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Environmental Adaptability of Building Mode: A Typological Study on the

Technological Modification of the Hoffmann Kiln in China since the 1950s

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CONSTRUCTION HISTORY
International Journal of the Construction History Society

Vol. 34 No. 1 (2019)

CONTENTS

Editorial i
Christine Wall, Hermann Schlimme and Will McLean

Building on Shanghai Soil: A Historical Survey of Foundation Engineering in Shanghai, 1

1843-1941
Hongbin Zheng, Yiting Pan and James W. P. Campbell

Case Studies in Resource Efficiency: Design and Construction in the Grand Canyon, 21
1921-28
Linda Reeder

“Federalized Prefabrication” Southeast Missouri Farms Self-help Housing in the 1930s 43

Michael J. O’Brien

Environmental Adaptability of Building Mode: A Typological Study on the Technological 59

Modification of the Hoffmann Kiln in China since the 1950s
Haiqing Li

Design and construction of structures for stadiums in Colombia: 85

the contributions of the engineer Guillermo González Zuleta (1947-89)
Jorge Galindo Díaz and Diego Escobar García

Pier Luigi Nervi and Harry Seidler’s Australia Square Tower: 103
Italian Structure, Australian Design
Paolo Stracchi

Book Reviews
Edited by Karey Draper

Building Reputations: Architecture and the Artisan, 1750-1830 129

Conor Lucy

L’Essor de l’École Eyrolles au XXe siècle 131

Helène Vacher and André Guillerme

The History of the Theory of Structures: Searching for Equilibrium. (Second Edition) 133
Karl-Eugen Kurrer
 Haiqing Li

Environmental Adaptability of Building Mode: A Typological Study

on the Technological Modification of the Hoffmann Kiln in China
since the 1950s

Haiqing Li
School of Architecture, Southeast University, China.

Abstract

The Hoffman kiln was introduced into China at the end of nineteenth century and has been used there until the present
day. This study surveyed 218 brick factories with Hoffman kilns distributed in all nine macro-regions in China. The
influence of environmental factors on the building mode was investigated via a typological observation of
architectural technology, document sorting and statistical analysis, showing that factors such as climate, terrain,
product, transportation and economy influenced the construction and utilisation of the Hoffman kiln in China. This
gave it specific characteristics related to distribution, morphology and building materials, which affected its
technological modification, especially for the design of chambers, flues, hot air ducts and chimneys.

In the slow process of spreading from coastal to inland areas, despite the core technology remaining the same as the
prototype, many modified types of Hoffman kiln have emerged since the 1950s. Focusing on four documented design
versions, this study analysed their masonry-structural features and the construction techniques of chambers. The
comparison clearly revealed the relationship between the ideal design templates and the local situation, highlighting
that although designers led the technology improvements, local human-resource conditions also played a crucial role.
Thus, the evolution of the Hoffmann kiln in China was influenced by both external conditions and domestic-
environmental factors, but the latter dominated.

Keywords

Hoffmann kiln, environmental factor, prototype, structural features, construction techniques, modified type, China,
1950s

Introduction1

The instructiveness of environmental adaptability has been extensively discussed in the field of modern
Asian architectural history and theory. Studies on the settlement patterns and architectural format in
specific terrain and climatic conditions2 have shown that the natural environment is a key factor affecting
construction. However, most existing research only includes analyses based on regional cases, and the
research objects are mostly settlements or residential buildings with remarkable cultural attributes, while
little research has focused on industrial buildings with strong technical attributes. The regularities
derived from such methodological examples, if including pertinent research on industrial buildings,
should therefore be more logically congruent. Thus, this research involves a field survey covering 218
brick and tile factories with Hoffmann kilns (hereafter referred to as survey sites) in all nine macro-
regions in China.3 To this end, the typological and statistical analyses of the building technology were
employed to ascertain the influence of environmental factors on building mode for such an industrial
building.

59
Environmental Adaptability of Building Mode: A Typological Study on the Technological
Modification of the Hoffmann Kiln in China since the 1950s

Figure 1. Design drawing of Hoffmann kiln patented for the first time in Austria in 1858 (Source:
http://www.dachziegelarchiv.de/index.html)

60
 Haiqing Li

In ancient China, many bricks and tiles were burned in intermittent kilns,4 with very low output.5 Timber
frames with clay walls were commonly used in residential buildings, and especially in rural dwellings.
In 1858, a German, Friedrich Eduard Hoffmann (1818-1900), invented an industrial building for
“making bricks, tiles, cement and mortar”.6 This was introduced to China at the end of nineteenth
century, slowly spreading inland from the coastal areas during the twentieth century. Since it used
continuous chambers in the burning process, the output was much higher than the indigenous kilns of
China, therefore contributing to the growth in popularity of buildings with bricks and tiles.7

A brief process of the worldwide spread of Hoffmann kiln

F. E. Hoffmann’s design was patented for the first time in Austria on the 17th of April, 18588 with a
circular plan, which is called “prototype” in this study.(Fig. 1) On the 27th of May, 1858, it was also
patented in Prussia and in the following 11 years, it obtained many patents in European countries and the
United States.9 A further patent was registered in 1865 for new designs including oval and rectangular
versions.10 It was introduced into Japan in 1872.11 Later, it was introduced to other Asian countries.
Consequently, by 1898, there were more than 5,000 Hoffmann kilns globally.12

In China, the first Hoffmann kiln was built in Shanghai in 1897,13 and then in Guangzhou in 1907.14(Fig.
2) There were five Hoffmann kilns in Nanjing around 1933.15 Design information on the Hoffman kiln
in China was first published by “Architectural Journal” in

Figure 2.  A  Hoffmann kiln  during construction  in Guangzhou,  1907. This is the earliest known
photograph of a Hoffman kiln in China. (Source: State Library Victoria, Australia)

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Environmental Adaptability of Building Mode: A Typological Study on the Technological
Modification of the Hoffmann Kiln in China since the 1950s

1958.16 In the early twenty-first century, there were more than 100,000 brick and tile factories in China,
among which, about 95 per cent were equipped with the Hoffmann kiln.17 Thanks to this, some of them
are well preserved, providing the material for the field survey of this study. Interestingly, since the 1950s
a variety of modified types have also emerged due to local demand, thus providing evidence for a
comparison between the prototype and modified types as this passage recognises:

“[T]hough many improvements have been made since that day, the general principle he employed is still
used, and many modern kilns are termed ‘Hoffmann’, although they differ widely from the original one of
that name”.18

Hence, this paper aims to find out how these multiple types of kiln within China differ from the
prototype. It does this by proposing an interpretation based on the data collection from a field survey,
document sorting and statistical analysis.

Figure 3. Map of the field survey sites of Hoffmann kiln in China; note - these are not in detail on the
county level. (Drawing by the author)

Method of the field survey and this paper

Overall, more than 132 people have been directly involved in this field survey in nearly three years,
including Master or Bachelor degree students and volunteers. Social networking platforms of brick and
tile manufacturers have also provided effective help. Selecting survey sites was random, i.e. this paper
employed a probability sampling survey. (Fig. 3) There are 218 survey sites randomly distributed in

62
 Haiqing Li

China.(Table 1) The vast majority of them were built in the second half of the twentieth century,
especially since the 1980s.

