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Discourse Analysis and Text Linguistics

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 Discourse Analysis and Text Linguistics

Mohammed Jasim Betti

Department of English , College of Education for Humanities,

University of Thi-Qar

1. Discourse Analysis

1.1 Definition

Discourse analysis (DA), or discourse studies, is an approach to the

analysis of written, vocal, or sign language use, or any significant
semiotic event.

The objects of discourse analysis (discourse, writing, conversation,

communicative event) are variously defined in terms of coherent
sequences of sentences, propositions, speech, or turns-at-talk. Contrary to
much of traditional linguistics, discourse analysts not only study language
use 'beyond the sentence boundary' but also prefer to analyze 'naturally
occurring' language use, not invented examples. Text linguistics is a
closely related field. The essential difference between discourse analysis
and text linguistics is that discourse analysis aims at revealing socio-
psychological characteristics of a person/persons rather than text structure
(Yatsko. 2019; (Betti, 2021u and Igaab, 2010: 5)

Discourse analysis has been taken up in a variety of disciplines in the

humanities and social sciences, including linguistics, education,
sociology, anthropology, social work, cognitive psychology, social
psychology, area studies, cultural studies, international relations, human
geography, environmental science, communication studies, biblical
studies, public relations, argumentation studies, and translation studies,
each of which is subject to its own assumptions, dimensions of analysis,
and methodologies.

1.2 History

Early use of the term

The ancient Greeks (among others) had much to say on discourse;

however, there is ongoing discussion about whether Austria-born Leo
Spitzer's Stilstudien (Style Studies) of 1928 the earliest example of
discourse analysis (DA). Michel Foucault translated it into French (Elden,
2016).

However, the term first came into general use following the publication
of a series of papers by Zellig Harris from 1952 reporting on work from
which he developed transformational grammar in the late 1930s. Formal
equivalence relations among the sentences of a coherent discourse are
made explicit by using sentence transformations to put the text in a
canonical form. Words and sentences with equivalent information then
appear in the same column of an array.

This work progressed over the next four decades (see references) into
a science of sublanguage analysis (Kittredge & Lehrberger 1982; Igaab,
2015: 34;Betti, 2021v: 5) culminating in a demonstration of the
informational structures in texts of a sublanguage of science, that of
Immunology, (Harris et al. 1989) Hardy, (1991) and a fully articulated
theory of linguistic informational content (Harris 1991; and Hardy, 1991).
 During this time, however, most linguists ignored such developments
in favor of a succession of elaborate theories of sentence-level syntax and
semantics ( Corcoran, 1969; (Betti, 2021w: 2; and). (Salman, and Betti,
2020: 226).

In January 1953, a linguist working for the American Bible Society,

James A. Lauriault/Loriot, needed to find answers to some fundamental
errors in translating Quechua, in the Cuzco area of Peru. Following
Harris's 1952 publications, he worked over the meaning and placement of
each word in a collection of Quechua legends with a native speaker of
Quechua and was able to formulate discourse rules that transcended the
simple sentence structure. He then applied the process to Shipibo, another
language of Eastern Peru. He taught the theory at the (Corcoran, 1972:
275–292). Summer Institute of Linguistics in Norman, Oklahoma, in the
summers of 1956 and 1957 and entered the University of Pennsylvania to
study with Harris in the interim year. He tried to publish a paper (Loriot,
and Hollenbach, 1970: 49; Betti, 2021x: 7).

Shipibo Paragraph Structure, but it was delayed until 1970 (Loriot &
Hollenbach 1970). In the meantime, Kenneth Lee Pike, a professor at
University of Michigan, (University of Michigan". umich.edu. 2020).
Ann Arbor, taught the theory, and one of his students, Robert E.
Longacre developed it in his writings. Harris's methodology disclosing
the correlation of form with meaning was developed into a system for the
computer-aided analysis of (Wikipedia, 2020). natural language by a
team led by Naomi Sager at NYU, which has been applied to a number of
sublanguage domains, most notably to medical informatics. The software
for the Medical Language Processor is publicly available on SourceForge.
In the humanities

