P a g e |1

PART ONE
Chemistry of Fire

Introduction

Fire is not, in fact, a substance. When you gaze

at the leaping flames of a campfire, you’re observing
not an object, but a process – a chemical reaction. It’s
the same chemical reaction that occurs when a cut
apple left on the counter turns brown, when silver
tarnishes or when an iron nail rusts.
That process is oxidation: combining oxygen
with another substance. The defining difference
between a fire and your half-eaten apple is speed: fire
is an oxidation process that happens very fast, so that
light, heat and sound are released — often with
enough force and majesty to justify the ancients’
reverence. The sudden release of energy causes
temperatures to rise, sometimes by thousands of
degrees. And it also results in smoke, the toxic waste
of fire’s leftovers.

Persons behind the introduction of fire studies

JOHN WALKER – he was the English

Pharmacist who inv
ented the first match in 1872, the tip of his match was
coated a mixture sulfide and potassium chlorate that
was held on the wooden matchstick by gym Arabic
and Starch.
 P a g e |2

ANTOINE LAVOISER – A French Chemist

who proved in 1777 that burning is the result of the
rapid union of oxygen with other substances. As
substances burn, heat and light are produced.

THOMAS ALYA EDISON – An American

inventor who was able to send an electric current
through a carbon filament (wire) until the filament
become so hot that it gave off light.

Concept of Fire

Fire is defined as the state of burning that

produces flames which send out heat and light. Fire is
simply the perceptible phase of burning or
combustion, which is the chemical combination of
oxygen in the air with carbon contained in matters; it
is the heat and light that comes from burning
substances, produced by the combustion of
substances; it is also the manifestation of rapid
chemical reaction occurring between a combustible
matter and an oxidizer. Such rapid chemical reaction
releases energy in the form of heat and light. When a
substance burns, heat and light are produced. The act
or process of burning is called combustion.

Fire protection

Is the description term referring to the various

methods used to stop, extinguish and control
 P a g e |3

destructive fire for eventual prevention of loss of life

and property.

A flame is the resultant gases which on being

released reach incandescence, providing
illumination. It is one of man’s ancient and
fundamental tools that led him to progress, but fire’s
destructive effects have resulted to great disasters.

Nature of fire

Is a rapid, self-sustaining oxidation process

accompanied by the evolution of heat and light of
varying intensity.
-is an active chemical reaction that takes place
between fuel, heat and oxygen in the form of light
and noticeable heat.
- Is a chemical reaction. It is the rapid oxidation
of a fuel producing heat and light.
- It is an oxidation taking place with a rate
rapid enough to produce heat and light.
- Flame is a burning gas or vapor that is undergoing
combustion; a portion of ignited gas or vapor. As for
a general usage, consider that the flames are the
"tongues" of the fire in the same way that branches
are part of the tree.

Classification of Fire
 P a g e |4

A. Based on Burning Facts

Class A - (Solid Fire) Fires involving ordinary

combustible materials. (Wood)

Class B - (Liquid and Gas Fire) Fire involving

flammable and gasses. (Gasoline)
Class C - (Electrical Fires) Fires that starts in
live electrical wire, equipment, motors, electrical
appliances and telephone switchboard.

Class D - (Metal Fires) Fires that result from the

combustion of certain metal in finely divided form.
These combustible metals include: Magnesium,
Powdered Calcium, Sodium, Lithium, Potassium,
Zinc, Titanium, Zirconium.

Class E - Combination of the above- solid,

liquid, gas, electrical and metal.

B. based on fuel type:

 Class A: Ordinary combustible materials, such as

wood, cloth, paper, rubber and many plastics. They
burn with an ember and leave an ash. Extinguish by
cooling the fuel to a temperature that is below the
ignition temp. Water and other extinguishing agents
are effective.
 P a g e |5

 Class B: Flammable liquids (burn at room

temperature) and combustible liquids (require heat to
ignite). Petroleum greases, tars, oils, oil-based paints,
solvents, lacquers, alcohols, and flammable gases.
High fire hazard; water may not extinguish.
Extinguish by creating a barrier between the fuel and
the oxygen, such as layer of foam.

 Class C: Fuels that would be A or B except that they

involve energized electrical equipment. Special
techniques and agents required to extinguish, most
commonly carbon dioxide or dry chemical agents.
Use of water is very dangerous because water
conducts electricity.
 Class D: Combustible metals, such as magnesium,
titanium, zirconium, sodium, lithium and potassium.
Most cars contain numerous such metals. Because of
extremely high flame temperatures, water can break
down into hydrogen and oxygen, enhancing burning
or exploding. Extinguish with special powders based
on sodium chloride or other salts; also clean dry sand.

 Class K: Fires in cooking appliances that involve

combustible cooking media (vegetable or animal oils
and fats).

Phases of fire

Most fires (and especially those in structures) can be

divided into three separate phases:
 P a g e |6

 Incipient phase (Growth). Although actual flame

temperatures can reach 1000 degrees F.,
temperatures in the surrounding area are not
greatly increased. There is free burning with
open flame. Oxygen in the area remains near
21%. Thermal updraft causes heat to accumulate
at the higher portions of the area.

 Free burning phase (Fully developed). Air from

the surrounding atmosphere is drawn into the
fire. "Mushrooming" may take place and flame is
present. Oxygen content of area is usually
reduced to 16% - 18%. Fire gases which may be
present are carbon, carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, water, sulfur dioxide, etc., depending on
fuel, heat, and general environment. "Flashover"
frequently occurs during this phase.

 Smoldering phase (Decay). Free burning may

cease in the fire area. Area fills with dense
smoke. Oxygen may drop below 15%.
Temperatures may reach 1000 degrees F.
throughout the area. Improper/uncontrolled air
admission may result in "backdraft".

How fire spreads

 P a g e |7

Fire spreads by transferring the heat energy from

the flames in three different ways.
 Conduction: The passage of heat energy through or
within a material because of direct contact, such as a
burning wastebasket heating a nearby couch, which
ignites and heats the drapes hanging behind, until
they too burst into flames.
 Convection: The flow of fluid or gas from hot areas
to cooler areas. The heated air is less dense, and rises,
while cooler air descends. A large fire in an open area
produces plume or column of hot gas and smoke high
into the air. But inside a room, those rising gases
encounter the ceiling. They travel horizontally along
the ceiling forming a thick layer of heated air, which
then moves downward.
 Radiation: Heat traveling via electromagnetic waves,
without objects or gases carrying it along. Radiated
heat goes out in all directions, unnoticed until it
strikes an object. Burning buildings can radiate heat
to surrounding structures, sometimes even passing
through glass windows and igniting objects inside.

Theories of fire

Fire Triangle Theory

This theory is a graphical representation of the

three elements of fire namely the oxygen, heat and
fuel. This theory states that to produce fire, 3
things/conditions must exist, namely; heat, fuel and
oxygen (see figure 1 below).
 P a g e |8

The fire triangle or combustion triangle is a

simple model for understanding the necessary
ingredients for most fires.

The triangle illustrates the three elements a fire

needs to ignite: heat, fuel, and an oxidizing
agent (usually oxygen). A fire naturally occurs when
the elements are present and combined in the right
mixture, and a fire can be prevented or extinguished
by removing any one of the elements in the fire
triangle. For example, covering a fire with a fire
blanket removes the "oxygen" part of the triangle and
can extinguish a fire.

Figure 1

Fire Tetrahedron Theory

This theory is a figure; the illustration on how

the chain reaction sequences or intersects with heat,
fuel and oxygen to support and sustain combustion.
 P a g e |9

Figure 2

CHAPTER 2
Elements of Fire
 P a g e | 10

Fire is composed of three elements to sustain the

process of combustion, namely: heat, fuel, and
oxygen.

HEAT

Heat is a form of energy generated by

transformation of some other form of energy as in
combustion of burning. It is an energy produced
through movement of molecules by friction.
Temperature is usually used to measure the degree
of thermal agitation of molecules; the hotness or
coldness of something; measure of the thermal
agitation of molecules of matter.

 Sources of Heat

a) Open flame
b)Friction
c) Electrical circuit
d)All sources of ignition
e) Hot surface
f) Sparks

 General Categories of Heat Energy

 P a g e | 11

a Chemical Energy – Heat results from chemical

reaction, such as: (1) Heat of decomposition, (1)
Heat of solution.

b Mechanical Energy – Heat resulting from: (1)

Friction and, (2) Compression.

c Electrical Energy – Heat results from electricity,

such as (1) Resistance heating; (2) Arching; (3)
Short circuiting; (4) Di-electric heating.

d Solar Energy – Energy resulting from the heat of

the sun confining the even distribution of radiated
rays from the sun in one area.

e NUCLEAR ENERGY – Heat resulting from

breaking or combining of atom.
- Heat of fission – separating or breaking of
atom
- Heat fusion – combining atom together.

 Methods of Heat Transfer

Heat is energy transit; it always flows from a

substance at a higher temperature to the substance at
a lower temperature.

When heat is transferred through solid materials,

this is called Conduction. During a fire, heat can be
 P a g e | 12

transferred through steel beams, metal conduct and

wire - to mention a few - which are good conductors
of heat.

In Convection, heat is transferred by air motion.

During a fire, heated air expands and moves away
from the fire exerting presence against doors,
dampers in air ducts and the fire penetrating the
opening.

When heat is transferred by electromagnetic

waves this is called Radiation. During a fire hot
surface can radiate heat igniting combustible
materials in considerable distances.

Heat is also transferred by direct flame contact.

When a substance or material is directly heated by
flame, vapors will be given off and the vapors - by its
nature – are flammable thus containing the existence
of flame.

FUEL

Any materials or substances capable of burning

can be considered as fuel. No fuel will burn unless it
is in vapor state.
- is anything that will burn when heated with
sufficient oxygen.
 P a g e | 13

Fuels are generally classified as:

a) CLASS A – Ordinary combustible materials

(mostly solid)

b) CLASS B – Liquid or gas state fuel (LPG,

Oil & other petroleum products)

c) CLASS C – Electrical energized fuel (flat

iron, electric fan, etc.)

d) CLASS D – Metallic Fire (Potassium,

magnesium and other combustible metals)
 Characteristics of fuel

1.Solid Fuels. The principal component is

carbon. The most obvious solids fuels are
woods, fibers and plastics.

2.Nuclear fuels. Provide energy through the

fission or fusion of their atoms. Uranium is
the most commonly used nuclear fuel,
though plutonium also provides nuclear
energy. When the atoms of these elements
undergo fission, they release tremendous
amounts of heat. Nuclear fuels are used
mainly to generate electricity. They also
power some submarines and ships.
 P a g e | 14

3.Liquid Fuels. The principal component is

hydrocarbon. These are made mainly from
petroleum, but some synthetic liquid fuels
are also produced. Petroleum also called
crude oil, ranges from clear yellow-brown
oils to thick., black tars; most are refined to
produce gasoline, diesel oil, and kerosene.
Gasoline is for most motor vehicles and
piston-engine airplanes. Diesel powers
most trains, ships, and large trucks.
Kerosene provides energy for jet airplanes.
The most common liquid fuels are kerosene,
gasoline, and oil.

