (with 185,539 cells) and the configuration of the
rotating disc obtained to better simulate drying operation.
FIG. 4. Schematic representation of the drying kinetic curves to
improve the CDF model.
 SPRAY DRYERS: MODELING AND SIMULATION
Many attempts of the mesh sizes were made to obtain a
reasonable accuracy with less computing time for conver-
gence. Since the rotating disc cannot be represented directly
in the FLUENT program, the disc edge wall is set as rotat-
ing with the spray points fixed very close to the disc wall.
Although only four holes exist in the actual disc (see
Table 1), 16 injector points need to be set around the disc
to assure the uniform spray conditions in this equivalent
design configuration, as shown in Fig. 5.
Input parameters of the FLUENT computer program
are given in Tables 2 and 3, as well as the experimental data
used for simulation. Following these values, the mass flow
rate for each one of 16 injector points should be 0.225 kg=h
(with 49% of solids content) and the spray velocity ejected
from the atomizer 166 m=s. Based on such a condition and
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on the design configuration, the tangential and radial velo-
cities of milk emulsion at the outlet of each injector point
has been estimated (for point 1 in Fig. 5, vt ¼ 164.85 m=s
and vr ¼ 20.73 m=s).
Using Eq. (1) for estimating the initial drop Sauter
diameter, dp0, and supposing the initial drop size ranged
from 10 to 100 mm, the atomized drop size distribution
should be calculated by the Rosin-Rammler distribution
model with the power exponent being set to 2.05.[27] Gen-
erally, in the rotating disc atomizer, the drop diameter
ranges from 1 to 250 mm, being in most cases within 10
to 100 mm.[37] Because of this, this range was selected and
a total of 120 parcels of the spray stream for each injection
were specified.
In addition, it is established that particles adhere to the
wall even when the ‘‘escape’’ condition is reached (which
means that particles are lost from the calculation at the
point of impact with the wall). This gives a rough esti-
mation of the amount of particles that can adhere to the
FIG. 5. Rotating disc configuration used in Model 2.
365
chamber wall. As known from the relevant literature,[13,38]
the particle impact with the wall is the first requirement
needed to specify the particle-wall adhesion. For effective
adherence to the wall, capillary forces, electrostatic, and=or
Van der walls forces should be strong enough to maintain
the particle sticking on the dryer wall.[39] Probabilistic
models are used to specify the particle-wall collisions that
are really effective to estimate the amount of particles
adhered to the wall.[13] Although these probabilistic models
are not taken into account in the present work, the next
steps will involve the analyses of these probabilistic models
to incorporate into the CFD computer program.
The wall-to-ambient heat transfer coefficient, hwall, is
one estimated by Model 1 and equals to 7.3 W=m2K.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Another set of experimental data previously used to
validate the model 1[26] provides the experimental standard
deviation and error of each one operational variable ana-
lyzed. Figure 6 shows experimental data replications for
the air temperature (inlet ¼ Tg0 and outlet ¼ Tg) as a func-
tion of time. From these data, one can see that the start-up
of the drying operation lasts about half an hour (transient
period 0 t 1800 s) until Tg becomes independent of
time. Figure 7 shows also that Model 1 can actually predict
very well Tg during this initial transient period for the input
conditions used in this work (see Tables 2 and 3). Note that
the more precise is the Tg prediction, more improvements
on the drying control design and strategies can be made
to better the powder product quality. In addition, the mean
run time for solving Model 1 on a PC computer (with
900 MHZ AMD-Athlon processor, 160 Mb of RAM, and
Windows 2000 operational system) is about 15 s.
Model 1 also predicts the drying history of one averaged
particle during its residence time in the spray chamber, as
shown in Fig. 8 for the operating conditions listed in