In the late 1960s and 1970s, and without reference to this prior work, a
variety of other approaches to a new cross-discipline of DA began to
develop in most of the humanities and social sciences concurrently with,
and related to, other disciplines. These include semiotics,
psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, and pragmatics. Many of these
approaches, especially those influenced by the social sciences, favor a
more dynamic study of oral talk-in-interaction. An example is
(Encyclopedia.com". 2020) "conversational analysis", which was
influenced by the Sociologist Harold Garfinkel, (Lynch, 2011; (Betti,
2021i: 3; and Igaab, 2010b: 164)
the founder of Ethnomethodology.
Foucault
In Europe, Michel Foucault became one of the key theorists of the
subject, especially of discourse. Luckmann primarily focus on the
constitution and stabilization of knowledge on the level of interaction,
Foucault's perspective concentrates on institutional contexts of the
production and integration of knowledge, where the subject mainly
appears to be determined by knowledge and power. Therefore, the
(Keller, 2011: 43–65; Igaab, 2010a: 14; and Betti, 2021j: 5).
'Sociology of Knowledge Approach to Discourse' can also be seen as an
approach to deal with the vividly discussed micro–macro problem in
sociology.

1.3 Perspectives

Some of the specific theoretical perspectives and analytical approaches

used in linguistic discourse analysis include Critical discourse analysis,
Discursive psychology, Emergent grammar, Ethnography of
communication, Functional grammar, Interactional sociolinguistics,
Mediated Stylistics, Pragmatics, Response based therapy (counselling),
Rhetoric, Stylistics (linguistics), Sublanguage analysis, Tagmemics, Text
linguistics, Variation analysis, etc.

Although these approaches emphasize different aspects of language

use, they all view language as social interaction and are concerned with
the social contexts in which discourse is embedded. Often a distinction is
made between 'local' structures of discourse (such as relations among
sentences, propositions, and turns) and 'global' structures, such as overall
topics and the schematic organization of discourses and conversations.
For instance, many types of discourse begin with some kind of global
'summary', in titles, headlines, leads, abstracts, and so on.

A problem for the discourse analyst is to decide when a particular

feature is relevant to the specification required. A question many linguists
ask is: "Are there general principles which will determine the relevance
or nature of the specification? (Van Dijk, 2005: 352–371; Betti, 2021t:
3; and Igaab, and Tarrad, 2019: 59).

1.4 Topics of Discourse analysis

Topics of discourse analysis include: (Kitaeva, and Ozerova, 2019;

(Betti, 2021s: 4). (Igaab, and Altai, 2018: 292):

i. sounds (intonation, etc.), gestures, syntax, the lexicon, style, rhetoric,

meanings, speech acts, moves, strategies, turns, and other aspects of
interaction
ii. Genres of discourse (various types of discourse in politics, the media,
education, science, business, etc.)

iii. The relations between discourse and the emergence of syntactic

structure

iv. The relations between text (discourse) and context

v. The relations between discourse and power

vi. The relations between discourse and interaction

vii. The relations between discourse and cognition and memory (Betti,
2021k: 6; Igaab, and Al-Manhalawey, 2010: 34).

The prominent academics are Jan Blommaert, Teun van Dijk, Michel
Foucault, Heidi E. Hamilton, Barbara Johnstone, Sinfree Makoni,
Jonathan Potter, Deborah Schiffrin, Deborah Tannen, Margaret
Wetherell, Ruth Wodak, etc.

1.5 Political Discourse

Political Discourse: The text and talk of professional politicians or

political institutions, such as presidents and prime ministers and other
members of government, parliament or political parties, both at the local,
national and international levels, includes both the speaker and the
audience (Wortham, et a l.2017; Betti, 2021m: 10; and Igaab, 2015a:
121).
Political discourse analysis is a field of discourse analysis which
focuses on discourse in political forums (such as debates, speeches, and
hearings) as the phenomenon of interest. Policy analysis requires
discourse analysis to be effective from the post-positivist perspective
(Hult, 2015: 217–31; and Johnson, and Johnson, 2000: 291–317; Igaab,
2015b: 13; and Betti, 2021o: 1).
Political discourse is the formal exchange of reasoned views as to
which of several alternative courses of action should be taken to solve a
societal problem (Breeze, 2013; Betti, 2021p: 2; Igaab, and Al-Bdeary,
2016: 57).

1.6 Corporate Discourse

Corporate discourse can be broadly defined as the language used by

corporations. It encompasses a set of messages that a corporation sends
out to the world (the general public, the customers and other
corporations) and the messages it uses to communicate within its own
structures (the employees and other stakeholders )(Shaw, and Bailey,
2009: 419; Betti, 2021q: 2; and Igaab, and Kareem (2018: 9).