Classification of Liquid fuels

- Flammable liquids. It refers to any liquid

having a flashpoint below 37.9 *C.

- Combustible liquids. It refers to any liquid

having a flashpoint at or above3 7.8* C.

Flammable and combustible liquids,

strictly speaking, will not cause fire. It is
then the vapors from the evaporation of
these liquids when exposed to air and under
the influence of heat which will burn or
explode.
 P a g e | 15

4.Gaseous Fuels. The principal component is

hydrocarbon. GAS is a state of matter; no
definite volume and no definite shape,
unless it is confined in a container;
composed of very tiny particles called
molecules.

 Classification of g a s e s :

A. Based on source:
1.Natural Gas - used to cook food, and provide
energy for industries; consists chiefly of
methane, a colorless and odorless gas; usually
mixed with compounds of the foul-smelling
element sulfur so gals leaks can be detected –
examples are Butane and propane.

2.Manufactured Gas - like synthetic liquid fuels,

this is used chiefly where certain fuels are
abundant and others are scarce. Coal, petroleum,
and biomass can all be converted to gas through
heating and by various chemical procedures.
Gas can also be produced by treating such
biomass as animal manure with bacteria called
anaerobes. The bacteria expel -methane as they
digest the waste.
 P a g e | 16

3.Liquefied gases are those in normal

atmospheric pressure partly in liquid sate and
partly in solid state under pressure inside the
container. Its pressure is dependent upon the
temperature of the liquid.

4.Cryogenic gases - are liquefied gases that exist

in its container at temperature far low normal
atmospheric temperature, usually slightly above
its boiling point with low moderate pressure.

B. Based on usage:

a)Fuel gases – flammable gases used for

burning with air to produce heat and
utilized as power, light sources, etc.

b)Industrial gases - used en industries i.e.,

used in welding and cutting of metals
(Oxygen, acetylene), refrigeration,
chemical processing, water treatment, etc.
Ex. Freon, ammonia, Sulfur dioxide,
Hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine, and fluorine.

c)Medical gases — those used for treatment

such as for anesthesia and for respiratory
therapy. Ex. Chloroform, nitrous oxide,
Oxygen
 P a g e | 17

OXYGEN

A colorless and odorless gas, a composition of

air which is approximately 21% by volume. This is
the most common oxidizing agent.12% oxygen are
insufficient to produce fire, while 14-15% oxygen
can support flash point. 16-21% can support fire
point.

Air is composed of :

21% oxygen
78% nitrogen
1% inert gas

Chapter 4
Products of combustion

Flame
 P a g e | 18

Flame is refers to:

- Luminous body of burning gas;

- Product of incomplete combustion;
- The matter produced by fire;
- It is composed of burning incandescent
gasses; and,
- It is the manifestation of fire, when fire
is in gas phased combustion.

 TYPES OF FLAME according to color and

completeness of combustion

a Luminous Flame – a reddish orange in color, it

deposits soot because it is a product of incomplete
combustion, it has lower temperature.

b Non luminous flame – bluish in color, it does not

deposit soot because it is a product of complete
combustion, it has higher temperature than
luminous flame.

c Laminar- particles follow a smooth path.

d Turbulent- un steady flame

 What are the TYPES OF FLAME according to

burning fuel and air mixture
 P a g e | 19

a Premixed Flame – e.g. flame of Bunsen burner.

b Diffusion Flame – e.g. flame of oxyacetylene torch

(diffused – dispersed; widely spread)

 What are the TYPES OF FLAME based on

smoothness

a Laminar Flame – (Smooth Flame) flame is laminar

when a particle follows a smooth path through a
gaseous flame.

b Turbulent Flame – (Rough Flame) those having

unsteady, irregular and eddies.
 P a g e | 20

Mid-term

PYROLYSIS refers to the chemical process

whereby fire consumes the most solid part of the
fuel. It is the thermal decomposition of combustible
matter. The process involves the following:

1.The fuel is heated until its temperature reaches

its fire point.

2.Decomposition takes _place - moisture in the

fuel is converted to vapor. 3_ Decomposition
produces combustible vapors that rise to the
surface of the fuel. Combustible vapors are
technically termed as free radicals.
 P a g e | 21

Smoke

Smoke is a visible product of incomplete

combustion.

Highly combustible vapors

- Hydrogen gas (H)

- Carbon Monoxide (CO)

- Carbon dioxide (CO2)

- Nitrogen (N)

Chapter 5
Causes of Fire

Natural causes

1.Spontaneous heating, automatic chemical

reaction that results to spontaneous combustion
 P a g e | 22

due to auto-ignition of organic materials; the

gradual rising of heat in a confined space until
ignition temperature is reached.

2.Lightning, a form of static electricity; a natural

electric current with great magnitude, producing
tremendous amperage and voltage. Lightning
can cause fire directly or indirectly. Indirectly
when it strikes telephone and other transmission
lines, causing an induced line surge. It can
cause a flashfire or dust explosion. When
lightning strikes a steel or metal rod covered
with dust, the dust would suddenly burn thus
resulting to an explosion.

A lightning may be in the form of:

- Hot bolt - longer in duration; capable only of

igniting combustible materials.

- Cold bolt - shorter in duration; capable of

splintering a property or literally blowing
apart an entire structure; produces electrical
current with tremendous amperage and very
high temperature.

3.Radiation of sunlight - when a light hits a

concave mirror, concentrating the light on a
 P a g e | 23

combustible material thereby ignites it.

Accidental causes of fire

1.Short-circuit- unusual or accidental connection
between points at different potentials
(charge) in an electrical circuit of relatively low
resistance.
2.Arcing - production of sustained luminous
electrical discharge between separated electrodes
when electrical current crosses the gap between 2
electrical conductors.
3.Sparking - production of incandescent particles
when two different potentials come in contact;
occurs during short-circuits or welding
operations.
4.Induced current - induced line surge-- increase of
electrical energy flow or power voltage; sudden
increase of electrical current resulting to the
burning of insulating materials, exploding of the
fuse-box, or burning of active electrical
appliances.
5.Overheating of electric a l appliances increase
or rising of amperage while electric current is
flowing in a transmission line resulting to the
damage or destruction of insulating materials;
maybe gradual or rapid; internal or external.
 P a g e | 24

Intentional causes

Incendiary - preparations or traces of accelerant

and plants and trailer then the cause of fire is
intentional.
a)Accelerant – highly flammable chemicals
that are used to facilitate flame propagation.
b)Plant - the preparation or gathering of
combustible materials needed to start a fire.
c)Trailer – the preparation of flammable
substances in order to spread the fire.

Common causes of accidental fires

1. Electrical Short Circuit

2. Electrical Grounded Circuit
3. Electrical Overloading
4. Loose Connection or Improper Splicing
5. LPG – Liquefied Petroleum Gas

Characteristics of LPG:

1.it is liquid inside the container but automatically

transformed into gaseous state when release so
that it can be transported easily and stored
economically (1:270);
 P a g e | 25

2.It is 1.5 heavier than air; and

3.It is colorless, tasteless and odorless, but an

oxidizing agent called “Ethyl Mercaptan” is
introduced to determine leakage.
4.
Chapter 6
Fire Behavior

Thermal balance and thermal imbalance:

Thermal balance refers to the rising movement or

pattern of the fire; the normal behavior when the fire
is undisturbed.

Thermal imbalance is the abnormal movement of

fire due to interference of foreign matter.

Dangerous/fatal behavior of fire

Backdraft

Backdraft is the sudden and rapid (violent) burning

of heated glasses in a confined area that occurs in the
form of explosion because of improper ventilation. If
not properly ventilated, highly flammable vapors
maybe accumulated such that when a door or window
is suddenly opened, the room violently sucks the
 P a g e | 26

oxygen and simultaneously, a sudden combustion

may occur which may happen as an explosion.

Characteristics of Backdraft:

a)Fire gases are under pressure

b)Existence of black smoke that is becoming
dense gray yellow
c)Confinement of excessive heat
d)There is little flame or no visible flame
e)Smoke leaves the building in puffs or by
intervals
f)Windows are smoke stained
g)Muffled sounds are heard inside the building
h)Violent rushing of air inside when opening
is made

Flashover

Flashover is the sudden ignition of accumulated

radical gases produced when there is incomplete
combustion of fuels. There will be a very intense fire
that is capable of travel to a hundred yards within a
few seconds.

Biteback
 P a g e | 27

A fatal condition that takes place when the fire

resists extinguishment operation and becomes
stronger and bigger instead.

Flash fire

Flash fire a.k.a. as dust explosion; when a metal

post that is completely covered with dust is hit by a
lightning creating a violent chemical reaction that
produces a very bright flash followed by an
explosion.
Flash point

The minimum temperature at which a liquid fuel

gives off sufficient vapor to form an ignitable
mixture with a near surface. At this temperature, the
ignited vapor will flash but will not continue to burn.

Fire point

The temperature at which a liquid fuel will

produce vapors sufficient to support combustion once
ignited.

Ignition temperature

The minimum temperature to start self-sustained

combustion independent of the heating source.
 P a g e | 28

Physical Properties Of Fire

a Specific Gravity – the ratio of the weight of a solid

or liquid substance to the weight of an equal
volume of water

b Vapor density – the weight of a volume of pure gas

composed to the volume of water.

c Vapor Pressure – the force exerted by the

molecules on the surface of the liquid at
equilibrium.

d Temperature – the measure of thermal degree of

the agitation of molecules of a given substances the
measure of the molecular activity of the substance.

e Boiling point – the constant temperature at which

the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the
atmospheric pressure.

f Ignition temperature or Kindling temperature – the

minimum temperature to which the substance is the
air must be heated in order to initiate on cause self-
contained combustion without the addition of heat
from outside sources.

g Fire point – the temperature at which the material

will give off enough vapors to keep burning.
 P a g e | 29

h Flash point – the temperature at which a material is

not hot enough to keep burning but still give off
enough vapors to cause a flame to “flash” across
the surface.