Tables 2 and 3. During the first initial seconds (t <
0.01 s), the particle temperature, Tp, drops to achieve
FIG. 6. Experimental data replications of air temperatures as function
of time.[26]
 366
FIG. 7. Experimental and simulated data of Tg as function of time for
operational drying conditions detailed in Tables 2 and 3.
Downloaded by [National Sun Yat-Sen University] at 22:18 25 August 2014
equilibrium with the stagnant air layer on its surface (see
Fig. 2). For 0.01 s < t < 0.2 s, Tp equals to the wet-bulb
temperature with free water evaporates from its surface.
At t ¼ 0.21 s, W equals the critical value (Wc ¼ 0.21) and
the particle superficial crust starts to form. Therefore, at
this point, the second drying period begins with water
evaporating inside the particle, vapor diffusing through
the crust to the particle surface, and through the stagnant
air layer to air flow. The particle starts being heated up
by air (i.e., Tp increases rapidly). The drying rate decreases
until becoming null at W ¼ W (liquid water inside the par-
ticle reaches its equilibrium to vapor on the outer particle
crust surface). The predicted values of the outlet powder
moisture content and air humidity, W ¼ 0.022 and
Y ¼ 0.037, are in good agreement with the experimental
ones, W ¼ 0.021  0.005 and Y ¼ 0.040  0.009.
Although Model 1 predicts precisely the overall vari-
ables in the spray dryer operation (within the experi-
mental error range), this cannot be used to search for
improvements in dryer design geometry, to reduce powder
adherence to dryer walls, or to predict W at severe inlet
conditions imposed on the milk drying (higher tempera-
ture and lower emulsion feed rate), which result in a
burned product with a possible loss of some volatile
components.[26]
FIG. 8. History of particle drying inside the spray dryer for Model 1.
BIRCHAL ET AL.
Simulated results from Model 2 are summarized in
Table 4. Based on these data, one can infer that the gas phase
is well-mixed inside the chamber. As predicted by Model 2,
there are, in fact, negative axial air velocities just under the
atomizer due to the strong swirling flow induced by the
rotating disc and a reverse air flow along one side of the dry-
ing chamber close to dryer walls. High air temperature and
humidity gradients occur mainly near the disc atomizer
(0.1 m below the top of the dryer). This means that high dry-
ing rates (first drying period) take place in a minor fraction
of the chamber volume close to the rotating disc atomizer.
Moreover, as seen in Table 4, there is an abrupt drop in
the air temperature near the dryer walls due to the heat lost
to ambient. Such abrupt air temperature gradient near the
dryer wall should lead to changing the particle temperature
toward the milk stick-point zone, as already pointed out by
Ozemen and Langrish,[38] contributing to an effective adher-
ence of whole milk powder to the chamber walls.
Huang et al.[27] have also presented, for the case simu-
lated in the present work, the possible trajectories of parti-
cles inside the spray chamber. Based on these trajectories
and using the ‘‘escape’’ condition to locate particles (before
their disappearance), the fraction of particles that hit a spe-
cific location in the chamber can be estimated, as shown in
Fig. 9. Note that 46% of particles inside the chamber are
expected to hit the cylinder dryer walls during their trajec-
tories and only 24% should hit the conical dryer walls. Due
to their lower residence time in the chamber, the moisture
content of these particles that probably hit the cylindrical
dryer walls should be higher. Particles with high moisture
contents at low temperatures (due to the decrease in tem-
perature near walls) adhere more effectively to walls (milk
powder becomes sticker following its stick point dia-
gram.[38,40]) These effective deposits of milk powder on
the dryer wall are one of the serious problems in the whole
milk powder production.[38,40] In this specific case,
solutions for reducing these powder deposits on walls
should require good dryer chamber insulation.
FIG. 9. Preliminary estimation of particle deposit on the dryer wall for
Model 2.
 SPRAY DRYERS: MODELING AND SIMULATION 367