Table 1. Distribution Statistics of the Survey Sites of Hoffmann Kiln in China. (Source: the author)
Provincial Districts in Macro-

Central Inner-Mongolia

West Inner-Mongolia

East Inner-Mongolia
regions in China

Total of China
Heilongjiang
Guangdong

Chongqing
Hongkong
Shandong
Shanghai

Guangxi

Liaoning
Xinjiang
Ningxia
Zhejiang

Guizhou
Qinghai

Sichuan

Yunnan
Jiangxi
Jiangsu

Shanxi

Shanxi
Beijing

Hainan

Xizang
Taiwan
Tianjin

Makau

Hunan

Anhui
Fujian

Henan

Gansu
Hebei

Hubei

Jilin
Number of
- 3 3 9 1 72 22 3 7 1 2 - - 6 4 8 12 5 17 - 2 - 2 1 - 10 - 8 1 - 11 1 4 1 2 - 218
Survey sites

Figure 4. Analysis of burning process and cross section of Hoffmann kiln in China. (Drawing by the
author)

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Environmental Adaptability of Building Mode: A Typological Study on the Technological
Modification of the Hoffmann Kiln in China since the 1950s

The methodology used at each survey site is as follows. First, there was the confirmation of the specific
location. This was followed by verification via a satellite map and enquiries to nearby institutions by
phone call. Next, the field survey of the sites was conducted. This was finalised with drawings, data
sorting and filing. The author established guidelines for the survey content so that the site researchers
could carry out the investigation and present the basic information and analysis in a standardized form.

The structure and sources of this paper are as follows. Firstly, the distribution, morphology, building
material, chamber section, flue type and location of chimney are investigated based on the data of 218
survey sites. Particularly, the influence of environmental factors on the building mode were statistically
analysed via typological observation and document sorting, especially how the local terrain, climate,
product, transportation and economy influenced the construction and use of the kiln. Thus, an outline of
the technological modification of the Hoffman kiln in China begins to emerge. In order to grasp the
details and substance of such modifications, the next section looks at the four documented design
versions of the Hoffmann kiln in China since the 1950s. This includes the original design, scale and
structural features such as chamber size, arch type, foundation size, flue size, the construction techniques
of the chambers’ arches and the background of each version. These are investigated and analysed based
on historic publications, original drawings and oral-history records of craftsman, and are then compared
with the data of 16 random survey sites. This allows for a summary of the general trend of the
modifications in design, especially how Version 4 pursues comprehensive benefits through seeking the
balance between maintaining output, reducing workers’ labour intensity and facilitating construction. To
this end, it finds that although designers led the technological improvements, local human-resource
conditions based on workers’ physical experience also played a crucial role. In light of the above
research, the paper concludes by recognising that the evolution of the Hoffmann kiln in China was
influenced by both external conditions and domestic environmental factors, but the latter was dominant.

Preliminary Analysis of Design and Construction of the Hoffmann Kiln in China

The results of the field survey show that the common plan of Hoffmann kiln in China is similar to an
oval shaped racetrack – the two linear chambers on each of the long sides and two half-ring chambers
on the short sides are connected to form a ring tunnel with an arch. Normally, the kiln consists of two
stories; the outside part of the ground floor is usually constructed by a masonry structure with brick
walls, and the internal chambers are built in masonry structures with an arch. The kiln is usually
equipped with a ladder or ramp to access the second story, called the coal injection workshop. It is mostly
covered with sloped roofs supported by various types of frames. The ring tunnel inside the ground story
is usually divided into 12 or more chambers, without partition walls between them. Each chamber is
equipped with branch-shaped flues and regulating dampers, which lead the smoke to the main flue and
the chimney. (Fig. 4)

The burning process is as follows. The green bricks are loaded into the chambers which after ignition are
fuelled from the feed holes on the second story. The fire is then moved in sequence along the chambers,
one by one, by opening or closing the flue dampers. It dries and preheats the green bricks by the heat
generated in burning process. On the other hand, it cools the burnt bricks by bringing in fresh air, and
supplies the oxygen required for combustion. The complete production process of each chamber includes
loading the green bricks, drying, preheating, burning, cooling and finally, removing the bricks and the
clinker. (Fig. 4) Although Hoffmann kilns in China share the above-mentioned principles, the practice is
different. This related analysis will be introduced according to the field survey.

64
 Haiqing Li

Distribution - traffic and economy

The location of a Hoffmann kiln must be convenient for accessing the clay deposit and transporting the
finished material.19 All of the 218 survey sites are either close to roads or canals with some adjacent to
both. Most of the northern sites rely on roads, meanwhile there are canal systems in the south meaning
that it is easy to find survey sites - grouped together near canals. For example, 14 survey sites are densely
distributed on both banks of a 5km-stretch of the Great Canal in Zhenjiang of Jiangsu. All of the 218
survey sites are close to roads, and 64 of them are at the waterside and use shipping, accounting for 29.4
per cent. Further, of the 72 survey sites in Jiangsu, 45 are at the waterside and use shipping, accounting
for 62.5 per cent.

In addition, the number of sites is influenced by local demand. 68 survey sites (31.2%) are located in the
north (of the Qinling Mountain - Huaihe River); 150 sites (68.8%) are located in the south; 124 sites
(56.9%) are located in the east, where is extremely economically developed; 52 sites (23.9 %) are located
in the central region; 36 sites (16.5%) are located in the west and 7 sites (3.2% ) are located in the
northeast (Table 1). The distribution of sites is consistent with the regional disparities in China’s
macroeconomic development.20

Morphology-climate and economy

The two elements in the morphological characteristics of Hoffmann kiln in China are the kiln roof and
the kiln ramp. The former are structures continuously covering the coal injection workshop of the second
storey or the gates of first storey, (Fig. 5) mainly to prevent interference from rain, wind and sunlight and
to improve working conditions. In order to distinguish them, a kiln roof on the first storey is called a

Figure 5. A typical Hoffmann kiln at Nanjing of Jiangsu, showing the kiln roof made of bamboo and
linoleum, the masonry ramp and Chimney. (Photo: the author, February 2003)

65
Environmental Adaptability of Building Mode: A Typological Study on the Technological
Modification of the Hoffmann Kiln in China since the 1950s

“side roof” in this study. Kilns might be classified into 11 types, depending on whether or not there is a
roof and if so its form.(Fig. 6) So far, only one survey site was discovered without a kiln roof in the south,
accounting for 0.7 per cent, and only 10 survey sites (14.9%) were found with a kiln roof in the north.
This demonstrates that adopting kiln roofs or not is a response to climate.

Hoffmann kilns in the south are mostly equipped with side roofs, which improve working conditions and
assist output. As precipitation is more abundant in south China, the green bricks piled in open air must
be covered in case of rain. The space underneath the side roofs is used for drying the green material to
avoid suspending production. There are 102 sites (46.8%) with side roofs throughout China; but the
proportion in the south is obviously higher. For example, among the 56 survey sites to the south of the
Huaihe River within Jiangsu, 44 of them adopt side roofs, accounting for 78.6 per cent. Moreover, among
the 32 sites in Zhejiang, Fujian and Guangdong, 30 of them adopt side roofs, accounting for 93.8 per
cent, confirming that regional differences in form are related to local climate.