1.7 Critical Discourse Analysis

1.7.1 Definition
Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is an interdisciplinary approach to the
study of discourse that views language as a form of social practice.
Scholars working in the tradition of CDA generally argue that (non-
linguistic) social practice and linguistic practice constitute one another
and focus on investigating how societal power relations are established
and reinforced through language use. (Fairclough, 1995).

17.2 Differentiation between DA and CDA

In this sense, it differs from discourse analysis in that it highlights
issues of power asymmetries, manipulation, exploitation, and structural
inequities in domains such as education, media, and politics (Blommaert;
and Bucean, 2000: 447–466; Betti, 2021r: 6).
Critical discourse analysis emerged from 'critical linguistics'
developed at the University of East Anglia by Roger Fowler and fellow
scholars in the 1970s, and the terms are now often interchangeable. Some
still insist on distinctions between the two terms, although they are
relatively minor (Fowler, 1979; Betti, 2021n: 7).
Research in the field of sociolinguistics was paying little attention to
social hierarchy and power (Wodak, 2001: 5; Betti, 2021: 5).

CDA was first developed by the Lancaster school of linguists of

which Norman Fairclough was the most prominent figure. Ruth Wodak
has also made a major contribution to this field of study. In addition to
linguistic theory, the approach draws from social theory—and
contributions from Karl Marx, Antonio Gramsci, Louis Althusser, Jürgen
Habermas, Michel Foucault and Pierre Bourdieu—in order to examine
ideologies and power relations involved in discourse. Language connects
with the social through being the primary domain of ideology, and
through being both a site of, and a stake in, struggles for power. Ideology
has been called the basis of the social representations of groups, and, in
psychological versions of CDA developed by Teun A. van Dijk and Ruth
Wodak, there is assumed to be a sociocognitive interface between social
structures and discourse structures (van Dijk, 1998). The historical
dimension in critical discourse studies also plays an important role.
(Wodak, and Meyer, 2001; Algburi, and Igaab, 2021: 42; and Betti,
1990: 95).
1.7.3 Methodology

CDA is an application of discourse analysis, it is generally agreed that

methods from discourse studies, the humanities and social sciences may
be used in CDA research. This is on the condition that it is able to
adequately and relevantly produce insights into the way discourse
reproduces (or resists) social and political inequality, power abuse or
domination (Fairclough, 1995; Al-Seady, 1998a: 83; and Betti, (1993:
74).
CDA does not limit its analysis to specific structures of text or talk,
but systematically relates these to structures of the sociopolitical context.
CDA has been used to examine rhetoric in political speech acts, and any
forms of speech that may be used to manipulate the impression given to
the audience. (Roffee, 2016: 131–147; Al-Seady, 1998b: 63; and Betti,
1995: 12).

However, there have been flaws noted with CDA. For example, it has
been said that it is simultaneously too broad to distinctly identify
manipulations within the rhetoric, yet is also not powerful enough to
appropriately find all that researchers set out to establish (Roffee, 2014:
128, Al-Seady, (1998c: 77; and Betti, 1996: 12).
Norman Fairclough discussed the term CDA in his book Language and
Power. Fairclough introduced the concepts that are now viewed as vital in
CDA such as "discourse, power, ideology, social practice and common
sense." ( Guo, and Liu, 2016: 1080; Al-Seady, 2002a: 5 and Betti, 1998:
12).