Chemical properties of fire

a Endothermic Reaction – are changes whereby

energy is absorbed or is added before the reaction
takes place. *Absorbed / added energy
b Exothermic Reaction – reactions or changes that
release of give off energy (heat) thus they produce
substances with less energy that the reactants. Give
off / Release energy

c Oxidation – a chemical changes in which

combustible material (fuel) and an oxidizing agent
part.

d Combustion Flame – the manifestation of fire when

the fire in gas-phased combustion. A matter that is
produced by fire.(result of fire)

BFP Structure

Chief BFP – with a rank of CSUPT

The Chief, Bureau of Fire Protection (C, BFP) shall have command
supervision and control of all elements of the Bureau of Fire Protection:
issues instructions and directives as may be necessary to carry out the
mission and functions of the Bureau; and performs such other functions
as may be directed by the Secretary of the Department of the Interior
and Local Government (DILG).
Regional Director – SSUPT -CSUPT (SG26)
 P a g e | 30

Exercises direct supervision and control over the regional, provincial/district and
city/municipal offices of the region based on the principle of command of responsibility;
facilitates the execution of the powers of the Regional Director in commanding and directing the
region such as the power to direct and control tactical as well as strategic movements, deployment,
placement, utilization of the region or any of its units and personnel, including its equipment,
facilities and other resources; and performs such other functions as may be directed by the Chief,
Bureau of Fire Protection.
District/ Provincial Fire Marshal - SSUPT (SG26) – NCR DISTRICT I-V
SUPT (SG25) – R7, R9, R10, R11
- a. Implements various programs and projects under his
jurisdiction; b. Represents the Bureau in the Provincial Level in
various meetings, conferences and gatherings to other government
agencies and in the private sectors; c. Maintains harmonious
relationship with the local government and in the community under
his jurisdiction; d. Conducts inspection/ headcount of personnel in
the city and municipal level at least once in every quarter; e.
Imposes disciplinary action to delinquent personnel provided under
the law; f. Consolidates reports from the city and municipal level
to be submitted in the Regional office; and g. Performs other tasks
that the RCDS may assign.
City Fire Marshal - SUPT (SG25) – NCR
CINSP (SG24) – OTHER REGION

- 13.0 CITY/ MUNICIPAL FIRE MARSHAL a. Shall perform the duties and responsibilities
of City/Municipal Fire Marshal in his AOR and shall have the command and control of Fire
Station; b. With the supervision of the District Fire Marshal, shall be responsible for the
implementation of various programs and projects under his area of jurisdiction; c. Shall
represent the Station in various meetings, conferences and gatherings where the presence of
City Fire Marshal is necessary; d. Shall respond to fire incidents in his area of jurisdiction; e.
Shall conduct Fire Investigation of all fire incidents in his AOR and submit final investigation
report to DFM/PFM; f. Shall recommend issuance of Mission Orders for periodic fire safety
inspection under his AOR; g. Shall issue the Fire Safety Inspection Certificate (FSIC) upon
the recommendation of the Chief, Fire Safety Enforcement Section (FSES); and h. Performs
other tasks that the District/Provincial Fire Marshal may assign.

types of Ladder

a GROUND LADDER – vary in sizes from 3.1 to 17

meter (10.55) long. It is carried on a bumper or fire
trucks.
b AERIAL LADDER – are mounted on a turntable,
capable of extending up to 30.5 meters (100 feet)
have three or four mete section of ladder, that can
be raised or lowered by hydraulically controlled
cable.
 P a g e | 31

FORMS OF GROUND LADDER

a WALL: best used in rescue where a ladder in place

already falls of the endangered persons. It allows
the user to climb up or down, one starry at a time.

b EXTENSION LADDER: consists of a bed and

once or more fly ladders, 24, 35 or 36 foot ladders
are types commonly found on pumpers.

c HOOK – (Roof) or straight ladder 12 to 16 feet,

most common 14 foot

d ATTIC LADDER – provides means of reaching

through an opening into attics, lofts and other areas
that are somewhat difficult to reach without a
special ladder. It can be folded or collapsed for a
small room or closer works.

Different LADDER Terminologies

a BED LADDER: the lowest section of an extension

ladder

b FLY LADDER: the top section of an extension

c BUTT: the bottom end of a ladder

d HEEL: the party of the ladder that touches the

ground
 P a g e | 32

e HALYARD: a rope or cable used to raise the fly

ladder

f PAWL OR DOG: the mechanism on the end of the

fly ladder that locks to the end of bed ladder

g RUNG: the cross members used in climbing

h TOP OR TIP: the tope of a ladder

i HOOKS: used to hook over a roof peak, sills or

walls where the heel does not rest on a foundation
(found only on the roof-type ladders)

j STOPS: wood or metal blocks used to prevent the

fly of an extension ,ladder from extending out
further from the ladders

GUIDES: light metal strips of an extension ladder

while it is being raised or lowered.
 P a g e | 33

Pre finals

Chapter 7
Fire Extinguishment

Extinguishment

This is the process of putting out the main body

of fire using the four general methods of fire
extinguishment.

Fire prevention

Is the descriptive term of the various methods or

safety measure utilized to stop harmful or destructive
fires from starting.

Fire Hazard

Any condition or act that increase or may cause

increases in the probability that tire will occur or
which obstruct, delay hinder interfere with the fire
fighting operations and the state guarding of life and
property.

Methods of extinguishment

a Cooling – to reduce the temperature of a fuel below

its ignition temperature. This is a direct attack on
 P a g e | 34

the heat side of the fire tetrahedron.

b Smothering – to separate fuel from oxygen. This

can be considered as attack on the edge of the fire
tetrahedron where fuel and oxygen meet.

c Oxygen Dilution – to reduce the amounts of

oxygen below the needed amount to sustain
combustion. This is an attack to the oxygen side of
tetrahedron

Chain Breaking – to disrupt the chemical process

that sustains the fire. This is considered an attack
in the chain reaction side of the fire tetrahedron

Extinguishing agent

a WATER- is a liquid between the temperature of

zero degrees centigrade to 100 degrees centigrade.
Excellent cooling agent.

b FOAM- an aggregation of small bubbles of lower

specific gravity than oil and water which flows
across the surface of a burning substance and forms
a cohesive smothering blanket effect.

c CARBON MONOXIDE- A normal gas but it may

liquefied or solidified under pressure. At 43
degrees centigrade carbon dioxide exist as a solid
called “dry ice” a non-electrical conductor. Dilutes
 P a g e | 35

the air surrounding the fire until the oxygen content

is low to support combustion.

d DRY CHEMICAL- chemicals in powder form.

Extinguish fire by cooling shielding of radiant heat
and by breaking the chain reactions.

e DRY POWDER- Is the only agent that can

extinguish metal fires without causing any violent
reaction. Mostly composed

f HALOCENATED EXTINGUISHING AGENT

(HALON)- are made up of carbon and one or more
halogen elements like fluorine, chlorine, bromine,
iodine.

Firefighting activities

Considering the danger and hazards posed by a fire,

extra- protection equipment should be worn by fire
fighters to minimize injury or death. Other equipment
is also recommended to expedite the extinguishment
of the destructive fire or to prevent the spread of the
fire.

Fire Hose

- Made up of double jacketed, rubber-lined cotton

in size of 1 ½ inch, 2 ½ inch, and 3 ½ inch.
 P a g e | 36

- The standard length is 50 feet, a 50- foot length

is normally referred to as “engrain”.
- There are two fitting on its length of a hose, a
male fitting on one end and female fitting on the
other end.
- Hoses should always be rolled with the male
fitting inside to protect the treads.

Nozzles

a Attached to the end of the fire hose and is used to

direct a direct a solid stream of water, low or high
velocity fog to the fire. The handle can adjust the
nozzle easily and quickly.

b Do not pick up a charge hose by the handle of the

nozzle (The hose is charged when it has the water
is available at the nozzle).

c The handle could easily move to open position and

the high water pressure (about 10 pt.) could cause
the hose to whiplash dangerously, possibly injuring
or damaging equipment.

Pre- Fire Planning

This activity involves developing and defining

systematic course of action that maybe performed in
 P a g e | 37

order to realize the objectives of the fire protecting

involves the process of establishing the SOP in case
of the break out.

Evaluation- Size- Up (On – the- spot- planning, or

sizing up the situation)

This is the process of knowing emergency

situation. It involves mental evaluation by the
operation officer in charge to determine the
appropriate course of action that provides the highest
probability of success. The things to consider in Size-
Up.

EVACUATION

The activity of transforming people livestock,

and property away from the burning area to minimize
damage or destruction that might incur in case it
propagates to other adjacent buildings.

ENTRY

This is the process of accessing the burning

structure. Entry may be done in a forcible manner.
Purposes of conducting forcible entry:

a To provide access for the lighter with the

equipment for fire extinguishment;
 P a g e | 38

b To provide rescue;
c To provide ventilation

Forcible entry required

Forcible entry is required when the areas where

normal openings are locked, blocked or not provided.

RESCUE

This is the operation of removing (extracting) this

saying people and other livestock from burning
building and other involved properties conveying
them to a secure place.

EXPOSURE (cover exposure)

This is the activity of securing other building

near the building structure in order to prevent the fire
from extending to another building.

CONFINEMENT

This is the activity of restricting the fire at the

place (room) where it started; the process of
preventing from extending from another section or
from one section to another section of the involved
building.

VENTILATION
 P a g e | 39

This is the operation purposely conducted to

displace toxic gasses. It includes the process of
displacing the heated atmosphere within the involved
building with normal air from outside atmosphere.

Steps of conducting ventilation

a)remove the material outside the burning area

b)protect or cover the materials by using
tarpaulins (cotton, canvas treated with water
proofing)

OVERHAUL

This is the complete and detailed check of the

structure and all materials therein to eliminate
conditions that may cause re-flash; involves complete
extinguishment of sparks or smoldering (glowing)
substances (embers) to prevent eliminate possibilities
of the re-ignition of rekindling.

Fire scene investigation

This is the final stage of the fire suppression

activities. It is an inquiry conducted to know or
determine the origin and cause of fire.
 P a g e | 40

Fire protection

Is the description term referring to the various

methods used to stop, extinguish and control
destructive fire for eventual prevention of loss of life
and property.

Laws related with fire prevention and fire protection

a)PD# 1185 Fire Code of Philippines August

26,1977
b)PD# 1096 Building Code of the Philippines
c)PD# 6975 The DILG Sat of 1990 chapter 4,
section 53-59)

PART TWO

FIRE & ARSON INVESTIGATION

PROCEDURES & PRACTICES
 P a g e | 41

Arson

The intentional or malicious destruction of

property by fire.