Kiln ramps are the way from the first storey to the second one, normally it is a long slope used to transport
fuel. (Fig. 4) Just like the prototype, most Chinese Hoffmann kilns are equipped with kiln ramps, but many
cases have been discovered with electric lifts or hoists in recent years, without any kiln ramps at all. There
are 91 survey sites (41.7%) with kiln ramps throughout China. Among the 72 survey sites in Jiangsu, there
are 46 sites with the ramps, accounting for 63.9 per cent, 13 with lifts or hoists, accounting for 18.1 per
cent, and 12 completely abandoned kiln ramps. Because of the rapid increase in human resource costs,

Figure 6. Analysis of the morphological characteristics of Hoffmann kiln in China. (Drawing by the
author)

66
 Haiqing Li

alongside a decrease in mechanical and electrical equipment costs and electricity prices in recent years,
this improvement is economically rational. Therefore, the long slope has gradually become less
prominent, showing that the morphological changes are related to local economic conditions.

Building material - product

There are four common types of materials used in Hoffmann kiln roof structures in China, namely:
bamboo (wood), steel, a combination of steel and wood, and prefabricated reinforced concrete.(Fig. 7a-
d) Although bamboo was not used in the prototype, it is produced in most areas of China, so it is sensible
to use it, especially in the south where there is abundant bamboo and related crafts.(Fig. 7a) There are
38 survey sites (17.4%) with bamboo kiln roofs throughout China; and 17 sites with such roofs are in
Jiangsu, accounting for 23.6 per cent. In addition to this, there are outer kiln walls made of stone in
Qingdao, Yantai and other traditional stone-producing areas.

Figure 7. Classification of the building material for the kiln roof. (Photo: the author, February 2003,
February 2015 and April 2016)

Chambers–climate and economy

Although the chamber of the prototype is a masonry structure with an arched roof,(Fig. 8a) Hoffmann
kilns in China with completely open-chamber tops emerged in the 1950s, (Fig. 8b and c) and semi-open
ones in the 2000s.(Fig. 8d) There are two kinds of kilns with open-chamber tops built on the ground or
underground. The common feature is that the chambers are open to sky, laid with a layer of bricks and
covered with 100mm clay or fire-proofing materials as temporary thermal insulation during the burning
process. Once the burning process is complete, upon opening the temporary cover, the bricks inside the
chambers can be cooled quickly. It is difficult to shed heat in the prototype and very hot inside the
chambers during the removal of the clinker, and sometimes the workers have to be naked. As such, it is
obvious that open-top kilns have helped improve the working conditions. Although the British engineer
William Bull invented the open topped Hoffmann kiln in 1893, 21 the evidence has not yet been
discovered that there is connection between his invention and the open topped Hoffmann kilns in China.
The author speculates that it may have been introduced in China through the Soviet Union in the 1950s,
and utilized in Harbin at first,22 where is close to the Far Eastern belt of the Soviet Union.

In addition, the construction of the arch is usually supported by the centering, a timber form which is
moved many times, requiring great expense in both labour and material. Thus, the building costs of an
open-top kiln is only 40 per cent that of arch-top ones with the same output, and the duration of
construction is one third of the time.23 Nevertheless, the open-top kiln has prominent defects: for
example, the energy consumption is much higher because of bad insulation, with a low yield rate because
of uneven burning. There are 12 survey sites with open-top kilns throughout China, among which, 11 are
located in the south. Among the 11 survey sites in Fujian, Guangdong and Hainan, seven use open-top
kilns, accounting for 63.6 per cent. There is only one survey sites with a semi-open top discovered in
Wenchuan, Sichuan Province until now,(Fig. 8d) which was probably constructed as an experiment to
search for the balance between thermal insulation and physical comfort.

67
Environmental Adaptability of Building Mode: A Typological Study on the Technological
Modification of the Hoffmann Kiln in China since the 1950s

Figure 8. Comparative drawing of four kinds of chamber design of Hoffmann kiln in China. (Drawing
and photo by the author from January to April 2016)

Flue: building technology–climate and economy

The prototype was equipped with a lower flue, and the whole flue system was located underground with
some of the branch flues even underneath the chambers. (Fig. 9a) However, as it is often rainy in the
south, flooding often causes unusable flues and so, since the 1950s, more and more Hoffmann kilns in
the south have been equipped with upper flues. The branch flue climbs vertically up from the floor of
the chamber, and forms the main flue in a closed loop around the whole kiln (Fig. 9b) eliminating the
risks associated with a submerged flue.

Throughout China, there are 57 survey sites (25.2%) with upper flues, while among the 56 survey sites
to the south of the Huaihe River within Jiangsu, 21 are equipped with upper flues, accounting for 37.5
per cent. Among the 33 survey sites in Shanghai, Zhejiang, Fujian,

Figure 9. Comparative drawing of a lower flue and upper flue of Hoffmann kiln in China (Drawing by
the author)

Taiwan, Guangdong and Hainan, located to the south of Jiangsu, 17 are equipped with upper flues,
accounting for 51.5 per cent. During an overhaul of the Xuyi Brick Factory in the early spring of 2016
the lower flue was changed into an upper one thus eliminating the risk of flooded flues for good.

Hot-air duct–climate and economy

The hot-air duct is mainly used for heat collection and the drying of green material. Its use was reported
first in 1958 at the Deyang Brick and Tile Factory.24 It was an enclosed tubular space formed in masonry
structure between the feed holes, (Fig. 10) an inner diameter of 420 mm and a height of 370 mm. Hence,

68
 Haiqing Li

the curved hot-air ducts were formed in parallel with, but outside of the chambers’ arches. These
branched hot-air ducts are combined to form a general one that circulated as a small ring-tunnel like the
chambers, (Fig. 11) and dampers were installed where the branch hot-air ducts linked with the general
one. Therefore, the heat emitted by the masonry structure of feed holes and chambers is collected and
sent to the dry room through the general hot-air duct to accelerate the drying of green material.25 Though
this modification was similar to the documented design of “arched flue”,26 there is no direct evidence to
confirm the link.

However, the effectiveness of this technological improvement was affected by the material quality and
workmanship. The published report of the design case in Deyang recognised the shortcomings of its hot-
air duct,27 and also mentioned the possibility for further improvement by abandoning the hot-air masonry
duct and replacing it with a steel tube,28 the airtightness would be significantly improved, and the
external space would be backfilled with clay to provide insulation. However, this design improvement
has never been executed. Steel output in China was extremely low in the 1950s,29 which meant using
steel as a non-load-bearing structure in the construction of kilns not cost-effective. Coinciding with the

Figure 10. Design drawings of Hoffmann kiln at Deyang, showing the hot-air ducts were organised
regularly. Designer: Urban & Architectural Design Institute of Sichuan. (Source: Notes and references
17)

69
Environmental Adaptability of Building Mode: A Typological Study on the Technological
Modification of the Hoffmann Kiln in China since the 1950s

Figure 11. Design drawing of Hoffmann kiln at Deyang, showing the hot-air ducts attached with
chambers arch. Designer: Urban & Architectural Design Institute of Sichuan. (Source: Notes and
references 17)

rapid economic growth in China in the 2000s, with the market price of bricks rising and electricity prices
falling relatively, many brick factories simply built up workshops using electric hot air devices to dry the
green material.