He argues that language should be analyzed as a social practice

through the lens of discourse in both speaking and writing.
 Fairclough developed a three-dimensional framework for studying
discourse, where the aim is to map three separate forms of analysis onto
one another: analysis of (spoken or written) language texts, analysis of
discourse practice (processes of text production, distribution and
consumption) and analysis of discursive events as instances of socio-
cultural practice. (Fairclough, (2001). Particularly, he combines micro,
meso and macro-level interpretation. At the micro-level, the analyst
considers various aspects of textual/linguistic analysis, for example
syntactic analysis, use of metaphor and rhetorical devices. The meso-
level or "level of discursive practice" involves studying issues of
production and consumption, for instance, which institution produced a
text, who is the target audience, etc. At the macro-level, the analyst is
concerned with intertextual and interdiscursive elements and tries to take
into account the broad, societal currents that are affecting the text being
studied. (Barry; et al. 2006: 1091). (Alvesson, and Karreman, 2000:
1125–1149; Al-Seady, 2002b: 17 and Betti, 2002a: 34).
Van Dijk's approach to CDA combines cognitive theories with
linguistic and social theories. Van Dijk uses cognition as the middle layer
of a three-layer approach consisting of discourse, cognitive and society.
By integrating a cognitive approach, researchers are better able to
understand how larger social phenomenon are reinforced through
popular, everyday discourse. Critics of this practice point out that his
approach focuses on the reproduction of ideologies rather than the
transformation (Lin, 2014: 221; Al-Seady, and Al-Sehlani, 2002: 31; and
Betti, 2002b: 3).
Ruth Wodak has developed a framework based on the systemic
collection of sample texts on a topic to better understand the
interrelationship of discourses that exist within the field. This framework
allows for the discussion and analysis of ideologies involved in a set of
discourses. The macro level of analysis is helpful in understanding how
macro-structures of inequality persist through discursive processes across
multiple sites and texts (Lin, 2014: 227; Al-Sheikh, 2006a: 76; and Betti,
2002c: 4).
CDA has been applied to media studies, English language teaching,
heritage language socialization and environmental sciences to name a few
(Guardado, (2018; Smith, (2006: 79–100). (Hazaea, 2017: 1824–1884).
(Rahimi, 2015: 507 ; Al-Sheikh, 2006b: 45; and Betti, 2002d: 23).

Notable CDA writers include Norman Fairclough, Michał

Krzyżanowski, Paul Chilton, Teun A. van Dijk, Ruth Wodak, John E.
Richardson, Phil Graham, Theo Van Leeuwen, Siegfried Jäger [de],
Christina Schäffner [de], James Paul Gee, Roger Fowler, Gunther Kress,
Mary Talbot, Lilie Chouliaraki, Thomas Huckin, Hilary Janks, Veronika
Koller, Christopher Hart, and Bob Hodge.

2. Text Linguistics

2.1 Definition

Text linguistics is a branch of linguistics that deals with texts as

communication systems. Its original aims lay in uncovering and
describing text grammars. The application of text linguistics has,
however, evolved from this approach to a point in which text is viewed in
much broader terms that go beyond a mere extension of traditional
grammar towards an entire text. Text linguistics takes into account the
form of a text, but also its setting, i. e. the way in which it is situated in an
interactional, communicative context. Both the author of a (written or
spoken) text as well as its addressee are taken into consideration in their
respective (social and/or institutional) roles in the specific communicative
context. In general it is an application of discourse analysis at the much
broader level of text, rather than just a sentence or word (Trappes-Lomax,
2004: 133–64; Betti, 2002e: 2;Betti, and Al-Jubouri, 2015c: 91).

2.2 Reasons for text linguistics

Much attention has been given to the sentence as a self-contained unit,

and not enough has been given to studying how sentences may be used in
connected stretches of language. It is essentially the presentation of
language as sets of sentences.

Text is extremely significant in communication because people

communicate not by means of individual words or fragments of sentences
in languages, but by means of texts. It is also the basis of various
disciplines such as law, religion, medicine, science, and politics (Al-
Amri, 2007; Betti, 2003: 41; and Betti, and Igaab, 2015: 2).

2.3 Related Definitions

"A text is an extended structure of syntactic units [i. e. text as super-

sentence] such as words, groups, and clauses and textual units that is
marked by both coherence among the elements and completion ...
(Werlich, 1976) Whereas a non-text consists of random sequences of
linguistic units such as sentences, paragraphs, or sections in any temporal
and/or spatial extension." (Werlich, 1976: 23; Betti, 2006: 142; Betti, and
Mugeer, 2016: 19).

"A naturally occurring manifestation of language, i. e. as a

communicative language event in a context. The surface text is the set of
expressions actually used; these expressions make some knowledge
explicit, while other knowledge remains implicit, though still applied
during processing." (Beaugrande and Dressler, 1981: 63; Betti, 2007:
399-411; and Betti, and Al-Jubouri, 2009: 363-379).

"[A term] used in linguistics to refer to any passage- spoken or written, of

whatever length, that does form a unified whole [….] A text is a unit of
language in use. It is not a grammatical unit, like a clause or a sentence;
and it is not defined by its size [….] A text is best regarded as a semantic
unit; a unit not of form but of meaning." (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 1–6;
Betti, 2013: 12; and Betti, and Hashim, 2018: 290).