Sauter diameter) during drying are predicted by Model 1

FIG. 10. Particle diameter history of a droplet of 49 mm size (mean
Sauter diameter) following Model 1 and Model 2.
Returning to Table 4, one can see that the predicted
value of the outlet air temperature is in good agreement
with the experimental data for the steady operation (see
Downloaded by [National Sun Yat-Sen University] at 22:18 25 August 2014
and by Model 2. As one can see, following Model 1 simula-
tion, this droplet with 49 mm of inlet diameter should
shrink until 0.2 s, when its moisture content equals to the
critical value. After this point, its diameter maintains con-
stant (39.9 mm) and drying continues slowly with thicken-
ing of the porous crust on its surface until 2.0 s, when the
equilibrium moisture content is reached (W ¼ 0.0198), as
shown in Fig. 8. Following Model 2, this droplet with
49 mm of inlet diameter takes about 0.5 s to be dried, reach-
ing the moisture content (around 0.07) higher than the
equilibrium one. These results indicate that the CFD dry-
ing model used must be improved by inserting into it the
dimensionless drying curves, summarized in Fig. 4, for
whole milk powder. Studies are in progress to modify

Fig. 7, t
800 s); however, the mean predicted air humidity and improve the CFD-FLUENT drying model.
is still lower for the case analyzed here. In Fig. 10, changes Table 5 presents the basic properties of whole milk
in the particle diameter of an initial 49-mm droplet (mean powder produced in the experiment used in this work.

TABLE 4
Main simulated results from Model 2 for conditions presented in Tables 2 and 3
Output variables Predicted results
Air flow pattern
Off-center peaks and negative velocities evidence
recirculation zones (near wall and near atomizer)

Air temperature
Higher air temperature gradients close to the atomizer
Low Tg near dryer walls
Outlet air temperature ¼ 118C

Air humidity
Higher water evaporated rates near the atomizer
Outlet air humidity ¼ 0.024


level Z m (Z-distance in m from the top of the dryer); Y, X, and Z axis are shown in Fig. 5.
 368 BIRCHAL ET AL.

CONCLUSIONS k Convective coefficient of mass transfer

Two different model approaches for describing the spray (m=s)
drying operation of whole milk powder are presented and kG Thermal conductivity of air [W=(m K)]
analyzed. From the predicted results, one can see the M_ evap Overall water evaporation rate (kg=s)
benefits and limitations of these two different modeling MF Source term in momentum equation
techniques. [Eq. (B2)] [kg=(s2 m2)]
The first approach, based on the simplified particle Mh Source term in energy balance [Eq. (B3)]
motion, gives predictions of the overall operational drying [J=(s m2)]
variables and it can be used to design control strategies for Mm Source term in the continuity equation
safely drying milk emulsion in spray dryers. This type of [Eq. (B1)] [kg=(s m3)]
model can also be used to better formulate drying kinetic Mw Molar mass of water (kg=kmol)
mechanisms of specific materials. However, it cannot ms Mass of dry solids in the drop (¼ constant)
incorporate fundamental mechanisms of particle agglomer- (kg)
ation and adhesion to the dryer wall as the second model m
_v Individual water evaporation rate per unit
approach can. Therefore, in this approach, empirical of particle area [kg=(s m2)]
Downloaded by [National Sun Yat-Sen University] at 22:18 25 August 2014