Chimney–climate and economy

The chimney is the final exit of the main flue. The prototype was equipped with a chimney in the centre,
but due to the effect of natural draught induction, the chimney is greatly affected by climate, which
cannot guarantee continuous output. Therefore, a new design which mainly relied on mechanical draught
induction and supplemented the natural one emerged in Xining in 1963. The advantages of mechanical
ventilation with electric blowers are as follows. Firstly, the draught induction effect is less affected by
climate, which helps to greatly increase the output. Secondly, the yield rate is higher with an easily
controlled temperature in the chambers. Thirdly, with balanced production, it is easy to control the
output. Finally, the burning quality is less affected by the quality of coal.30

On the other hand, taking into account the fact that most brick and tile factories are located in rural areas,
and the electricity power supply is unstable in the east where the economy developed earlier and faster
while the contradiction between power supply and demand is acute, power cuts may be frequent during
power shortage periods. Thus, it is a more reliable technical strategy as well as economically rational to
retain the chimney and make use of natural draught induction as a supplement, inducing natural draught
by the chimney in the case of a power cut. Many newly built kilns were equipped with blowers and short
chimneys, which were about 1 metre higher than the kiln roof. So the visually striking appearance of tall
chimneys no longer existed.

The field survey indicates that there are 57 survey sites (26.1%) equipped with fixed blowers. Among
them, only 13 of 80 sites in Jiangsu and Shandong, with higher pressure on the electricity supply, are

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 Haiqing Li

equipped with blowers, accounting for 16.3 per cent; far lower than the national average. Meanwhile,
among the nine survey sites in Shanxi and Hebei with more stable electricity supplies, eight are equipped
with blowers, accounting for 88.9 per cent, indicating prominent regional differences in the production
resource endowment of electrical power leads to the regional differences in electricity power supply in
China.31 This statistically correlates with the technical decision as to whether Hoffmann kiln adopted
mechanical draught induction.

According to the type of flue and terrain, the location of the chimney could be in the centre of the kiln
as in the prototype. It could also be placed at the end of the long axis of kiln, at the outer side in the centre
of the long axis, or even on the top of a nearby hill (Fig. 12) which reduces the construction difficulty
and cost. The aforementioned factors demonstrate that the improvements in the design of passive fresh
air systems in Hoffmann kilns in China and their technological characteristics are related to the local
climatic, terrain and economic conditions of a particular region.

Figure 12. Analysis of chimney location of Hoffmann Kiln in China. (Drawing by the author)

In summary, the preliminary statistical analysis based on the field survey shows that although climate
and terrain have various effects on the distribution, morphology, material and construction of the
Hoffmann Kiln in China, these effects are indirectly affected by product, transportation and economic
factors. That is to say, environmental factors can be divided into protogenic ones (physical geographical
factors such as terrain and climate) and subsequent ones (human geographical factors such as product,
transportation and the economy). The impact of the latter to reduce the cost is direct and obvious, while
the impact of the former is indirect though fundamental. Cost control is essentially influenced by the
terrain and climate of a particular area and is therefore limited. The open-top kilns, which have
completely abandoned the kiln roof and have the main body of kiln located underground, constitute a
case of this limit.

Precisely because the production capacity and efficiency of the Hoffmann kiln is much higher than that
of the indigenous kiln in China, the former was introduced and spread on a large scale, therefore
changing the urban and rural landscape in China. But does this mean the general trend of changes in
modern brick-making technology in China are entirely influenced and constrained by the introduction of
Hoffmann kiln? The answer is no. This is because it is difficult to explain why some central and western
areas did not convert to Hoffmann kilns from indigenous kilns during the 70~80 years since the first
Hoffmann kiln was introduced to China. The reason is that economic development as well as urban and
rural construction in these areas before the 1980s had been very low.32 Therefore, such areas had no need
for the Hoffmann kiln’s high production capacity and efficiency. The case study below helpfully

71
Environmental Adaptability of Building Mode: A Typological Study on the Technological
Modification of the Hoffmann Kiln in China since the 1950s

confirms the crucial role of local conditions, especially the human-resource conditions based on workers’
physical experience.

Case Study: Comparison of the Four Documented Design Versions

Basic information of the four design versions

The four design versions analysed in detail are by far the few cases in which relatively accurate design
and technical information could be obtained without relying on field surveys. Moreover, they are
distributed over different periods; their typical instructiveness and representativeness are as follows.

Version 1 -‘Deyang 1958’. The Deyang Brick and Tile Factory was complete and put into production in
Sichuan in 1958. It was a state-owned manufacturing enterprise founded by the 21st Labour Reformation
Team of Deyang Prison.33 The design of the Hoffmann kiln with 46 gates and hot-air ducts was published
in the ninth issue of “Architectural Journal” in 1958. (Figs 10-11) This was the earliest documented
design information known as Hoffmann kiln in China, and the designer was the state-run Urban and
Architectural Design Institute of Sichuan Province, without any signature of architects or engineers. The
design institute was founded in 1956.34

Version 2 - ‘Xining 1963’. The New Life Brick and Tile Factory of Qinghai was complete and put into
operation in 1951. This was a state-owned manufacturing enterprise invested in by the Department of
Public Security in Qinghai Province. At first, there were all indigenous kilns in it, but the Hoffmann kiln
with 54 gates was built in 1956.35 One more kiln with 54 gates was built by 1963, and both of them were
equipped with hot-air ducts for heat recovery and utilisation.36 The third kiln with 54 gates was built in
1963, without any hot-air ducts. Its design was published in the “Proceedings of the Annual Academic

Figure 13. Design drawing of Version 2, showing details of cross section. Designer: The Design Office
of Labour Reform Bureau in Department of Public Security of Qinghai. (Source: Notes and references
29)

72
 Haiqing Li

Figure 14. Design drawing of Version 3, showing details of cross section. Designer: the Industrial
Bureau in Qidong of Jiangsu. (Source: Notes and references 43)

Figure 15. Design drawing of Version 4, showing details of cross section. Designer: Wei rongyi,
Quanzhou Construction and Engineering Company in Danyang. (Source: the author)

73
Environmental Adaptability of Building Mode: A Typological Study on the Technological
Modification of the Hoffmann Kiln in China since the 1950s

Conference held at the Qinghai Province Civil Engineering Society (internal information)” in the same
year, without any signature of architects or engineers. (Fig. 13) The designer was the state-run Design
Office of Labour Reform Bureau in the Department of Public Security of Qinghai Province, founded in
1954.37

Version 3 - ‘Qidong 1974’. The first Hoffmann kiln with 16 gates was built in Qidong of Jiangsu in 1960,
where the first “simplified Hoffmann kiln” was built in 1967, and promoted throughout the county
afterwards.38 Its design was published with the title as “How to Burn Bricks with Simplified Hoffmann
Kiln” in Beijing in 1974,(Fig. 14) authored by the Industrial Bureau in Qidong County, without any
signature of architects or engineers. It was believed the designers were Ni Youliang from the Industrial
Bureau, Wu Rongji from the Design Office of Nantong City and He Minxiong from the Infrastructural
Construction Bureau of Jiangsu Province.39

Version 4 - ‘Nanjing 1992’. A new Hoffmann kiln with 22 gates was built in the Second Brick Factory
of Dachang Town in Nanjing of Jiangsu in 1992. This was designed and constructed by the Quanzhou
Construction and Engineering Company in Danyang City close to Nanjing and there were signatures of
“Wei Rongyi” on the design drawings. According to the oral introduction of Sun Shijiang, a craftsman
of constructing kilns and also an insider, the company’s business license was cancelled several years
before due to the death of its head. However, Shijiang kept a copy of this design drawing. Because of
Chinese government’s implementation of the industrial transformation policy, most of the Hoffman kilns
in China have been eliminated in the past few years, therefore Shijiang had to give up his career of
constructing kilns and began planting fruit. As such, his saved drawings were unconditionally
contributed to the author. (Fig. 15)

With reference to the relevant information of the four design versions and a comparison of their technical
data,(Table 2) they can be placed into three categories in terms of designers and design accomplishment
as follows. Versions 1 and 2 came from provincial capital cities in relatively remote and economically
underdeveloped areas, and the designers were state-owned, large-scale design institutes. The
implementation of the projects was funded by the local government, and the background constituted a
great deal of labour reform institutions which were set up by prisons of the government’s judicial
administrative departments throughout the country in the 1950s. The design and technological features
were large scale with high investment, and there was rapid construction, as well as regulated organisation
and management.