What constitute arson?

a Burning to constitute burning, pylori’s must take

place. In other word, there must be burning or
changing e.g. fiber of the wood must be destroyed,
it identify changed.

b Willfulness- means intentional and it implies that

the act was purposely and intentionally.

c Malice- it denotes hatred of a deceit for revenge.

d Motive- is the moving cause that includes the

commission of the crime.

e Intent- is the purpose of design w/ w/c the act is

done and involves the will.

f Art. 325,RPC- burning one’s own property as a

means of committing arson

g Art. 326, RPC- setting fire to property exclusively

owned by the offender.
 P a g e | 42

h PD # 1613 – Amending the law of arson

Aggravating circumstances in Arson?

a If committed with intent to gain

b If committed with the benefit of another

c If spite or hatred toward the owner or occupant of

the property motivates the offender burned.

d Or committed by syndicates (3 or more person)

What are the motives of a person to commit arson?

a those with desire to defraud the insurer

b employ or such other person who had grievance
(fire revenge)
c those with desire to conceal evidence of the crime
d those who set fire for purposes of intimidation

Who are persons without motives to commit arson?

a those who’re mentally ill

b pathological fire setters
c pyres (pyromaniac)
d psychos
 P a g e | 43

Pyromania

The uncontrollable impulse of a person to burn

anything without any motivation. They do not run
away from the fire scene, they love watching fire
burning.

types of Pyromania?

a Abnormal youth- epileptics, imbeciles, and

morons.
b Hero type- a person set a building of fire and
pretends to discover it, turn on the alarm or make
some rescue work to appear as a hero.
c Drug addicts and alcoholic
d Sexual deviates and perverts

Tell Tale Signs Of Arson In A Burned Building?

1. separate fires
2. color of smoke
3. color of flame
4. size of fire
5. direction of travel
6. intensity
7. odor condition of content
8. doors and windows
 P a g e | 44

9. other suspicious circumstances

What are the meanings of the color of smoke in

relation to the things being burned?

a Black smoke with deep and flame- petroleum

products, tar, rubber, plastic, etc.
b Heavy brown with bright and flame- nitrogen
products
c White smoke with bright flame- magnesium
products
d Black smoke with red and blue green flame-
asphalt
e Purple violet flame- potassium products
f Greenish- yellow flame- chlorine or manganese
products
g Bright reddish yellow flame- calcium products
h White smoke with yellow flame- humid materials

Nature Of Fire Investigations

A fire or explosion investigation is a complex

endeavor involving both art and science. The
compilation of factual data, as well as an analysis of
those facts, should be accomplished objectively and
truthfully.
 P a g e | 45

The basic methodology of the fire investigation

should rely on the use of a systematic approach and
attention to all relevant details.

The use of a systematic approach often will uncover

new factual data for analysis, which may require
previous conclusions to be reevaluated.

With a few exceptions, the proper methodology

for a fire or explosion investigation is to first
determine and establish the origin(s), then investigate
the cause: WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES,
CONDITIONS, OR AGENCIES CAUSED THE
IGNITION SOURCE, FUEL, AND OXIDANT TO
COME TOGETHER?

Systematic Approach

The systematic approach recommended is that of

the scientific method, which is used in the physical
sciences.

This method provides for the organizational and

analytical process so desirable and necessary in a
successful fire investigation.

Relating Fire Investigation To The Scientific

Method
 P a g e | 46

The scientific method is a principal of inquiry

that forms a basis for legitimate scientific and
engineering processes, including fire incident
investigation.

Scientific method of fire investigation

The scientific method is applied using the

following six steps.

Recognize the Need

First, one should determine that a problem exists.

In this case a fire or explosion has occurred and the
cause should be determined and listed so that future,
similar incidents can be prevented.

Define the Problem

This is done by an examination of the scene and

by a combination of other data collection methods,
such as the review of previously conducted
investigations of the incident, the interviewing of
witnesses or other knowledgeable persons, and the
results of scientific testing.

Collect Data
 P a g e | 47

Facts about the fire incident are now collected.

This is done by observation, experiment, or other
direct data gathering means. This is called empirical
data because it is based on observation or experience
and is capable of being verified.

Analyze the Data (Inductive Reasoning

Subjective or speculative information cannot be

included in the analysis, only facts that can be clearly
proven by observation or experiment.
Develop a Hypothesis

Based on the data analysis, the investigator

should now produce a hypothesis or group of
hypotheses to explain the origin and cause of the fire
or explosion incident.
This hypothesis should be based solely on the
empirical data that the investigator has collected.

Test the Hypothesis (Deductive Reasoning)

This is done by the principle of deductive

reasoning, in which the investigator compares his or
her hypothesis to all known facts.

If the hypothesis cannot withstand an

examination by deductive reasoning, it should be
 P a g e | 48

discarded as not provable and a new hypothesis

tested.

This may include the collection of new data or

the reanalysis of existing data.

This process needs to be continued until all

feasible hypotheses have been tested.

Otherwise the fire cause should be listed as

“undetermined.”

Presumption of Cause

Until data have been collected, no specific

hypothesis can be reasonably formed or treated. All
fires, however, should be approached by the
investigator w/o presumption.

Basic Method of A Fire Investigation

Using the scientific method in most fire or

explosion incidents should involve the following five
major steps from inception through final analysis.

Receiving the Assignment

The investigator should be notified of the

incident, what his or her role will be, and what he or
she is to accomplish.
 P a g e | 49

The investigator should know if he or she is

expected to determine the origin, cause, and
responsibility; produce a written or oral report;
prepare for criminal or civil litigation; make
suggestions for code enforcement, code
promulgation, or changes; make suggestions to
manufacturers, industry associations, or government
agency action; or determine some other results.

Preparing for the Investigation

The investigator should marshal his or her forces

and resources and plan the conduct of the
investigation.

Preplanning at this stage can greatly increase the

efficiency and therefore the chances for success of
the overall investigation.

Estimating what tools, equipment, and personnel

(both laborers and experts) will be needed can make
the initial scene investigation, as well as subsequent
investigative examinations and analyses, go more
smoothly and be more productive.

The investigator should conduct an examination

of the scene, if it is available, and collect data
necessary to the analysis.
 P a g e | 50

The actual investigation may take and include

different steps and procedures, and these will be
determined by the purpose of the investigation
assignment.

These steps and procedures are described in

detail elsewhere in the document.

A typical fire or explosion investigation may

include all or some of the following:

a)a scene inspection;

b)scene documentation through photography
and diagramming;
c)evidence recognition, documentation, and
preservation;
d)witness interviews;
e)review and analysis of the investigations of
others; and
f)identification and collection of data or
information from other appropriate sources.

It is during this phase of the investigation that

the data necessary for the analysis of the incident will
be collected.

Collecting and Preserving Evidence

Valuable physical evidence should be

recognized, properly collected, and preserved for
 P a g e | 51

further testing and evaluation or courtroom

presentation.

Analyzing the Incident

All collected and available data should be

analyzed using the principles of the scientific
method. An incident scenario or failure analysis
should be described, explaining the origin, cause, fire
spread, and responsibility for the incident.

Conclusions should be drawn according to the

principles expressed in this guide.

Conducting the Investigation

When compiling information relating to a fire

scene investigation, the observations of the first
arriving Fire Department units can be a valuable
source of information.

These observations, early in the fire

extinguishment process, can assist the fire scene
investigator in knowing what had transpired prior to
their arrival. The following information should be
obtained from those members who had early access
to the fire and knowledge of the circumstances
surrounding aspects of its early stages.
 P a g e | 52

1. Receipt of alarm

The day of the week and time of alarm will often

be the first indication of possible motive in an
incendiary fire.

2. Observations enroute to the fire:

Weather conditions. Is it hot, cold, cloudy or

clear? Are conditions in the involved structure
appropriate for the weather? If it's cold outside, you
would expect to find the windows closed. If it's hot,
the furnace should be found off.

Natural hazards. Had there been lightning,

flooding, fog or an earthquake? Arsonists often wait
for natural conditions which will delay the fire
department's arrival at the scene.

Wind direction and velocity. Knowledge of these

factors will aid in determining the natural path of fire
spread.

Man made barriers. Are there barricades,

downed trees, cables or trash containers obstructing
the fire departments arrival? These could be early
indications of a suspicious fire.

3. Arrival at the scene:

 P a g e | 53

Compare what is found at the scene with the

information given to you by the Incident
Commander. In an industrial building, if the fire has
developed greatly in intensity between the time of the
alarm and the arrival of the fire department, it could
indicate the presence of an accelerant.

Were any cars seen speeding from the scene? If

so, try to obtain a description/license number; Dress
and appearance of persons leaving the scene; Were
windows and doors covered? Drawing the shades or
covering the windows and doors with blankets are
techniques employed by arsonists to delay discovery
of the fire; What was the Fire Department's means of
entry? Were the doors locked/unlocked, closed or
open? Was there evidence of forcible entry? Observe
the color of smoke/flame. This is often the
firefighter's first observation to the type of
combustibles involved in the fire. Firefighters should
be interviewed as soon as possible. Flame color can
provide another clue for the fire scene investigator to
determine what is burning and the intensity of the
fire.

4. While fighting the fire, be aware of:

a Separate and seemingly unconnected fires.

 P a g e | 54

b The presence of usual odors. Some odors are

likely to be familiar to firefighters. These include
food, wood, grass, gasoline, kerosene, paint
thinner, lacquers and turpentine.

c The presence of unusual odors.

d Reaction of fire to water. A straight stream of

water applied where flammable liquids were used
may cause the liquid to float to the top, reignite,
and continue to burn and spread the fire. The
presence of an accelerant may also be suggested by
flashback and/or several rekindles in the same area
or by an increase in burning after water is applied.

e Obstacles to hinder fire fighting. Was furniture

moved in the premises in such a manner as to make
movement difficult during firefighting?

f Artificial conditions created to assist fire spread.

Arsonists often prop open fire doors, pull down
plaster to expose wood, or punch holes in ceilings
from floor-to-floor, or walls from room-to-room in
order to increase the rate of fire spread.

g Absence of furnishings, clothing or personal

effects. Absence of family pets (birds, cats, dogs)
in dwelling fires.
 P a g e | 55

h Absence of stock, fixtures, machinery, display

cases, records or raw materials in industrial or
commercial properties.

i Uneven burning or localized heavy charring. Char

on the underside of doors, base boards, or on the
underside of any low horizontal surface may
indicate there was a flammable liquid pool. Fingers
of char in the cracks of wood flooring can also
indicate the presence of a flammable liquid.

j Intensity of heat generated by fire. A very intense

heat may indicate an accelerant was applied to
increase the fire spread.

k Speed of fire spread. Taking into consideration the

building's structure and occupancy, did the fire
spread unusually fast? An unusually rapid fire
spread could indicate the use of an accelerant.

l Tampering or damage to fire prevention facilities.

Was the sprinkler system in operating condition?
Were the sprinkler valves open before the fire?
Was the fire alarm system in working order?
m Tampering or damage to burglar alarm.

n Was the burglar alarm set and did it activate? What

was the normal routine for setting the alarm?
 P a g e | 56

5. After extinguishment:

a For the safety of firefighters and to preclude re-

ignition of the fire, a cursory examination by the
fire scene investigator for origin and cause should
begin immediately while the firefighters take a
break and pick up unnecessary hose lines and
equipment. Check to see that members did not
destroy any incendiary devices or other evidence
during extinguishment.

b Note attitude and dress of owner/occupants. One

would expect to find the owner or occupants of a
building distressed at an unexpected fire. occupants
should also be found in attire appropriate to the
time of day. If the fire occurs at 0400 hours, it
would be noticeably suspicious to find the
occupants fully dressed.

c Note individuals who attend several fires. Some

arsonists are emotionally disturbed individuals who
receive personal satisfaction in seeing a
"successful" fire. Individuals who attend several
fires, especially in various locales, are suspicious.

d Note any persons at the scene acting abnormally.