"A text is made up of sentences, but there exist separate principles of

text-construction, beyond the rules for making sentences." (Fowler, 1991:
59).

"[Text is] a set of mutually relevant communicative functions, structured

in such a way as to achieve an overall rhetorical purpose." (Hatim and
Mason, 1990; (Betti, 2015a: 12).
Text linguists generally agree that text is the natural domain of language,
but they still differ in their perspectives of what constitutes a text. This
variance is mainly due to the different methods of observations of
different linguists, and as such, the definition of text is not yet concrete
(Al-Amri, 2007; Betti, and Igaab, 2018: 35; Betti, 2015b: 12).

2.4 Significance of Contexts

There is a text and there is other text that accompanies it: text that is
'with', namely the con-text. This notion of what is 'with the text',
however, goes beyond what is said and written: it includes other non-
verbal signs-on-the total environment in which a text unfolds. (Halliday
and Hasan, 1985: 5; (Betti, and Ulaiwi, 2018: 84; Betti, Igaab, & Al-
Ghizzi, 2018: 256).
 According to Halliday, text is a sign representation of a socio-cultural
event embedded in a context of situation. Context of situation is the
semio-socio-cultural environment in which the text unfolds. Text and
context are so intimately related that neither concept can be
comprehended in the absence of the other.

The three features of context of situation re the following:

i. The field of discourse – experiential meaning

This is the meaning that the social actions and the engagements of the
participants are giving to the understanding of the text (Kavcic,2008;
(Betti, and Ghadhab, 2020: 57; and Betti, 2021b 2).

ii. The tenor of discourse – interpersonal meaning

This is the meaning that the roles of and relationships among
participants give to the understanding of the text. These relationships
may be permanent or temporary. The contribution to meaning by social
statuses of the participants also fall within this feature (Kavcic, 2008;
(Betti, 2020a: 8; and Betti, and AlFartoosy, 2019: 97).
iii. The mode of discourse – logical meaning

This is the meaning that the language, written or spoken, gives to the
understanding of the text. This includes the symbolic organization of the
text, as well as its intended function within the context (Kavcic, 2008).

Texture

Texture is the basis for unity and semantic interdependence within

text. Any text that lacks texture would simply be a bunch of isolated
sentences that have no relationship to each other. (Crane, 1994). A feature
of texture is "sequential implicativeness", as suggested by Schegloff and
Sacks (1974). This refers to the property of language that each line in a
text is linked from or linked to the previous line. As such, language
contains a linear sequence, and this linear progression of text creates a
context of meaning. (Schegloff and Sacks (1974: 289–327; Betti, 2020b:
1). (Betti, and Igaab, 2019: 234).
This contextual meaning, at the paragraph level, is referred to as
"coherence", while the internal properties of meaning are referred
to as "cohesion". (Eggins, 1994: 85).

There are two aspects of coherence, namely, "situational" coherence

and "generic" coherence. There is situational coherence when field, tenor,
and mode can be identified for a certain group of clauses. On the other
hand, there is generic coherence when the text can be recognized as
belonging to a certain genre. Thereby, cohesion is the result of "semantic
ties", which refers to the dependent links between items within a text.
These ties come together to create meaning (Betti, 2021bb: 9). Texture is,
therefore, created within text when the properties of coherence and
cohesion are present.

Text types

Most linguists agree on the classification into five text-types: narrative,

descriptive, argumentative, instructive, and comparison/contrast (also
called expositive). Some classifications divide the types of texts
according to their function. Others differ because they take into
consideration the topic of the texts, the producer and the addressee, or the
style. Adam and Petitjean, (1989) proposed analyzing of overlaps of
different text types with text sequences. Virtanen (1992) establishes a
double classification (discourse type and text type) to be used when the
Identification text-text type is not straightforward (Medina, 2002: 156;
(Betti, 2020c: 6; and Betti, and Yaseen, 2020: 49).
Seven Standards of Textuality

Text linguistics is the study of how texts function in human interaction.

Beaugrande and Dressler define a text as a ―communicative occurrence
which meets seven standards of textuality‖ – cohesion, coherence,
intentionality, acceptability, informativity, situationality and
intertextuality, without any of which the text will not be communicative.
Non-communicative texts are treated as non-texts (De Beaugrande, &
Dressler, 1981; Betti, 2020d: 56; and Betti, and Hasan, 2020: 49).