Version 3 came from a relatively economically developed region, and the designer was the industrial
authority of local government. The background to this was that the Industrial Bureau of Qidong County
organised the Hoffman kiln with relatively advanced technology which replaced the indigenous kiln in
the 1960s. Based on much research, the design template of the “simplified Hoffmann kiln” was proposed
and successfully tested in the countryside in 1967. The same year, local authorities throughout the
country organised relevant people to visit Qidong, earning it good praise.40 The design was published in
Beijing in 1974. Since it was a standardised design for the countryside, with peasants investing in the
construction of kilns, it had the technological features of being small-scale with low investment and rapid
construction. Nevertheless, it was difficult to regulate the construction organisation and management.

Version 4 also came from economically developed areas, but the designer was a private construction
company. The implementation of projects was funded by the private brick and tile factory itself. The
background was that China had begun to initially establish a market economy system since the 1980s.
With the rapid development of urban and rural construction, large-scale brick and tile factories emerged
in coastal areas where the economy developed quickly. The leading roles were no longer played by the

74
 Haiqing Li

Table 2. Data collection and analysis of four documented design versions of Hoffmann kilns in China
since the 1950s. (Source: author)

Seril No. of Design Versions Version 1-Deyang 1958 Version 2-Xining 1963 Version 3-Qidong 1975 Version 4-Nanjing 1992

Simplified Kiln of Beixin No.2 Brick & Tile Factory of

Deyang Brick & Tile Factory of The New life Brick and Tile
Name of the Factory People's Commune in Qidong, Dachang Town in Nanjing,
Sichuan Factory of Qinghai
Jiangsu Jiangsu

Date of Design —— —— —— 1992

Date of Publication 1958 1963 1974 ——

Proceedings of the Annual

Architectural Journal Academic Conference held at How to Burn Bricks in
Publication No.9,1958 the Qinghai Province Civil Simplified Hoffmann Kiln ——
Beijing Engineering Society (internal Beijing
information) in Xining in1963
Quanzhou Construction &
Design Office of Labor Reform
Urban & Architectural Design the Industrial Bureau in Engineering Company in
Designer Bureau in Department of Public
Institute of Sichuan Province Qidong County of Jiangsu Danyang City of Jiangsu
Security of Qinghai Province,
Wei Rongyi signatured
Scale (Number of Chambers) 46 54 16 22
Chamber Width mm 4000 3800 3200 4000
Chamber Height mm 2900 2800 2600 2600
Double-Center Arch Double-Center Arch Double-Center Arch Double-Center Arch with
Type of Chamber Arch
Approximate Semicircle Approximate Semicircle Approximate Semicircle Lower Rise
The Rise of Chamber Arch mm 1950 1800 1740 1500
Radius of Chamber Arch mm 2150 2070 1750 2250
Width of Outer Wall mm 250 240 240-370-490
Depth of Outer Foundation mm 1200 1300 420 420~580
1500
Width of Outer Foundation mm 600 1200 Combined with Foundation 860
of Outer Wall
Width of M ain Wall underneath the
600 —— 500 adobes in inner layer 490
Chamber Arch mm
Depth of M ain Foundation
underneath the Chamber Arch 1900 1500 420 420
mm
Width of M ain Foundation 1500
underneath the Chamber Arch 1200 1000 Combined with Foundation 800
mm of Outer Wall
Height of Gate Outside mm 1900 1800 1800 1780
Width of Gate mm 1100 1100 1100 1100
Distance between Gates m 5 5.5 5.25 5.15
Height of 2nd Floor m 4.53 3.4~3.9 3.3 3.6
Type of Flue Lower Flue Lower Flue Lower Flue Lower Flue
Width of M ajor Flue mm 1700 1700 1000 1400
Height of M ajor Flue mm 1800 1650 1600 1900
Width of M inor Flue mm 750 750 600 750
Height of M inor Flue mm 750 750 700 650
Height of Chimney m 58 46 33 60
Hot Air Ducts for Heat Recovery Equippped but low Effection
Status Demolished Demolished Demolished Demolished

government, and private factories invested and promoted the construction spontaneously. The technical
characteristics were moderate scale investment and rapid construction, with a normative level of
construction organisation and management between the two categories described above.

Although the four design versions were distributed in different periods, the designers of the first three
versions had obvious official backgrounds. Versions 1 and 2 were provincial professional design
agencies, and the most professional in architectural technology and civil engineering. Version 3 was a
county-level authority, and the professionalism was obviously inferior to Versions 1 and 2, but it was
more familiar with industrial construction in the countryside. Finally, Version 4 had no official
background at all, but was a private building construction company established in the early market

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Environmental Adaptability of Building Mode: A Typological Study on the Technological
Modification of the Hoffmann Kiln in China since the 1950s

economy system. Obviously, it was not as professional as Versions 1 and 2, but cared about
comprehensive benefits.

Analysis of the technical parameters and construction method of the four design versions
Firstly, the sectional size of chambers was different. The related principle of design is to make the
roasting temperature uniform throughout the section, ensuring its safe operation and labour-saving. On
the one hand, the chamber should not be too low or narrow, otherwise its volume and output would be
reduced. On the other hand, it should not be too high and wide. If it is too high, not only it is difficult to
control the roasting temperature at different positions, but it can also lead to increased workers’ labour
intensity when they stand on the tricycles or trolleys to load or unload the top bricks. Meanwhile, if it is
too wide, the lateral spacing of the feed holes would increase, and the falling coal would not be easily
uniformed, leading to partial excessive burning.41 The chamber heights of Versions 1~4 were 2900-2800-
2600-2600 mm, thus showing a general trend of successive reduction, which was obviously conducive
to control and moderately reduce the workers’ labour intensity. (Fig. 16)

In order to learn about the general significance of lower kiln height for Versions 3 and 4, the random 16
field samples with complete basic data were compared with them. (Table 3) It was found that the kiln
height had not exceeded 2.6 m since 1992, which further showed the chambers’ height and workers’
labour intensity had become the general consensus. Even the proposal for a new state-owned brick
factory in 2009 clearly stated that the excessive labour intensity caused difficulty in recruiting workers.
Therefore, it adopted a lower kiln height of 2.6m.42 This meant that even under the background of state-
owned enterprises, which gradually withdrew from the brick and tile industry, and have been replaced
by private enterprises since the 1980s, the consideration of human resources under the conditions of a
market economy was necessary. In this sense, it was vital to control the workers’ labour intensity.
Nevertheless, one may ask: Why did Versions 1 and 2 use higher chambers? This may be due to the fact
that the chamber height of the prototype even exceeded 3 meters, (Fig. 1) and these two Chinese design
versions might have directly referred to such previous cases without considering the local conditions.