correlations must be included in the model equations m

_ vap Additional water evaporation rate per unit
in order to describe the final powder agglomeration of particle area at the beginning of drying
characteristics.[28] (to ensure the vapor pressure in the bulk
Using the CFD approach, information about tempera- air ¼ the saturated vapor pressure at
ture and humidity profiles of air and particle inside the wet-bulb temperature) [kg=(s m2)]
spray dryer can be used to overcome design problems, NF Number of holes in the atomizer disc
improving the powder product quality. Moreover, funda- Np,i,j Fraction of particles in the (i,j) temporal
mental equations to describe mechanisms of particle compartment
agglomeration and particle adhesion to the dryer wall can n Number of temporal compartments
be incorporated into this model, since particle motion is P Pressure (Pa)
fully simulated. From the predicted results, it is inferred Pw Vapor pressure (Pa)
that, sometimes, CFD model equations need to be revised Pwg Vapor pressure in the bulk air (Pa)
and rebuilt. Therefore, studies are in progress to improve Pw Equilibrium vapor pressure (Pa)
this CFD-FLUENT model to better describe the second Q_ Overall heat transfer rate (J=s)
drying period of milk powder. _
Qevap Overall heat evaporation rate (J=s)
Q_ wall Heat transfer rate between wall dryer and
NOMENCLATURE ambient, ¼ hwall AL (Tg–Tamb) (J=s)
AL Lateral area of the spray chamber (m2) q_ Gas-particle heat transfer between per
Ap Particle surface area (m2) particle area [J=(s m2)]
CD Drag coefficient between particle and air R Ideal gas constant (¼ 8314) [J=(kmol K)]
Cp, Cv Specific heat at constant pressure and at RH Relative humidity of bulk air
constant volume [J=(kg K)] T Temperature (K)
Diff Coefficient of vapor diffusion through the Tamb Room temperature (C)
particle crust (m2=s) Tg Air temperature (inside and outlet
Dv Coefficient of vapor diffusion through an dryer) (C)
stagnant air layer (m2=s) Tg0 Inlet air temperature (C)
dD Diameter of the atomizer disc (m) Tp Particle temperature (C)
dF Diameter of the hole in the atomizer Tp0 Inlet particle temperature (C)
disc (m) Tref Reference temperature (¼ 273.15) (K)
dp Particle diameter (m or mm) t Operating time (s)
dp0 Initial or inlet drop diameter (m or mm) ui Interstitial gas velocity in the i
F Milk emulsion dry solids flow rate (kg=s) direction (m=s)
Fxi User-defined force (kg m=s2) upi Interstitial particle velocity in the i
G Dry air flow rate (kg=s) direction (m=s)
h Convective heat transfer coefficient V Volume (m3)
[W=(m2K)] VSD Volume of the spray dryer chamber (m3)
hwall Overall coefficient of heat transfer between Vwall Volume of the dryer wall [see Eq. (3)] (m3)
wall dryer and ambient air [W=(m2K)] vatom Atomization speed rotation (rpm)
 SPRAY DRYERS: MODELING AND SIMULATION 369

vr Radial velocity of injecting suspension (m=s) 6. Parti, M.; Pal
ancz, B. Mathematical model for spray drying. Chemical
Engineering Science 1974, 29, 355–362.
vrel Relative velocity between particle and 7. Goffredi, R.A.; Crosby, E.J. Limiting analytical relationships for
air (m=s) prediction of spray dryer performance. Industrial and Engineering
vt Tangential velocity of injecting suspension Chemistry Product Research and Development 1983, 22, 655–672.
(m=s) 8. Clement, K.H.; Hallström, A.; Dich, H.C.; Le, C.M.; Mortensen, J.;
W Particle moisture content (dry basis) Thomsen, H.A. On the dynamic behaviour of spray dryers. Trans.
IChemE 1991, 69, 245–251.
Wc Critical particle moisture content (dry basis) 9. Fieg, G.; Wosny, G.; Buick, K.; Jeromim, L. Estimation of the drying
W0 Inlet particle moisture content (dry basis) rate and moisture profiles in an industrial spray dryer by means of
W
Equilibrium particle moisture content experimental investigations and a simulation study. Chemical Engin-
(dry basis) eering and Technololy 1994, 17, 235–241.
Y Air humidity (dry basis) 10. Oakley, D.; Bahu, R.; Reay, D. The aerodynamics of co-current spray
dryer. In Drying’89; Mujumdar, A.S., Ed.; Elsevier: Amesterdan,
Y0 Inlet air humidity (dry basis) 1989; 359–364.
Z, Y, X Axis of coordinate system shown in Fig. 5 11. Moor, S.S.; King, C.J. Investigation of spray dynamics in a pilot spray
and Table 4 (m) dryer by laser initiated fluorescence. In Proceedings of the 9th
International Drying Symposium, vol. A; Rudolph, V.; Keey, R.B.;
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Mujumdar, A.S., Eds.; The University of Queensland; Gold Coast:

k Heat of water vaporization at Tref (J=kg) Australia, August 1–4, 1994: 415–422.
mg Air viscosity [kg=(m s)] 12. Kieviet, F.G.; Kerhof, P.J.A.M. Air flow, temperature and humidity
msusp Milk emulsion viscosity [kg=(m s)] patterns on a co-current spray dryer: Modeling and measurements.
Drying Technology 1997, 15, 1763–1773.
mt Turbulent gas viscosity [kg=(m s)]
13. Verdurmen, R.E.M.; Menn, P.; Ritzert, J. Simulation of agglomer-
qg Air density (kg=m3) ation in spray drying installations: The EDECAD project. Drying
qs Density of solids in milk emulsion (kg=m3) Technology 2004, 22 (6), 1403–1461.
qsusp Milk emulsion density at inlet (kg=m3) 14. Nijdam, J.J.; Guo, B.; Fletcher, D.F.; Langrish, T.A.G. Challenges of
qwall Density of dryer wall (kg=m3) simulating droplet coalescence with a spray. Drying Technology 2004,
22 (6), 1463–1488.
s Particle age inside the chamber (s)
15. Straatsma, J.; van Hauwelingen, G.; Steenbergen, A.E.; DeJong, P.
sr Mean gas residence time in the dryer Spray drying of food products: 1. Simulation model. Journal of Food
(¼ qg VSD=G) (s) Engineering 1999, 42, 67–72.
srp Mean particle residence time in the dryer (s) 16. Huang, L.; Kumar, K.; Mujumdar, A.S. Use of computational fluid
dynamics to evaluate alternative spray dryer chamber configuration.
Subscripts Drying Technology 2003, 21, 385–412.
g Gas 17. Langrish, T.A.G.; Fletcher, D.F. Prospects for the modeling and design
of spray dryer in the 21st century. Drying Technology 2003, 21, 197–216.
p Particle 18. Re, M.I. Micro-encapsulation by spray-drying. Drying Technology
v Vapor 1998, 16 (6), 1195–1236.
w Water (liquid) 19. Abadio, F.D.; Domingues, A.M.; Borges, S.V. Physical properties of
powdered pinapple (Ananas comosus) juice: Effect of malt dextrin con-
Dimensionless Numbers centration and atomization speed. Journal of Food Engineering 2004,
Nu ¼ h dp=kG (Nusselt number) 64 (3), 285–287.
20. Grosso, C.R.F.; Did T
axi, C.M.; de Menezes, H.C. Study of microen-
Re ¼ qgvrel dp=mg (Reynolds number) capsulation of camu-camu (Myrciaria dubia) juice. Journal of Micro-
Sh ¼ k dp=Dv (Sherwood number) encapsulation 2003, 20, 443–448.
Pr ¼ mg Cpg=kG (Prandtl number) 21. Rattes, A.L.R.; Oliveira, W.P. Microencapsulation of diclofenac
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22. Re, M.I.; Oneda, F. The effect of formulation variables on the dissol-
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the drying of slurry droplets. AIChE Journal 1986, 32, 1334–1346. 2002 (in Portuguese).
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26. Birchal, V.; Passos, M.L. Modeling and simulation of milk emulsion mass balance:
drying in spray dryers. Brazilian Journal of Chemical Engineering
2005, 22 (2), 293–302. dWp  2
27. Huang, L.; Passos, M.L.; Kumar, K.; Mujumdar, A.S. A three- ms ¼ p dp ðtÞ ðm_vþm
_ v ap Þ ðA3Þ
dimensional simulation of a spray dryer fitted with a rotary atomizer. dt
Drying Technology 2005, 23 (9–11), 1859–1873.
energy balance:
28. Birchal, V.S.; Passos, M.L.; Wildhagen, G.R.S.; Mujumdar, A.S.
Effect of spray-dryer operating variables on the whole milk powder  2 d  
quality. Drying Technology 2005, 23 (3), 611–636. p dp ðtÞ q_ ¼ ms fðCps þ Wp Cpw Þ Tp ðtÞ  Tref g
dt    2
29. King, C.J.; Kieckbusch, T.G.; Greenwald, C.G. Food-quality factors
in spray drying. In Advances in Drying, Vol. 3; Mujumdar, A.S., Ed.;
þ fk þ Cpv Tp ðtÞ  Tref gp dp ðtÞ
Hemisphere Publishing: New York, 1984; 71–120.  ðm
_vþm _ v ap Þ ðA4Þ
30. Nath, S.; Satpathy, R. A systematic approach for investigation of
spray drying process. Drying Technology 1998, 16 (6), 1173. (b) particle population (applied to n compartments at time
31. Huntington, D.H. The influence of the spray drying process on pro- t ¼ j)
duct properties. Drying Technology 2004, 22 (6), 1261–1287. overall heat rate supplied by gas:
32. Oakley, D.E. Spray dryer modeling in theory and practice. Drying
Technology 2004, 22 (6), 1371–1402. X
n  2
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33. Petzold, L.D. A description of DASSL: a Differential=Algebraic _ ¼Q