Most persons at a fire scene are intent on watching
the fires extinguishment. Persons at the scene
constantly talking, laughing, or in any way making
 P a g e | 57

light of the situation, should be considered

suspicious.

e Record name, address, telephone number, and date

of birth of owner(s), occupant(s), and witnesses.

6. Follow these steps to determine the area of

origin:

a When you conduct your investigation, start with

the exterior and proceed to the interior, from the
least damaged areas to the most or heaviest
damaged area.

b Determine whether the fire originated at the

building's exterior or interior. Look for burned or
smoked areas on the roof, doors and windows.

c Check for any openings that may have caused

drafts to influence the fire spread. If natural-gas
might be involved, examine the outside gas valve
to see if it was on or off before the fire.

d Examine the interior completely to locate the

area/room of most severe damage and any other
evidence that may have a bearing on cause or
spread of the fire.

e Check the floor, walls, and ceiling to find the worst

area of damage. Often the point of origin can be
 P a g e | 58

found directly beneath the worst area of damage on

the ceiling.

f Find the lowest point of burning within the area of

origin. It may be helpful to look under furnishings
and shelves for severe charring. Examining the
depth of char on wood can help to determine both
the length of burning and the point of origin.

g Look for the direction of heat flow. After locating

the area of lowest and deepest charring, look for
other heat indicators. Light bulbs may swell and
lose their shape at 9000

h when exposed to heat for 10 minutes or more. The

side of the bulb exposed to the fire initially may
melt and come to a point.

i Examine the colors on chromium and other shiny

metals subjected to the fire (check surfaces of
ovens, toasters, irons and other appliances). The
progress of the fire can be traced by comparing the
color of various shiny metals at different locations
within the area of origin.

j Window glass in the immediate vicinity of the

fire's origin will exhibit only traces of smoke
while glass farther away from the fire's point of
origin will reveal heavier concentrations of smoke.
 P a g e | 59

k Look for evidence of multiple fires. Are the

sources of ignition independent of one another?
When a room reaches approximately 1,000 F. a
flashover may occur making the entire room appear
to burst into flames at once. Upon investigation,
flashovers of highly combustible materials may
lead the fire scene investigator to suspect there
were two or more separate fires.

l As areas are examined and determined to contain

no evidence pertaining to cause & origin and the
area is deemed safe for firefighters, limited
overhaul operations may be initiated. Exception:
fire scenes involving homicides, fire fatalities or
other related crimes.

m Keep in mind, burning flammable liquids and

combustible materials may cause heavy charring at
locations distant from the source of ignition and
might not necessarily indicate the point of origin.

n Look for a definite fire pattern. A normal pattern is

upward and outward in a "V" shape.

7. Indicators of slow or fast-burning fires:

- Overhead damage. Uniform overhead damage

usually indicates a slow, smoldering fire.
Extensive damage in one place on the ceiling
 P a g e | 60

indicates an intense, rapid buildup beginning

below this spot.

- Fire pattern. A wide angle "V" pattern usually

indicates a slow burning fire.

- Crazing of glass. Large cracks and heavy smoke

usually indicate slow burning while irregularly
shaped cracks and slight smoke film usually
indicate rapid burning.

- Alligatoring. A fast, intense fire will cause heavy

alligatoring and shiny, smooth blisters on exposed
wood surfaces. A long developing, low heat
source will produce flat alligatoring.

- Line of demarcation. Examine a cross-section of a

piece of wood found near the point of origin. A
distinct line between charred and un-charred
portions of the wood indicates a fast, intense fire.
A graduation in charring and an overall baked
appearance usually indicates a long, slow fire.

- Spalling. Surface pieces of concrete, cement or

brick may break off when exposed to an intense
heat source or when subjected to a high level of
heat and cooled rapidly.

8. Determine the cause of the fire:

 P a g e | 61

It may be easiest and most effective to locate the

cause of the fire if furnishings remain in their original
positions within the area of origin. Remember, a fire
needs both a fuel supply and a heat source. Fuels
include flammable liquids, combustible solids and
combustible gases. Heat sources may include open
flames, hot surfaces, electricity, friction and reaction
(spontaneous ignition).

 Is there equipment in the area of origin that could

have emitted a spark, overheated or backfired?
Be aware of low temperature or non-flaming heat
sources like light bulbs, electric blankets, electric
irons or steam pipes, which, over a period of
time, can ignite combustible materials they come
into contact with. If electric motors are found in
the area of origin check the interior of the motor
windings to see if the damage was deep seated.
Motor burnout may also be indicated if, after
extinguishment, the motor housing is too hot to
touch but iron or steel of similar size in the same
area is relatively cool. If the motor was running
during the fire, there may be bits of solder in the
interior of the motor housing. Friction as a fire
cause will be indicated if the point of damage to
the motor belts is worse where it passes over the
pulleys (in fires from outside sources, belts are
mostly damaged between pulleys). In electrical
appliances having a thermal control, sticking or
 P a g e | 62

fusing of the contact points may cause

overheating of the device. Electric clocks found
in the debris can be extremely helpful. They may
aid in determining the burning time, progress of
fire, and involvement of other electrical
equipment in the area.

 Was there any possible source of an electrical

short circuit? First check the fuse panel for
tampering. Is it overloaded with improper fuses?
A short circuit or dead short will usually burn the
face of a glass fuse while overloads or high
resistance shorting will only melt the fuse band
without burning the face of the plug. It is
difficult to tell whether a short circuit caused the
fire or was a result of the fire. Continued
overload of a circuit will result in decomposition
and carbonization of insulation on both sides of
where the short occurred. Shorts caused during
the heat of the fire, however, may show beading
but decomposition and carbonization of
insulation will be found only on the side exposed
to the fire.

 Were smoking materials involved? Cigarettes

require good insulation in order to cause flaming
combustion with an average incubation or
smoldering time of about 1-1/2 hours. Fires
caused by cigarettes in furniture will be slow and
 P a g e | 63

smoldering, leaving heavy charring on the

insides of the furniture and on the floor in the
immediate area. Long periods of smoldering will
cause the coil springs in the furniture to collapse
(1400 F.) and may become brittle due to rapid
cooling during extinguishment.

 Were there any signs of an explosion? Gas leaks

can cause explosions, so check appliances and
gas furnace valves to see if they were open or
closed. Look for loosened pipe fittings and
piping sawed or cut in half. Take note of any gas
appliances found in unusual locations.

 Was spontaneous combustion a possible fire

cause? Since it takes a considerable mass of
combustible materials to produce spontaneous
heating, some remains from the internal charring
may be found at the point of origin. Location is
an important factor in considering the possibility
of spontaneous ignition, the materials necessary
are rarely found in large quantities in living
rooms or bathrooms. It usually requires a great
deal of time to produce the amount of heat
necessary to cause spontaneous ignition.
Substances Active in Spontaneous Combustion.

 Substance Form Aluminum Shavings, filings,

powder Animal matter Hides, skins, manure
 P a g e | 64

Bronze Shavings, filings Magnesium Shavings,

filings Miscellaneous Sawdust, coal, flour Steel
Shavings, filings Vegetable matter Hay, grain
Vegetable oils All Zinc Shavings, filings

 Combustible solids like wood, paper and rags

can be found in most buildings, but were they in
a normal location?

 Check the layers of debris one by one to

determine the sequence in which things burned.
Were there any newspapers found in an unusual
place? If so, are the newspapers of different
types or dates?

 Checking the condition of burned wood can help

to determine the length of time of flaming
combustion. Douglas fir and similar soft woods
have a char rate of approximately 1" in 45
minutes when exposed to fire temperatures of
1500 - 1900 degrees F.

 Look for specific evidence of incendiary origin.

 Trailers between fires made of paper, string or

cord soaked in oil, rope soaked in kerosene,
dynamite fuses, black gunpowder, cotton batting
and kapok, streamers, excelsior, or any
combination of these.
 P a g e | 65

 Candles used to ignite trailers. Was there residue

of candle wax or paraffin near the point of
origin?

 Matches tied around combustible fibers or

attached to mechanical devices.

 Accelerant containers and evidence of flammable

or combustible liquids including gasoline,
kerosene, solvents, alcohol, acetone, paint
thinner and ether. Since flammable liquids flow
to the lowest level, more severe burning found
on the floor than on the ceiling may indicate the
use of an accelerant as floor temperatures are
usually lower than ceiling temperatures.

 If an accelerant has been used, charring may be

as great or greater on the bottom of furniture,
shelves, doors, etc. compared to the topsides of
these items. If flammable liquids have soaked
into wooden flooring, there may be heavy
burning at the joints and ink blob outlines may
be found after extinguishment. Since most floors
are not completely level, look for heavy charring
in corners. Accelerant residue may be found in
the soil under buildings with a raised foundation
if an accelerant has been used.
 P a g e | 66

 Rags, clothing or curtains soaked in oil.

 Rubbish and paper.

 Timing devices including clock radios, timers

and telephones.

 Electrical equipment and/or appliances may be

used to initiate a fire or may be placed at the area
of origin to make it appear as a source of ignition
or cause of the fire. Was it plugged into an
outlet?

9. Incident Indicators

A. Introduction

In most cases, damage from fire leaves behind

distinctive patterns. The type of material burning, the
manner in which it was ignited and how long it burns
dictates the pattern(s) that remain. The burn patterns
may be very obvious or extremely subtle, requiring
an exhaustive search. The fire scene Investigator
must be able to follow the path of the fire by reading
these patterns.

The area of origin can best be determined by

having the knowledge and experience to recognize
these patterns or incident indicators. Burn patterns
 P a g e | 67

and the ability to recognize them are fundamental to

the fire scene investigator.

There are definite relationships between the

point of origin and the fire cause. Conclusions should
be based on the preponderance of the indicators and
the total fire scene.

B. Structures

1. Preliminary observations

The process of determining cause and origin of a fire

starts prior to arrival on the fire scene. Some
considerations are as follows:

 Type of occupancy
 Time of day and day of week
 Color of fire and smoke
 Complete combustion often produces little or no
smoke.
 Dense, heavy smoke often indicates incomplete
combustion as the lack of sufficient oxygen
usually causes flames to be darker.
 The color of flames may indicate the types of
materials being burned. As the amount of
hydrocarbons increase, the flames will become
darker and more orange in color. The process
continues through the extinguishment phase.
 P a g e | 68

 How well developed was the fire upon arrival?