Figure 16. Comparative drawing of cross section for the four design versions, showing that Version 4
selected the highest chamber width and the lowest chamber height. (Drawing by the author)

76
 Haiqing Li

Table 3. Analysis of the chambers’ size of cross section between a random 16 field survey sites and design
Versions 3 and 4. (Source: the author)

HanyuVillage in Lintong, Shanxi

Design Version 4 No.2 Brick &

E Brick Factory of HanyuVillage

Brick Factory of Beiwangzhuang

Brick Factory of Yangdian Town

Brick Factory of XixiangVillage

Sanlian Brick & Tile Factory in

Jiangshan Village in Gaochun,

Brick Factory of Shishangqing

Commune in Qidong, Jiangsu
Design Version 2 Simplified

Yangjiayuan Brick Factory in

Tile Factory of Dachang Town
Jiupu Town in Xuyi, Jiangsu
Brick & Tile Factory of Lijia

Zhanghong Brick Factory of

Village in Shanyin, Shanxi

Brick Factory of Kangwang

Factory in Jingyan, Sichuan

Machine-made Brick & Tile
Village in Suining, Hunan
Brick Factory of shuanghe

Village in Liquan, Shanxi

Brick Factory of Xiagaopo
Zhenwu Town in Jiangdu,
Town in Yueyang, Hunan

Village in Wuyi, Zhejiang

in Guangrao, Shandong
Village in Dawu, Hubei

Brick & Tile Factory of

Brick & Tile Factory of

Kiln of Beixin People's

Dongyang, Zhejiang
in Nanjing, Jiangsu

in Lintong, Shanxi
D Brick Factory of
in Xiaonan, Hubei

Jinghai, Tianjin
Jiangsu

Jiangsu
Name of the
Factory

2000~2 2002± 2002±

Date Built 1960 1970s 1974 1970s 1970s 1983 1980s 1980s 1989 1992 1992 2000s 2000s 2000s 2010
002 2 2

Scale (Number
20 30 16 24 18 20 18 20 24 18 22 22 22 28 38 20 26 30
of Chambers)

Width of
Chamber 3600 4200 3200 3500 3300 4000 3700 4000 4000 4000 4000 3850 3700 3600 3600 3500 2700 3400
mm

Height of
Chamber 2800 2700 2600 2450 2220 2800 2600 2600 2400 2700 2600 2580 2550 2500 2500 2500 2300 2550
mm

The chamber widths of Versions 1~4 were 4000-3800-3200-4000 mm.(Table 2) The first three were
successively reduced, especially Version 3 which was greatly reduced, reflecting the basic appeal of
promoting “simplified Hoffmann kiln” in rural areas in the 1970s; i.e., thereby directly reducing the
construction difficulty and building investment by reducing the chamber width. Version 4 had been
raised to 4000 mm, the same as Version 1. This reflected the fact that bricks were in short supply with
the rapid development of market economy in the 1990s, and a relatively wider chamber was used to
ensure output was met.

Secondly, the arch type of the chamber was mainly affected by the size of chamber section. Although the
thrust of the semi-circular arch with a single centre, or an approximate semi-circular arch with a double
centre, are relatively small, and more reasonable from the perspective of structural mechanics, it can also
be easy to form chambers which are too high under the premise of determining the chamber width,
thereby increasing the workers’ labour intensity. Moreover, the masonry working space close to the arch
foot is extremely small, especially when upper flue is used, and the construction operation is more
difficult.43 Therefore, according to the design experience described by the craftsman Sun Shijiang, if the
chamber width was relatively small, the double-centre arch with a lower rise than the semi-circular arch
should have been be used. If the chamber width was large, it was better to use an even lower double-
centre arch. If the chamber width exceeded 4000 mm, a three-centre arch with an even lower rise should
have been used.

Among of the four design versions, it was obvious that neither a pure semi-circular arch nor a
complicated three-centre arch had been used. Instead, they were all double-centre arches, indicating the
consideration of controlling the chamber height as well as the ease of construction. The rise of the
chamber arches in Versions 1~4 were 1950-1800-1740-1500 mm,(Table 2) showing an obvious trend of
successively reducing the height. This was especially the case for Version 4 which had a large decline –
450 mm less than Version 1 –which indicated the design intention of moderately reducing the workers’
labour intensity. Considering this lowest rise of chamber arch combined with one of the lowest chamber
heights and the largest chamber width, all the detailed sizes of Version 4 showed its design intention was
to pursue comprehensive benefits through seeking a balance between ensuring output, reducing workers’
labour intensity and facilitating construction.

77
Environmental Adaptability of Building Mode: A Typological Study on the Technological
Modification of the Hoffmann Kiln in China since the 1950s

Figure 17. A typical overhaul site of Hoffmann kiln at Xuyi, showing the centering for linear chambers.
The second one from left is Sun Shijiang. (Photo: the author, January 2015)

Figure 18. A typical overhaul site of Hoffmann kiln at Jinghai of Tianjin, showing the centering for
annular chambers. (Photo: the author, January 2016)

78
 Haiqing Li

Thirdly, the depth and material of the foundations were also distinct. It is common sense that the greater
foundation depth, the stronger structure. However, this also means a larger amount of construction and
a higher building cost. The depth of main foundations under the chamber arches of Versions 1~4 were
1900-1500-420-420 mm.(Table 2) This indicates that the designers of Versions 1 and 2 had paid much
attention to structural security, and the considerable influence of Version 3 was placed on reducing the
building cost by focusing on the ease of construction. Further, the lower value of foundation depth from
Version 3 was also used in Version 4. As far as the foundations’ materials were concerned, it was
interesting to note that all four design versions, which were distributed over nearly half a century, used
the same foundation design, without any steel rods or cement - a kind of traditional prescription of
foundation in China. This was based on a mixture of lime, sand, pebbles, gravel or broken bricks,
reflecting the common aspiration of saving modern building materials and reducing building costs.

Finally, the construction formwork of the chambers is also important to consider. It was common to build
the masonry arch of linear chambers with centering – a mould with the shape of tubular arch.(Fig. 17)
However, it was more difficult to mould the formwork of an annular chamber. If the similar mould of the
linear chambers was used, with the plywood panel or bamboo bar covering the timber frame, it would
be a huge amount of work to build the centering itself.(Fig. 18) Although an elaborate mould with a
timber frame of Versions 1 and 2 might have been built at a cost, this was obviously not appropriate for
Version 3, especially where there was lack of wood and bamboo. Interestingly, it was clearly stated in
the body of publication for Version 3 that bricks or adobes would be piled into an arch-shaped volume,
plastered with clay mortar to be smoothed, and substituted for the timber-frame mould.44 There was no
relevant statement in Version 4 regarding this, but the mould method adopted by craftsman Sun Shijiang
in the overhaul of the Xuyi Brick Factory in 2016 perfectly presented such a method of saving materials
and construction resources.(Figs 19-21) Just like Shijiang admitted frankly himself, he was deeply
affected by the technical experience of Version 4. Therefore, it is reasonable to believe that
the construction method of the chamber arch in Version 4 was similar to Version 3. The critical point was
to prepare an arch-shaped timber truss as a precise template in advance, to be used as a reference in order
to inspect and correct when the brick mould of the annular chambers was piled.