Q _ ðtÞ ¼ Q
_j ¼ Np;i;j p dp;i;j q_ ðA5Þ
Systems Solver. In Scientific Computing, Applications of Mathematics i¼1
and Computing to the Physical Sciences, Vol. I; Stepleman, Carver,
Peskin, Ames, Vichnevetsky, Eds.; IMACS Transactions on Scientific overall heat rate used for water evaporation:
Computation, 10th IMACS World Congress on Systems Simulation
and Scientific Computation, Montreal, Canada, August 8–13, 1982. X
n  
_ _
34. Kennedy, J.; Eberhart, R.C. Particle swarm optimization. Proceedings Q evap ¼ Qevap;j ¼ k þ ðCpv  Cpw ÞðTp;i;j  Tref Þ
of the 1995 Piscataway, NJ, IV: 1942–1948, 1995.  i¼1 2
35. Fluent Inc. Discrete phase models. In Fluent User’s Guide; ch. 21; Fluent  Np;i;j p dp;i;j m_v ðA6Þ
Inc. 2003-01-25. www.fluent.com
36. Huang, L.; Kurmar, K.; Mujumdar, A.S. Computational fluid
dynamics simulation of droplet drying in a spray dryer. In Proceedings overall mass transfer rate:
of the 14th International Drying Symposium (IDS 2004); UNICAMP:
São Paulo, 2004; A, 326–332.
X
n  2
_ evap ¼M
M _ evap ðtÞ ¼ M
_ evap;j ¼ Np;i;j p dp;i;j
37. Masters, K. Spray Drying Handbook, 4th ed; Longman Scientific and
i¼1
Technical: New York, 1985.
38. Ozemen, L.; Langrish, T.A.G. An experimental investigation of the  ðm_vþm _ v ap Þ ðA7Þ
wall deposition of milk powder in a pilot-scale spray dryer. Drying mean particle moisture content in the dryer:
Technology 2003, 21, 1253–1272.
39. Rumpf, H. Particle Technology; Chapman and Hall: New York, 1991. Pn
40. Kim, E.H.J.; Chen, X.D.; Pearce, D. On the mechanisms of surface W ð1  ri ÞNp;i;j
W p ðtÞ ¼ W p;j Pn p;i;j
¼ i¼1
i¼1 ð1  ri ÞNp;i;j
formation and the surface compositions of industrial milk powders.
Drying Technology 2003, 21, 265–278. Pn
W rN
Pn p;i;j i p;i;j
¼ i¼1 ðA8Þ
i¼1 ri Np;i;j
APPENDIX A: BASIC EQUATIONS OF MODEL 1
mean particle temperature in the dryer:
Gas Phase (Continuous Phase)
mass balance: T p ðtÞ ¼ T p;j
P Pn
dY GðY0  Y Þ þ pdp2 m
_v ðCps þ Wp;i;j Cpw ÞðTp;i;j  Tref Þð1  ri ÞNp;i;j
¼ ðA1Þ ¼ i¼1 Pn þ Tref
dt Gsr i¼1 ðCps þ Wp;i;j Cpw Þð1  ri ÞNp;i;j