 How fast was the fire developing?
 How difficult was the fire to extinguish?
 How did firefighting tactics and strategy affect
the fire travel?

2. Scene investigation

Accurate cause and origin determination requires

the fire scene investigator to develop a well
organized and coordinated procedure.

First, examine the entire exterior of the structure.

Then examine the interior of the structure, working
from. the LEAST to the MOST damaged fire areas. It
is imperative that ALL areas be examined, to insure
that nothing of significance is overlooked.

Different Places And Try To Disprove Your Own

Theory.

3. Burn patterns

Burn patterns are the burned areas as opposed to

unburned areas and their relationship to each other.
This will be indicated by the angle, or where the burn
IS as opposed to where it is NOT. Convection and
 P a g e | 69

radiation play a major role in producing burn

patterns.

Factors that may influence the burn patterns:

 Fuel load
 Venting
 Firefighting activities
 Weather
 Complete and systematic removal of debris may
be necessary to obtain a clear, unobstructed view
of patterns.

a. General

The fire scene investigator should work

backwards in relation to the fire's travel or spread.
Examine the areas of least damage and work toward
areas of most severe damage.

Entire structure must be examined and

conditions recorded. Ceiling damage may help locate
the point of origin.

The area above the point of origin is usually exposed

to heat and flame for longer periods and may result in
holes in the ceiling.
 P a g e | 70

The normal growth of a fire is usually upward

and outward. This burning usually produces a “V"
pattern. “V" patterns may help to identify point of
origin and are usually found on walls, therefore, once
ceiling damage has been identified, walls should be
evaluated next, then patterns at floor level.
“V" patterns will usually point toward the origin of
the fire. Shape/characteristic of “V" pattern:
Wide “V" pattern with diffused line of demarcation
usually indicates a slow smoldering combustion.
Narrow “V" pattern with sharp line of demarcation
may indicate flaming, rapid combustion.
Inverted “V" pattern with sharp line of demarcation
may indicate flaming, very rapid combustion;
possible presence of flammable accelerants.
“V" may only be identifiable from a distance in larger
structure fires.

In some cases, “V" may be vertical, horizontal or

a combination of both. “V" patterns may extend
around corners, walls and doors.
Interior structural elements may form “V" patterns.

b. Char patterns

The chemical composition of wood and modified

wood consists primarily of carbon with other
elements such as hydrogen and oxygen with lesser
amounts of nitrogen.
 P a g e | 71

Douglas fir burns at the rate of approximately one

inch in 40-45 minutes. Hardwoods burn at the rate of
about 3/4 inch in 40-45 minutes and pine burns at a
faster rate than fir.

If a cross section of the wood is cut and the line

of demarcation examined, it will show a sharp line of
charring between the burned and unburned areas for
high temperatures. However, if the area between the
burned and unburned is overlapping showing a grey
or brown area, then this is a good indication of a slow
fire with lower temperatures.

A fast fire does not give heat time to penetrate

the wood. A slow fire would give the heat time to
penetrate and there would be a "gradual" decline
from unburned to charred wood. Wall coverings must
be taken into consideration in regards to flame
spread. How long would these coverings protect the
wood? When exposed to high temperatures, such as
those associated with flammable liquids, wood will
usually develop deep, shiny, rolling, alligatoring
blisters. Relative depth of char usually indicates
length of time materials have been exposed to the
flame. Deep char is usually found near the point of
origin and may be a good indicator to help locate the
point of origin.

The char patterns will vary based upon the fuel

load. Other factors that may effect charring are:
 P a g e | 72

 Ventilation
 Age of the product
 Moisture content
 Hardness/density of the product
 Temperature of the fire
 Existing fuel load around the product

Firefighting tactics & strategy

Expect deeper char around doors, windows and other

openings. This will usually be caused by the flames
venting out these openings as the fire seeks additional
oxygen.

c. Low burns

Fire penetrates floor

Consider fuel load.
Consider venting.
Consider floor covering.
Consider radiant heat patterns.
Consider sharp lines of demarcation which may
indicate the presence of flammable liquids.
Fuel load
Table/chair legs
Undersides of tables/chairs
Door bottoms
 P a g e | 73

d. Lowest level of burning

Burning in a downward direction is usually very

slow. The point of origin is usually located at or near
the lowest level of burning. Remove debris in layers
when searching for lowest level of burning.
Determine if debris is normal for given occupancy or
area. Establish times when various fuels/materials
were heated/burned and fell to floor.
Examine undersides of contents for fire damage.
Fire damage to the underside of contents may
indicate point of origin at lower level (chairs, sofas,
tables, etc.). Examine undersides of structural
elements for fire damage (shelves, doors, window
sills etc.).

e. Spalling

Spall is the explosive breaking off of pieces of

masonry materials such as concrete or brick during
exposure to fire. Great care must be used while
evaluating the significance of concrete spalling. Spall
only suggests a possibility of the presence of
flammable liquid, and in and of itself, does not prove
the presence of a flammable liquid. Spalling can be
caused by rapid contraction of the surface of the
concrete as a result of application of hose streams. It
may also be caused by expanding moisture pre-
existing in the concrete prior to the fire.
 P a g e | 74

f. Ghost marks

Asphalt tile is usually applied by use of a mastic

adhesive. Most flammable liquids are petroleum-base
and will be a solvent to the mastic. As the flammable
liquid soaks into the joints of the tiles, it
will mix with and liquefy the mastic. The tightness
of the joints regulates the amount of liquid seeping
under the tile. In most cases, ghost marks are caused
by the application of a flammable liquid to a surface
covered with asphalt tile. Ghost marks will leave a
dark, discolored mark where the tile edge was
located.
g. Smoke residue color-and density

 Black, sooty smoke usually indicates a

hydrocarbon product (flammable liquid or foam).
Dark, gray smoke adheres to surfaces and is
usually sticky and difficult to wipe off. It is
usually indicative of a slow or smoldering fire.
The farther away from the origin, the higher the
smoke line. This will-vary with the fuel load.

h. Light bulbs

When subjected to 900 degrees F., may swell toward

the point of heat. Under fire conditions, the gas
pressure in the light bulb increases while the glass is
softened on the side which is heated most by the fire.
 P a g e | 75

i. Light fixtures

Improperly installed light fixtures may cause fires in

nearby combustible construction materials (joists,
studs, insulation, etc.). The fire may be slow starting
and may be characteristic of low temperature
ignition. There may be deep charring or pyrophoric
carbon in the area of origin. In fluorescent fixtures,
the ballast transformer can often cause fires when the
pitchblende inside the transformer breaks down.
The transformers are designed to operate
continuously at approximately 90 degrees F, but the
temperature often goes higher. This heat can melt and
vaporize the pitchblende sometimes igniting
combustible ceiling material. Ballast transformers
have a life expectancy of 15 years. Many older ones
still in use are beginning to break down. Check for
the odor of the burned ballast. Check for leakage of
ballast filler material.

j. Glass as an indicator.

Factors that effect glass behavior

 Age
 Thickness
 Type
Temperature variation (inside to outside)
 P a g e | 76

Country of manufacture Glass objects located

throughout the structure can be affected by smoke,
heat and flame, and therefore assist with point of
origin identification. The effects of these products
vary with:

 Heat buildup
 Intensity of fire
 Speed of fire spread
 Distance from the fire
 Smoke stain and glass Smoke production varies
with the type of material burned, rate of burning,
and duration of burning. Smoke stains must be
used as an indicator only due to the many
variables affecting its presence. Accumulates on
cool/cold surface. Stops forming when
temperatures reach 700 degrees F. Baked on
smoke stain (soot) will burn off when exposed to
direct flame.

Crazing of glass as an indicator. Crazingis usually

caused by rapid buildup of heat during the fire.
Extent and size of crazing varies with the thickness of
glass, relative exposure to fire, and type of glass.

Heat fracturing of glass

 P a g e | 77

Usually larger than crazed glass. Usually caused

by slower heat buildup. Checkering of glass (half-
moon shape found on surface of glass). Usually
results from water being applied to heated glass.
Usually indicates glass was in its frame when fire
streams were used.

Broken glass due to mechanical force

 Requires careful examination.

 Check the glass for concentric fractures and
radial fractures.
 Can indicate forced entry prior to fire.
 May produce protected areas under the glass.
 Explosion will cause shards of glass to be found
at various distances outside of structure.
 Location of glass within debris
 Level that glass is located in debris.
 Determine what time during the fire the glass
became part of the debris.

k. Annealing of springs

The term annealing, when applied to spring steel,

means to make less brittle. This condition is the result
of the steel being subjected to heat and allowed to
slowly cool.
Annealing can occur to any type of spring, whether in
a vehicle or in furniture.
 P a g e | 78

The annealing temperature is dependent on the type

and mass of the steel.

l. Melting points of metal

Melting of metal within the structure may indicate an

intense fire. Possible indicator of extreme heat at or
near floor level. Extreme heat may be the result of the
use of flammable liquids. The melting of different
materials in the structure can be an indicator of the
type of temperatures reached during the fire.

m. Calcination of drywall/sheetrock

Naturally contains 21% water which is chemically

bound in the product. Dehydration of gypsum is
called "calcination". Heat exposure causes it to
undergo calcination (105+ degrees F.). The
calcination process causes distinct lines to appear.
This can be observed by looking at the edge of the
board (cross section).

C. Vehicles

The average automobile contains over 300 pounds

(approximately 13%) of plastics which are derived
from petroleum products. Vehicles also contain other
materials, such as gasoline, diesel fuel, motor oil,
transmission and brake fluids, and battery acids,
 P a g e | 79

which among other things, are subject to combustion.

In addition to these components, a normal vehicle
contains mechanical systems which generate
electrical sparks and heat during its normal operation.
These sources of ignition are capable of starting a fire
under the proper conditions. Engineering and safety
designs by the manufacturer play an important role in
protecting these vehicles from accidental fires.
Accordingly, accidental fires involving vehicles are
not as frequent as commonly believed.