Figure 19. The overhaul site of Hoffmann kiln at Xuyi, showing the brick mould of annular chamber and
the timber template for reference. (Photo: the author, January 2015)

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Environmental Adaptability of Building Mode: A Typological Study on the Technological
Modification of the Hoffmann Kiln in China since the 1950s

Figure 20. The overhaul site of Hoffmann kiln at Xuyi, showing the brick mould of annular chambers in
the shape of an arch. (Photo: the author, January 2015)

Figure 21. The overhaul site of Hoffmann kiln at Xuyi, showing that the brick mould of annular chambers
was plastered with clay mortar. (Photo: the author, January 2015)

In addition to stacking bricks as the mould, many other methods were proposed in Version 3 for saving
materials and construction time; for example, using adobes instead of bricks to build the inner shell of
chambers, constructing outer walls with tamped clay instead of bricks, using cooking wok instead of cast
iron damper, decomposing the large-span kiln roof into two smaller ones, and even using sheds and
shingles to build trusses. It can be confirmed by the field survey that the design idea of Version 3 greatly
influenced the later generations, and the demonstration of this effect is not only in the specific dimension
of section design, but also in the material selection and construction method.

80
 Haiqing Li

In summary, the results of the data collection and analysis of the chamber section, arch type, foundation
depth and construction method show that the architects and civil engineers of provincial-level
professional design agencies aimed to complete design tasks in a regular manner, concerned about the
scientific nature of a stable structure, heat recovery and utilisation. The designers of the county-level
industrial bureaus were mainly administrators and very few were engineers. As such, their goal was to
promote Hoffman kiln quickly by means of peasants’ investing brick and tile production enterprises. In
this sense, they paid much attention to the ease of construction. Meanwhile, the design of Version 4
selected the highest value of chamber width and the lowest value of chamber height, combined with its
construction of a chamber arch which referenced Version 3. This initially showed that the designers were
inclined to seek a comprehensive balance and overall consideration of ensuring high output while
controlling the workers’ labour intensity and building costs under the conditions of the market economy.
Therefore, it was a kind of technological improvement in the pursuit of maximising comprehensive
benefits; that is, not only satisfying technical indicators, but also respecting the local human-resource
conditions based on workers’ physical experience.

Conclusions

This study has described and analysed the impact of environmental factors on the building mode of
Hoffmann kilns in China. The results show that environmental factors plays a vital role in shaping the
building mode of Hoffmann kiln in China. First of all, the proximity to roads or waterfronts has to be
determined from the outset, affecting the distribution of Hoffmann kiln and thus also the characteristics
of morphology and building materials. In this sense, it is reasonable to simplify spatial composition and
use local building materials and crafts. Secondly, in order to obtain a comfortable physical environment
in the chambers and ease of construction, kilns with open-chamber tops and semi-open ones have been
adopted into the design in recent years. This thereby improves the workers’ conditions and contributes
to reducing building costs as well as the duration of construction. Thirdly, while aiming to use naturally-
induced air and ensure output effectively, the hybrid air induction, combined mechanical and natural
systems, and even the hot-air ducts have been gradually adopted in some Hoffmann kilns in China. In
addition, in order to make full use of the terrain to reduce the difficulty and costs of construction, the
chimney is not necessarily like the prototype which is bound to the kiln centre; instead, it may be set on
top of a nearby hillside.

Finally, the comparison of the four documented design versions of modified types indicates the
dialectical relationship between ideal design templates and local situation. This shows that although
designers led the technological improvements, local human-resource conditions based on workers’
physical experience also played a crucial role. Therefore, the evolution of Hoffmann kiln in China was
influenced both by external conditions and domestic-environmental factors, but the latter was dominant.
As such, this paper tells an interesting story of technologically modified types based on the prototype by
the means of the typological observation of Hoffman kilns in China.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Social Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 15BZS089).
The author would like to thank Leanne Johnstone, Zhao Chen, Peng Changxin, Zhu Xiaoming, Tan
Gangyi, Zhu Jingxiang, Shi Yonggao, Lu Andong, Chen Zhihong, Zhu Wenlong, Yu Changjiang,
Qiankun and Zhang Jiaxin, as well as the other people involved in this study for their contribution to the
filed survey, data collection, discussion and proofreading.

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Environmental Adaptability of Building Mode: A Typological Study on the Technological
Modification of the Hoffmann Kiln in China since the 1950s

The author

Li Haiqing is an Associate Professor in School of Architecture at the Southeast University, China, and is
a reviewer for the Architectural Journal, one of the most important academic journals of architecture in
China. His primary interests are architectural technology in modern China, industrial building heritage
and vernacular architecture. He has published several titles in the field of construction history and early
modern Chinese architecture. Among his works are: The Modern Transformation of Chinese Architecture
(Nanjing, 2004), An In-depth Observation on Reinforced Concrete as a Building Mode Based on the
Local Circumstances in China (Shanghai, 2014), As the Necessary Tension between Environmental
Management & Building Mode: A Case Study on the Architectural Value of Hoffmann Kiln in China
(With Yu Changjiang, Qian Kun and Zhang Jiaxin. Beijing, 2017), Introspection on the Narrative
Approaches: Researching of the History of Architectural Technology in Modern China (Beijing, 2017).

Contact Details

Haiqing Li, School of Architecture, Southeast University, 2 Sipailou Road, Nanjing 210096, China
594940025@qq.com; jianzhu_shi@sina.com

Notes and references

1. Another paper of this research was published in Architectural Journal, Beijing, July of 2017, with
the title “As the Necessary Tension between Environmental Management & Building Mode: A Case
Study on the Architectural Value of Hoffmann Kiln in China”. In fact, it was a review for the field
survey and focused on the relationship between thermal environmental management and building
mode, without deeply observing the cases. As case studies of this paper is a further step, the nature
of the new and original content is obvious. It focuses on the four documented design versions of
Hoffmann Kiln in China since the 1950s, especially by comparing their structural features and
construction techniques, and describes the dialectical relationship between the ideal design
templates and local situation, highlighting that although designers led the technology
improvements, local human-resource conditions also played a crucial role.
2. T. Jin, C. Huashuai & X. Dawei, ‘Influences of the Natural Environment on Traditional Settlement
Patterns: A Case Study of Hakka Traditional Settlements in Eastern Guangdong Province’, Tokyo,
Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, Vol.16, No.1, 2017, pp. 9-14.
3. W. Skinner, The City in Late Imperial China.Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1977. pp. 9-
12.
4. Indigenous kilns in China can not only produce black bricks, but also red bricks. Quanzhou was
able to make red bricks with indigenous kilns at the latest in the Daguan years of the Northern Song
Dynasty. Therefore, red or black bricks production is not directly related to the types of kilns, but
to the burning technology. China’s traditional buildings in most regions mainly use black bricks
while areas such as Xiamen, Zhangzhou and Quanzhou prefer red ones. The biggest difference
between the burning of black and red bricks is that the latter require no ‘watering of the kiln’. See:
Compilation Committee of Licheng District Local Chronicle, Quanzhou Historical Materials,
Qaunzhou, China: Huaqiao University Press, 1994 (in Chinese).
5. Z. Guangwei, ‘Several Topics on Traditional Brickmaking’, Beijing, World Architecture, No.9,
2016, pp. 27-29.
6. J. Campbell & W. Pryce, Brick: A World History. London, UK: Thames & Hudson, 2003. p. 212.
7. L. Haiqing, ‘Practical Logic: Tangible Impacts of Building Modes on Architectural Designs in

82
 Haiqing Li

China’, Beijing, Architectural Journal, No.10, 2016, pp.72-77.