energy balance: ðA9Þ

Constitutive Equations
d nh
   i o
Gsr Cvg þ YCvv þ qVCp wall ðTg  Tref Þ Heat transfer rates per unit of the particle surface area:
dt
¼ GðCpg þ Y0 Cpv ÞðTgo  Tg Þ
M _ wall  Q
_ evap Cpv ðTg  T p Þ  Q _ ðA2Þ q_ ¼ hðTg  Tp Þ ðA10Þ
with:
Solid Phase (Discrete Phase)    
(a) single particle (applied to particle in each temporal com- kG Dv
h ¼ Nu ; k ¼ Sh ;
partment in Fig. 3 at time t ¼ j) dp dp
 SPRAY DRYERS: MODELING AND SIMULATION 371

concurrent flow (relative velocity between gas and energy balance:

particles ¼ 0) ) Nu ffi Sh ffi 2.
mass transfer rates per unit of the particle surface area @ðqcp ui TÞ @  @T
¼ k  qu0i T 0 þ Mh þ Ml ðB3Þ
(see Fig. 2): @xi @xi @xi


PMw 2D P  Pwg in this case: i, j ¼ 1, 2, 3 directions;
_v ¼ 
m  iff ln ðA11Þ
T þT 2D
R g 2 p dp f þ kdiffp P  Pw ðTp Þ for Newtonian fluid:
 
@ui @uj 2 @u1 l @T
qu0i u0j ¼ lt þ  dij and qu0i T 0 ¼ t
@xj @xi 3 @x1 rT @xI
with:
 1=3
3 6ms ðW0  Wp Þ
f ¼ 0 and dp ¼ dp0  ()Wp > Wc ;
pqwater Dispersed Phase (Droplet or Particle)


Wp  W  ðPwg ; Tp Þ 1=3 force balance:
f ¼ 1 and
Wc  W  ðPwg ; Tp Þ
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dupi 18l Re qg  q
¼ CD ðui  upi Þ þ gi þ Fxi ðB4Þ
  dt qp dp 24 qg
3 6ms ðW0  Wc Þ 1=3
dp ¼ dp0  ()Wp Wc;
pqwater Fxi ¼ 0 (user-defined forces ¼ 0, since the cohesion effects
are not considered).
q 3
pd
susp
ms ¼ ð1þW 0Þ 6
p0
; W , Wc (equilibrium and critical moisture
content) ) sorption curves particle residence time distri- Mass and Heat Transfer between Two Phases
bution in the case of perfect mixture: heat transfer:
     dTp dWp
F  t  si mp cp ¼ hAp ðTg  Tp Þ þ ms k
Np;i;j ¼ Np;i ðtÞ ¼ ri Np;i1;j1 ¼ Ds exp 
ms tsi srp dt dt
ðA12Þ with:
hdp
with Np,i,j  particle fraction in the i,j compartment (1 i n Nu ¼ ¼ 2:0 þ 0:6 Re1=2 Pr1=3 ðB5Þ
kG
and j ¼ constant corresponding to a given operating time);
ri ¼ exp(Ds=srp); si ¼ ði  1ÞDs; and Ds ¼ 3srp=n. mass transfer:
!
PwðsatÞ ðTg Þ Yi P
_v ¼k
m  Mw
APPENDIX B: BASIC EQUATIONS OF MODEL 2 RTp RTg

Continuous Phase (Air) with:

mass balance: kdp
Sh ¼ ¼ 2:0 þ 0:6 Re1=2 Sc1=3 ðB6Þ
@qui Dv
¼ Mm ðB1Þ
@xi droplet boiling model (second drying period)[35]:
momentum balance:

dðdp Þ 4kjTg  pffiffiffiffiffiffi cpjTg ðTg  Tp Þ

   ¼ 1 þ 0:23 Re ln 1 þ
@ðqui uj Þ @P @ @ui @uj 0 0
dt qp cpjTg dp k
¼ þ l þ  qui uj þ MF ðB2Þ
@xi @xj @xi @xj @xi ðB7Þ