1. Fire scene investigation

a. Fires involving vehicles require both a fire scene

examination and a detailed vehicle examination.

b. As in other fires, vehicles should be worked from

the area of least damage to the area of most damage
in an attempt to locate the point of origin.

c. Begin your investigation PRIOR to overhaul.

d. Survey of the surrounding area may help in the

overall fire scene examination. The following
indicators may be of importance: Gas cap missing.
Accelerant residue under or near vehicle which may
be taken from the soil. Fire damage to the
surrounding area should be noted. An accelerant
container may be found in the immediate area. A
 P a g e | 80

remote area may indicate vehicle was possibly stolen

and taken to that location to be burned.

e. Exterior vehicle examination may be helpful in the

fire cause determination. This should include an
examination of the following:

Fire damage relating to roof, tires, wheels and other

body components. Make note of collision damage.
Check for multiple fires, although strict attention
must be given to prove that one fire did not
communicate to the other. Burn patterns may be
evident on the vehicle especially when a flammable
liquid was used to accelerate the fire. Check for
obvious missing parts such as tires, wheels, doors,
etc., which may possibly indicate a motive for the
fire. Check for flammable liquid residue around the
moldings of fenders, doors, hood, trunk and
windows. Check trunk for the usual contents (spare
tire, jack, etc.). An empty trunk should be considered
suspicious on older model vehicles.

f. Examination of the vehicle's interior may reveal

indicators as to the cause of the fire to include the
following: A fire that is intentionally accelerated with
flammable liquid in the passenger compartment will
have a total, even burn from front to rear. The roof
line will be severely distorted if allowed to burn for
ten to fifteen minutes. Generally, the seats will show
evidence of annealing (weakening and collapsing).
 P a g e | 81

Flammable liquid containers may be left in the

vehicle by the suspect thinking they will be
consumed in the fire. Regardless of the container
used (metal, glass or plastic), some portion will be
left as evidence. Flammable liquid residue may be
present in floor carpets, under mats, in seat cushions
or along door panels.
Check for annealing of springs in seat cushions
which is an indicator of extreme heat, but in and of
itself is not necessarily an indicator of an incendiary
fire. Examine the windows of the vehicle, noting
their position and if they had been broken out prior to
the fire (lack of heat/smoke damage).

Examine doors to establish if forcible entry had been

made prior to the fire.

Examine interior of vehicle to establish if accessories

may have been removed/stolen prior to fire.

Check to see if ignition key is in its proper place or if

the vehicle may have been "hot-wired".

Make a complete search of the vehicle for evidence

of incendiary devices.

g. Examination of vehicle's fuel system should

include the following:
 P a g e | 82

Inspect the integrity of the fuel tank and its

components. Examine the tank fill cap and spout.
Examine fuel lines and connections (check for tool
marks or tampering). Vehicles equipped with
catalytic converters present special fire-related
problems. A properly operating catalytic converter
can reach internal temperatures of 1600 degrees.
An improperly operating converter may generate an
external temperature of approximately 2500 degrees
Fahrenheit. This heat can be conducted through the
bottom of the vehicle causing combustible material in
the interior to ignite.

EVIDENCE

A. Types of Evidence

Evidence has been defined as all the means by

which any alleged matter of facts are proved or
disproved. It includes objects, testimony or
statements, records or documents, and anything else
that can be legally presented at a trial. Evidence can
normally be divided into two major categories; direct
and circumstantial. Evidence can be briefly defined
as "The facts that tend to prove something." When
called to the scene of a fire, the Incident
Commander's first responsibility after suppression is
to determine the cause and origin of the fire. If they
 P a g e | 83

determine the fire was intentionally set, their concern

shifts to the discovery of evidential material that will
support their contention and prove the elements of
the crime of arson in a court of law. Evidence can
take many forms and it is up to the Incident
Commander to search out all areas of the scene to
determine what is evidence and what is not.

Direct Evidence

Direct evidence is any evidence that directly

proves a fact, without an inference or presumption on
the part of anyone. Direct evidence would include
physical evidence, eyewitness statements, and
confessions. A good illustration of direct evidence
would be where a witness sees an individual light a
grass fire with a fusee. Both the statement of the
eyewitness and the remains of the fusee would be
direct evidence.

Physical evidence

This evidence has a physical substance or

existence and can be perceived by any of the five
senses (hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting, and
feeling). It may be a burn pattern, ignition device,
trailer, container of accelerant, remains of a fire
bomb, or a faulty appliance or electrical component.
 P a g e | 84

Eyewitness statements

This type of direct evidence would be testimony

of a witness's personal experience of hearing, seeing,
smelling, tasting, or feeling directly related to the
facts being presented. This could include a witness
seeing an individual set a fire, a witness hearing a
threat being made, or a witness smelling gasoline in a
room prior to a fire.

Confessions

A confession consists of those statements, made

by a suspect either spontaneously or after their
waiving of the Miranda admonition, implicating the
suspect in the crime. The corpus delicti (crime of
arson) must be established independently of the
confession.

Circumstantial Evidence

Circumstantial evidence is evidence of an

indirect nature. Circumstantial evidence is the proof
of facts based on inference. Certain facts are proven
and from these facts the court or jury may infer other
facts which would normally follow based on common
sense and experience.
Where the crime of arson is established by direct
evidence, the connection of an individual to the crime
may be proven by circumstantial evidence and any
 P a g e | 85

reasonable inferences. An example of circumstantial

evidence would be where a business suffers an
incendiary fire. The investigation reveals that
business was bad and the owner increased the
insurance the day prior to the fire. The poor business
and the insurance increase would be circumstantial
evidence and along with other direct evidence could
implicate the owner in the crime.

Evidence Handling

After suppression and during the initial phases of

cause determination, look for evidence indicating the
cause of the fire or contributing factors which may
have influenced the spread of the fire. Don't overlook
the obvious such as items absent from or foreign to
the immediate fire scene.

Handle all evidence with-care:

 When possible, photograph the fire scene,

emphasizing the point of origin and any
incendiary devices on the premises, making sure
to photograph devices exactly where they are
found.

 Leave all evidence intact if at all possible.

Barricades may be helpful in blocking off the
 P a g e | 86

area to further foot traffic. Areas surrounding

devices should be roped off and a guard should
be posted to protect the evidence.

 If in doubt of how to handle or preserve the

evidence, contact the appropriate arson unit for
instructions.

 If an arson unit is requested, protect the evidence

by preserving the fire scene from overhaul and
water additives. If the evidence is out of the
immediate area of the scene, place a firefighter to
guard the evidence. Do not remove it or touch it
if possible.

 If no arson unit is requested, photograph

evidence before moving it. Clean unused paint
cans with lids that automatically seal when
closed are the best containers for retaining
evidence. Plastic containers and plastic bags
should be avoided as any evidence of petroleum
products may deteriorate the plastic. Paper bags
can be used for dry clothing or metal articles,
matches or papers. Either a cellulose sponge or
cotton batting can be used to soak up small
quantities of liquids.

 All evidence should be marked in some way.

Marking should include the date, time, location,
 P a g e | 87

officer's name and assignment.

 Fire scene investigators should keep a record of

each person who handles the evidence.

 Preserve the chain of custody in handling

evidence. If the chain of custody is not
preserved, the court may rule the evidence
inadmissible.

 Once evidence is found, preserve it, photograph

it and make a note of where, when, and how it
was found. Protect the evidence from
contamination, alteration, damage, or
destruction. Upon returning to quarters, notify
the arson section by telephone. Be sure to
include all information under the F-902 comment
section (arson screen). Additionally, all
information relating to the incident and the
evidence should be journalized.

 Store the evidence in the station in a safe and

secure location. Keep it in a place where
"curious" firefighters won't handle it. Do not
store evidence in an area accessible to the public.
Request arson to pick up the evidence as soon as
possible. If the evidence is not collected in a
reasonable time, notify the arson section again to
determine when the evidence will be picked up.
 P a g e | 88

Chain of Evidence

The term "Chain of Evidence" refers to the chain of

custody (possession) of an item of evidence from the
point in time when it was first discovered until the
time it is offered as an exhibit in court. Any break in
the chain of evidence could preclude its use as
evidence in future court proceedings. Evidence can
take many forms and it is up to the fire scene
investigator to search out all areas of the scene to
determine what is evidence and what is not.
It takes evidence, both direct and circumstantial to
successfully prosecute and convict individuals
responsible for the crime of arson. Be aware of
everything in the area when conducting the scene
investigation for the cause and origin. Following
these procedures should ensure that when the
evidence arrives for its "day in court", no problems
will be encountered.

VII. MOTIVES

A. Motive Types
 P a g e | 89

Various types of fires can be more readily identified

if the fire scene investigator at the scene is aware of a
possible motive for that fire. Being able to identify a
motive can assist in developing a suspect for the fire.

1. Spite/Revenge

At this point in time, "Spite" is the most

predominant motive that you may encounter. It is
most commonly found in domestic disputes.

Fire is frequently the weapon of someone who

wants to be removed from the physical act of
violence. A fire of this type is often the most deadly
and can result in extensive loss of life.

 These fires often occur in the bedroom and can

be the result of a problem in a personal
relationship.

 They usually occur during the hours of darkness.

 They may involve the use of available

combustibles, but are often set using flammable
liquids as an accelerant.

 Articles of clothing may be gathered in a pile to

be burned.
 P a g e | 90

 A vindictive person may target a personal

vehicle for an act of vandalism.

 Statements made concerning neighborhood

disputes can be a valuable tool in establishing
spite as a motive for your fire.

 Spite fires may also result from an emotional

conflict such as in work relationships, labor
disputes, racial confrontations or religious
antagonisms (hate crimes).

2. Juveniles

"Juveniles" is not a motive, however, since this group

is often involved in many different types of fire-
setting, it is listed here as a separate motive group.

 Children have a natural curiosity about fire,

usually occurring in both sexes between the ages
of 4 and 12.

 INTENT is 'the primary consideration. If the

child's intent was NOT to set fire and/or if the act
was intended as playing or experimenting with
fire, this incident should not be classified as
incendiary.
 P a g e | 91

 Juvenile fires often occur in secret or hidden

places such as closets, under beds, basements
and attics.

 Juveniles occasionally set "nuisance" fires in

trash and grass, the severity depending on
extension and intent.

3. Pyro/Psycho

"Pyromania" is defined as the uncontrollable impulse

to start fires. This may or may not be connected to
sexual gratification or desires. The following is a list
of traits, some or all of which a pyromaniac may
possess.

 A loner, a loser

 Unable to do anything about being a loser or a

pyromaniac.

 Suffering a setback of some kind.

 May use alcohol/drugs to boost courage.

 May be extremely deceptive.

 Seldom carries an accelerant.

 P a g e | 92

 May set more than one fire at a given time.

 May set fires in structures or outside.

 Finds some kind of relief by setting fires.

 The fires usually occur in buildings other than

their own.

 The "pyro" fires usually set some type of activity

pattern.

 May or may not stay in the incident area after

setting the fire(s).

4. Crime Cover

There are many reasons why fire may be used by a

criminal. In all circumstances where a fire may have
been set to cover a crime, efforts must be made to
protect the scene.

 A fire can destroy books/records in an effort to

cover shortages of stock, materials, cash, or other
items.
 P a g e | 93

 A fire can destroy evidence of other crimes such

as signs of forcible entry, fingerprints, rifled
drawers, or other physical evidence.

 A fire may be set to cause a distraction so that

criminal activity can occur in other areas of a
neighborhood.