8. C. Reuleaux, Zwei Worte zur bleibenden Ehrenrettung deutschen Wissens und Wirkens, Munich:
Max Kellerer’s h.b. Cort Book, 1890. p. 57.
9. ibid., pp. 57-58.
10. D. Johnson, ‘Friedrich Edouard Hoffmann and the Invention of Continuous Kiln Technology: The
Archaeology of the Hoffmann Kiln and 19th-century Industrial Development (Part 1)’, London,
Industrial Archaeology Review, Vol.24, No.2, 2002, pp. 119-132.
11. M. Teijiro, History of Japanese Building Technology, Tokyo, Japan: Land & Human Publications,
1976. pp. 64-78.
12. D. Johnson, ‘Friedrich Edouard Hoffmann and the Invention of Continuous Kiln Technology: The
Archaeology of the Hoffmann Kiln and 19th-century Industrial Development (Part 1)’, London,
Industrial Archaeology Review, Vol.24, No.2, 2002, p.123.
13. J. Zaiwei, Shanghai Building Materials Industry Records. Shanghai: Shanghai Academy of Social
Sciences Press, 1997. pp. 130-131.
14. E. Rhoads, China’s Republican Revolution: The Case of Kwangtung, 1895-1913. Cambridge of
Massachusetts, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975. p. 125.
15. Compilation Committee of Nanjing Local Chronicle. Chronicles of Nanjing Building Materials
Industry. Nanjing, China: Nanjing Press, 1991. pp. 89-111.
16. Urban & Architectural Design Institute of Sichuan Province, ‘Deyang Brick and Tile Factory’,
Beijing, Architectural Journal, No.9, 1958, pp. 30-31.
17. W. Liquan. ‘On Strategic Orientation of the Brickmaking Industry’s Cross-Century Development’,
Xi’an, Bricks & Tiles, No.4, 2000, pp. 29-31.
18. B. Searle, Modern Brickmaking. London, UK: Scott, Greenwood & Son, 1911. p. 264.
19. The location of the brick factory is directly related to the distribution of clay deposit, the main raw
material of brick making. The clay deposits in China are of variety and widely distributed in all
provinces. The paper focused on the design and construction of kilns, rather than raw materials
themselves, and therefore it did not specifically explore the relevance between the location of the
brick factories and the distribution of clay deposits. See: Z. Yurong & M. Xiangguo, ‘Distribution
Characteristics and Regularities of Clay Deposit in China’, Xi’an, Chinese Electric Porcelain,
No.5, 1983, pp. 54-62. See also, S. Guozhun, How to Burn Brick. Beijing, China: China
Architecture & Building Press, 1986 (in Chinese).
20. P. Baoyu et al., ‘Regional Disparity Comparisons between Economic and Financial Development
in China’, Zhengzhou, Areal Research and Development, Vol.35, No.4, 2016, pp. 1-5.
21. J. Campbell & W. Pryce, Brick: A World History. London, UK: Thames & Hudson, 2003. p. 306.
22. The Harbin Building Materials Company, How to Make Bricks with Simplified Hoffmann Kiln and
Mobile Brick Machine. Harbin: Heilongjiang People’s Press, 1959. pp. 1-3.
23. C. Shipu, ‘The Appeal of a Senior Practitioner of Bricks and Tiles: Suppress the Hoffmann Kilns
without Roofs’, Beijing, World of Bricks & Tiles, No.2, 2007. p. 12.
24. Urban & Architectural Design Institute of Sichuan Province, ‘Deyang Brick and Tile Factory’,
Beijing, Architectural Journal, No.9, 1958, pp. 30-31.
25. ibid., p.30.
26. B. Searle, Modern Brickmaking. London: Scott Greenwood & Son, 1911. p. 274.
27. Urban & Architectural Design Institute of Sichuan Province, ‘Deyang Brick and Tile Factory’,
Beijing, Architectural Journal, No.9, 1958, p. 31.
28. ibid., p.31.
29. R. Wenli & W. Li, ‘Chinese Contemporary Thought and Practice of the Development of the Iron
and Steel Industry’, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Academic Journal, Vol.33, No.1, 2013, pp. 137-144.
30. Design Office of Labor Reform Bureau in Department of Public Security of Qinghai Province, ‘A
Number of Issues on Design of Hoffmann Kiln with 54 gates’ in Qinghai Province Civil

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Environmental Adaptability of Building Mode: A Typological Study on the Technological
Modification of the Hoffmann Kiln in China since the 1950s

Engineering Society (Ed.), Proceedings of the Annual Academic Conference held by the Qinghai
Province Civil Engineering Society in 1963 (internal information), Xining, 1963. pp. 98-103.
31. Z. Shaojie, L. Shenglong & H. Angang, ‘Effect of Electricity Development on China’s Economic
Growth and its Regional Difference’, Jinan, China Population, Resources & Environment, Vol. 26,
No.8, 2016, pp. 34-41.
32. A. Qian, L. Xiaojian & L. Kewen, ‘Spatial Pattern and Efficiency Analysis of Urban Built-up Area
Expansion in China (1990-2009)’, Changsha, Economic Geography, Vol.32, No.6, 2012, pp. 37-
45.
33. Overview of Deyang Prison Network Units in Sichuan Province can be seen at the website
http://dyjy.scjyglj.gov.cn/dyjy/about/index.action (Consulted on 9th May 2018).
34. Compilation Committee of Chengdu Architectural Chronicles. Chengdu Architectural Chronicles.
Beijing, China: China Architecture & Building Press, 1994. pp.120-121.
35. Z. Weishan. The Industrial History of Qinghai. Xining: Qinghai Xin Chu, 2001. p.30.
36. Design Office of Labor Reform Bureau in Department of Public Security of Qinghai Province, ‘A
Number of Issues on Design of Hoffmann Kiln with 54 gates’ in Qinghai Province Civil
Engineering Society (Ed.) Proceedings of the Annual Academic Conference held by the Qinghai
Province Civil Engineering Society in 1963 (internal information), Xining, 1963. pp. 98-103.
37. Compilation Committee of Qinghai Provincial Chronicle, Qinghai Provincial Chronicles of Urban
& Countryside Construction. Xining, China: Qinghai People’s Press, 2001.pp. 488-489.
38. Compilation Committee of Qidong Local Chronicle, Chronicles of Qidong County. Beijing, China:
Zhonghuashuju, 1993. p. 352.
39. Compilation Committee of Jiangsu Provicial Local Chronicle. Jiangsu Building Materials Industry
Chronicles. Beijing, China: Local Chronicle Press, 2002. pp. 134-135.
40. Compilation Committee of Qidong Local Chronicle, Chronicles of Qidong County. Beijing, China:
Zhonghuashuju, 1993. p. 352.
41. X. Shaoqun, ‘Design Innovation of Hoffmann Kiln with 42 Gates’, Beijing, Beijing Bricks & Tiles,
No.4, 1991, pp. 15-16.
42. “The Proposal of Luxin Group Building Materials Company Plans to Build Hoffmann Kiln with 22
Gates” can be seen at website. http://www.docin.com/p-1539434243.html (Consulted on 2nd
March 2018).
43. L. Kejian & L. Chunying, ‘Design Innovation of the Hoffmann Kiln: Flue, Kiln Gate, Wind
Inletting and Guidelines of Construction’, Beijing, Beijing Bricks & Tiles, No.4, 1992, pp.15-17.
44. The Industrial Bureau in Qidong County, How to Burn Bricks with Simplified Hoffmann Kiln.
Beijing: China Architecture & Building Press, 1974. p. 11.

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