Cohesion

Surface texts are the exact words that people see or hear. Cohesion
concerns the ways in which the components of the surface text are
connected within a sequence. Grammatical forms and conventions are
adhered to by surface components and therefore cohesion rests upon
grammatical dependencies. The grammatical dependencies in surface
texts are major signals for sorting out meanings and uses. Cohesion
encompasses all of the functions that can be used to signal relations
among surface elements (Betti, 2021aa: 7).

SLOW

CARS

HELD UP

Such a text can be divided up into various dependencies. Someone might

construe it as a notice about "slow cars" that are "held up", so that
conclusions could be drawn about the need to drive fast to avoid being
held up. However, it is more likely for one to divide the text into "slow"
and "cars held up', so that drivers will drive slowly to avoid accidents or
take alternative routes to avoid being caught in the slow traffic. A science
of text should explain how ambiguities such as these are possible, as well
as how they are precluded or resolved without much difficulty. For
efficient communication to take place there must be interaction between
cohesion and other standards of textuality because the surface alone is not
decisive (Betti, and Mahdi, 2021: 38).

Coherence

Coherence concerns the ways in which concepts and relations, which

underlie the surface text, are linked, relevant and used, to achieve
efficient communication.

 A concept is a cognitive content which can be retrieved or

triggered with a high degree of consistency in the mind
 Relations are the links between concepts within a text, with each
link identified with the concept that it connects to

Surface texts may not always express relations explicitly therefore people
supply as many relations as are needed to make sense out of any
particular text. In the example of the road sign "SLOW CARS HELD
UP', "cars" is an object concept and "held up" an action concept, and the
"cars" are the link to "held up'. Therefore, "slow" is more likely to be
interpreted as a motion than as the speed at which cars are travelling.
Types of relations include (Betti, 2021a: 5):

I. Causality

"Itsy Bitsy spider climbing up the spout. Down came the rain and washed
the spider out."
 The event of "raining" causes the event of "washing the spider out"
because it creates the necessary conditions for the latter; without the rain,
the spider will not be washed out.

II. Enablement

"Humpty Dumpty sat on the wall, Humpty Dumpty had a great

fall."

The action of sitting on the wall created the necessary but not sufficient
conditions for the action of falling down. Sitting on a wall makes it
possible but not obligatory for falling down to occur.

III. Reason

"Jack shall have but a penny a day because he can't work any
faster."

In contrast to the rain which causes Itsy Bitsy spider to be washed out, the
slow working does not actually cause or enable the low wage. Instead, the
low wage is a reasonable outcome; "reason" is used to term actions that
occur as a rational response to a previous event (Betti, 2021d: 3).

IV. Purpose

"Old Mother Hubbard went to the cupboard to get her poor dog a
bone."

In contrast to Humpty Dumpty's action of sitting on the wall which

enables the action of falling down, there is a plan involved here; Humpty
Dumpty did not sit on the wall so that it could fall down but Old Mother
Hubbard went to the cupboard so that she could get a bone. "Purpose" is
used to term events that are planned to be made possible via a previous
event.
V. Time

"Cause", "enablement" and "reason" have forward directionality with

the earlier event causing, enabling or providing reason for the later
event. "Purpose', however, has a backward directionality as the later
event provides the purpose for the earlier event (Betti, 2021e: 3).

More than just a feature of texts, coherence is also the outcome of

cognitive processes among text users. The nearness and proximity of
events in a text will trigger operations which recover or create coherence
relations.

"The Queen of Hearts, she made some tarts;

The Knave of Hearts, he stole the tarts;
The King of Hearts, called for the tarts."

In the explicit text, there is a set of actions (making, stealing and calling);
the only relations presented are the agent and the affected entity of each
action. However, a text receiver is likely to assume that the locations of
all three events are close to one another as well as occur in a continuous
and relatively short time frame. One might also assume that the actions
are meant to signal the attributes of the agents; the Queen is skilled in
cooking, the Knave is dishonest and the King is authoritative. As such,
coherence encompasses inferencing based on one's knowledge (Betti,
2021z: 7).

For a text to make sense, there has to be interaction between one's

accumulated knowledge and the text-presented knowledge. Therefore, a
science of texts is probabilistic instead of deterministic, that is, inferences
by users of any particular text will be similar most of the time instead of
all of the time. Most text users have a common core of cognitive
composition, engagement and process such that their interpretations of
texts through "sensing" are similar to what text senders intend them to be.
Without cohesion and coherence, communication would be slowed down
and could break down altogether. Cohesion and coherence are text-
centred notions, designating operations directed at the text materials
(Betti, and Khalaf , 2021: 19).

Intentionality

Intentionality concerns the text producer's attitude and intentions as the

text producer uses cohesion and coherence to attain a goal specified in a
plan. Without cohesion and coherence, intended goals may not be
achieved due to a breakdown of communication. However, depending on
the conditions and situations in which the text is used, the goal may still
be attained even when cohesion and coherence are not upheld (Betti,
2021f: 2; and Betti, and Hashim, 2021: 59).

"'Want I carry you on my back?'"

Even though cohesion is not maintained in this example, the text producer
still succeeds in achieving the goal of finding out if the text receiver
wanted a piggyback.

Acceptability

Acceptability concerns the text receiver's attitude that the text should
constitute useful or relevant details or information worth accepting. Text
type, the desirability of goals and the political and sociocultural setting,
as well as cohesion and coherence, are important in influencing the
acceptability of a text.

Text producers often speculate on the receiver's attitude of

acceptability and present texts that maximize the probability that the
receivers will respond as desired by the producers. For example, texts
that are open to a wide range of interpretations, such as "Call us before
you dig. You may not be able to afterwards" require more inferences
about the related consequences. This is more effective than an explicit
version of the message that informs receivers the full consequences of
digging without calling, because receivers are left with great uncertainty
as to the consequences that could result; this plays to people's risk
aversion (Betti, 2021g: 7; and Dehham, , Betti, and Hussein, 2021: 7).

Informativity

Informativity concerns the extent to which the contents of a text are

already known or expected as compared to unknown or unexpected. No
matter how expected or predictable content may be, a text will always be
informative at least to a certain degree due to unforeseen variability. The
processing of highly informative text demands greater cognitive ability
but at the same time is more interesting. The level of informativity should
not exceed a point such that the text becomes too complicated and
communication is endangered. Conversely, the level of informativity
should also not be so low that it results in boredom and the rejection of
the text.

Situationality

Situationality concerns the factors which make a text relevant to a

situation of occurrence. The situation in which a text is exchanged
influences the comprehension of the text. There may be different
interpretations with the road sign

SLOW

CARS

HELD UP
 However, the most likely interpretation of the text is obvious because
the situation in which the text is presented provides the context which
influences how text receivers interpret the text. The group of receivers
(motorists) who are required to provide a particular action will find it
more reasonable to assume that "slow" requires them to slow down rather
than referring to the speed of the cars that are ahead. Pedestrians can tell
easily that the text is not directed towards them because varying their
speeds is inconsequential and irrelevant to the situation. In this way, the
situation decides the sense and use of the text (Betti, 2021h: 4).
Situationality can affect the means of cohesion; less cohesive text may be
more appropriate than more cohesive text depending on the situation. If
the road sign was "Motorists should reduce their speed and proceed
slowly because the vehicles ahead are held up by road works, therefore
proceeding at too high a speed may result in an accident', every possible
doubt of intended receivers and intention would be removed. However,
motorists only have a very short amount of time and attention to focus on
and react to road signs. Therefore, in such a case, economical use of text
is much more effective and appropriate than a fully cohesive text
(Hashim, and Betti, 2020: 296) .

Intertextuality

Intertextuality concerns the factors which make the utilization of one text
dependent upon knowledge of one or more previously encountered text.
If a text receiver does not have prior knowledge of a relevant text,
communication may break down because the understanding of the current
text is obscured. Texts such as parodies, rebuttals, forums and classes in
school, the text producer has to refer to prior texts while the text receivers
have to have knowledge of the prior texts for communication to be
efficient or even occur. In other text types such as puns, for example
"Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana', there is no need to
refer to any other text (Betti, 2021y: 4).

Application to language learning

Text linguistics stimulates reading by arousing interest in texts or novels.

Increases background knowledge on literature and on different kinds of
publications. Writing skills can be improved by familiarizing and
duplicating specific text structures and the use of specialized vocabulary
(Medina, 2002: 148–156 ; Betti, and Mahdi, 2020: 74; and Betti, 2021c:
34).

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