 A fire may cover evidence of a homicide or a

suicide.

 Another crime, such as burglary, can be staged

by the owner to \explain a fire that has been
intentionally set.

5. Fraud

By definition, a "fraud" is a deception

deliberately practiced in order to secure unfair or
unlawful gain. There are several types of fraud fires
which are usually encountered:

Direct gain fraud fires are frequently associated with:

(1) Collection of insurance money.
(2) Interruption of mortgage payments.
(3) Inability to dispose of unwanted property when
taxes are due.
 P a g e | 94

(4) A structure that is "condemned". It's cheaper to

burn than tear down.
(5) Property is being divided in court. Estate
settlement money is easier to divide.
(6) Periods of business recession (seasonal businesses
suffer more incendiary fires than do year 'round
businesses).
(7) Merchandise/equipment becomes obsolete or out
of style.
(8) Insurance money is of greater value than rent
money.
(9) Owner's desire to redecorate/remodel.
(10) Dissolution of a business partnership.

b. Indirect gain fraud fires may or may not involve

profit from insurance money.

(1) Tenant sets a fire to break a lease.

(2) Landlord sets a fire to force tenants out. New
leases bring increased rent.
(3) Owner sets fire to competitor to reduce
competition.
c. Organized criminal activity may include insurance
fraud, elimination of competition, and fires set for
purposes of intimidation.

6. Vanity

a. "Profit Vanity" fires may be a form of indirect

fraud. Example: a security guard or watchman may
 P a g e | 95

set one or more fires to secure a raise in pay. Another

example would be that of an "on-call" firefighter who
seeks to secure their job position by setting and then
extinguishing fires.

b. "Hero Vanity" fires are incidents which many

believe to be closely associated to some forms of
pyromania. This would include a fire set by an
individual who wants attention for finding and
extinguishing the fires.

7. Civil Disorders, Revolutions and/or Political

Activity In these cases, fire is often used as a
weapon. it produces destruction of property and
creates the illusion a large group of people are
involved in firesetting in a specific area.

REPORTING PROCEDURES

The reporting procedure may take many written

or oral forms, depending on the specific
responsibility of the investigator. Pertinent
information should be reported in a proper form and
forum to help prevent recurrence.

Establishing the Role of

 P a g e | 96

First Responders

The actions of public safety personnel providing

emergency services at a fire scene are critical not
only to lifesaving and fire suppression efforts but also
to any subsequent investigation of the incident.

 Observe the Fire and Scene Conditions

PROCEDURE

While approaching a fire scene, first responders

should observe and mentally note the following
conditions and activities and, as soon as conditions
permit, initiate permanent documentation of the
information (e.g., written notes, voice recordings,
videotapes):

a)The presence, location, and condition of

victims and witnesses.

b)Vehicles leaving the scene, bystanders, or

unusual activities near the scene.

c)Flame and smoke conditions (e.g., the

volume of flames and smoke; the color,
height, and location of the flames; the
direction in which the flames and smoke are
moving).
 P a g e | 97

d)The type of occupancy and use of the

structure (e.g., a residential occupancy being
used as a business).

e)Conditions of the structure (e.g., lights

turned on; fire through the roof; walls
standing; open, closed, or broken windows
and doors).

f)Conditions surrounding the scene (e.g.,

blocked driveways, debris, damage to other
structures).

g)Weather conditions.

h)Unusual characteristics of the scene (e.g.,

the presence of containers, exterior burning
or charring on the building, the absence of
normal contents, unusual odors, fire
trailers4).

i)The fire suppression techniques used,

including ventilation, forcible entry, and
utility shutoff measures.

j)The status of fire alarms, security alarms, and

sprinklers.

 Exercise Scene Safety

 P a g e | 98

PROCEDURE

Upon arrival at the scene, first responders should:

a)Evaluate the scene for safety hazards (e.g.,
structural collapse of the building; smoke;
electrical, chemical, or biological hazards;
other health risks).

b)Establish safety/hazard zones.

c)Communicate hazards to other personnel

arriving at the scene.

d)Use tools and personal protective equipment

appropriate to the task during all operations.

DANGER:

The scene may contain devices

specifically designed to kill or maim public
safety responders. Do not touch any
suspected incendiary or explosive device.
Evacuate the area, and request the services
of personnel trained in the removal of such
items.

 Preserve the Fire Scene

PROCEDURE
 P a g e | 99

To preserve evidence, first responders should:

1.Observe and mentally note evidence that may be

present at the scene, such as:

- Fire patterns (including multiple fire locations).

- Burn injuries to victims and fire patterns on

clothing.

- Trailers, ignitable liquids, or other unusual fuel

distribution (e.g., piles of newspapers, furniture
pushed together).

- Incendiary/ignition/explosive devices (e.g.,

lighters, matches, timing devices).

- Shoe prints and tire impressions.

- Broken windows and doors.

- Distribution of broken glass and debris.

- Indications of forced entry (tools and tool

marks).

- Containers.

- Discarded clothing.
 P a g e | 100

- Trace evidence (e.g., hairs, fibers, fingerprints,

blood, other body fluids)

- Evidence of crimes in addition to the possible

arson (e.g., weapons, bodies, drugs, clandestine
drug laboratory equipment).

- Witnesses, bystanders, and victims.

- Any other unusual items or the absence of

normal contents or structural components.

2.Recognize threats to evidence (i.e., its movement,

removal, contamination, or destruction) from any
of the following sources

a)Fire suppression activities, such as a straight

stream applied at the point of origin or
deluge applications that may wash away or
dilute potential evidence.

b)Overhaul activities that destroy fire patterns.

c)Salvage activities that involve moving or

removing potential physical evidence.

d)Use of a tool in any manner that causes

destruction of evidence.
 P a g e | 101

e)Movement of knobs, switches, and controls

on appliances and utilities.

f)Weather conditions that affect transient

evidence (i.e., wind, precipitation, or
temperature changes).

g)Personnel walking through the scene.

h)Witnesses and victims leaving the scene.

i)Medical intervention and treatment of

victims (e.g., by damaging evidence at the
scene or destroying victims’ clothing).

j)Premature removal or movement of bodies.

k)Vehicles at the scene (e.g., that introduce

fluid to the scene through vehicle leaks or
destroy other evidence, including shoe prints
and tire impressions).

l)Contamination from external sources, such as

fuel-powered tools or equipment.

3.Protect Evidence by:

a)Limiting excessive fire suppression,

overhaul, and salvage.
 P a g e | 102

b)Avoiding needless destruction of property.

c)Leaving bodies undisturbed.

d)Flagging items of evidence with cones or

markers.

e)Recording observations through written

notes or voice recordings.

f)Covering items or areas containing evidence

with objects that will not contaminate the
evidence (e.g., clean boxes or tarpaulins).

g)Isolating items or areas containing evidence

with rope, barrier tape, barricades, or
sentries.

h)Retaining and securing clothing items

removed from victims and suspects.

i)Obtaining information about victims and

witnesses (i.e., their names, addresses, and
telephone numbers).

j)Preserving transient evidence (e.g., trace

evidence, shoe prints, tire impressions).

k)Removing evidence at risk of imminent

destruction by the fire or the structural
 P a g e | 103

collapse of the damaged building.

l)Ensuring that later arriving investigators are

fully apprised of the evidence discovered.

 Establish Security and Control

Procedure

a)Set up a security perimeter (e.g., using

barrier tape, fire line, sentry).

b)Control access into the scene through the

security perimeter.

c)Initiate documentation of the scene.

d)Request additional personnel resources, such
as firefighters, EMS personnel, law
enforcement officers, investigators, and
representatives of utility companies.

e)Inform authorities about the status of the

incident, hazards, injuries, witnesses, the
location of evidence, and other pertinent
facts.

oOo
 P a g e | 104

MOCK TRIAL EXAMINATION

SET A

1 In accordance with Sec. 6 of PD 1613, which of the

following circumstances does not constitute a
prima facie evidence of arson?
a The property was insured substantially more
than its actual value at the time of the issuance
of the policy.
b Substantial amounts of flammable substances
were stored within the building not necessary
in the business.
c Doors and windows that were normally kept
open in the course of business were found
closed during the fire.
d The fire started in more than one part of the
building or establishment.

2 After a fire in which arson is suspected, you may

be able to trace the fire to its origin because __.
a the alligator pattern of charring is not as light
absorbent of the surrounding areas
b the checks of the charring process will be
larger than the surrounding areas
c the pattern of charring at the point of origin is
smaller and deeper than the rest of the areas
 P a g e | 105

d the point of origin will be darker than the rest

of the areas

3 One of the following situations is a good indication

of an accidental fire.
a Smell of ammonia
b fire of several origin
c Intense heat
d fire of only one origin

4 The purpose of closing the doors and windows

during fire is to __.
a stop the fire
b confine the fire
c slow the spread of fire
d spread the accelerants

5 The purpose of opening the doors and windows of

adjacent rooms in a burning building is to:
a extinguish the fire
b supply the oxygen in the area
c prevent back draft
d serve as entrance of firemen

6 An arsonist may rearrange materials or furniture in

a room prior to setting it on fire in order to __.
a mislead the investigators
b camouflage the odor of accelerants
c provide a quick burning situation
d all of the above
 P a g e | 106

7 If the fire is set by rationale motive, the important

point to establish is ___.
a intensity of fire
b size of fire
c rapidity of spread
d origin of fire

8 The “eyes and ears” of the investigators in fire

investigations are:
a By standers
b Arsonists
c Victims
d Firemen

9 The fire that started in almost all corners of the

building at the same time is called __.
a separate burning
b simultaneous burning
c related burning

10 One of the following is the characteristic of the

behavior of a pyromaniac.
a aggressiveness in putting off the fire
b smiling while a building is on fire
c uncontrollable and excessive laughter
d none of these

11 The lowest temperature at which a substance must

be heated to give of vapors that will burn without
 P a g e | 107

the application of spark is called __.

a Fire point
b auto-ignition point
c Flash point
d explosive point

12 When water comes in contact with fire, white

smoke is produced. But if it comes before the water
from the fire hose hits the fire, the burning
substance could be..
a Nitrocellulose`
b humid or organic substances
c Petroleum products
d Accelerants

13 A building which is unsafe in case of fire because

it lacks adequate fire exit is said to be a..
a Fire hazard
b fire trap
c Fire resistive
d fire unsafe

14 A toxic deadly gas produced during fire when there

is insufficient oxygen for the complete combustion
of all the carbon in the burning substance is known
as ..
a Carbon dioxide
b carbon monoxide
c Hydrogen sulfide
d hydrogen gas
 P a g e | 108

15 Usually, the color of the smoke will indicate the

type of material that is burning. In order to be of
value to the investigator, observation should be
made ..
a at the start of fire
b during smoldering stage
c after water from hose comes in contact with
flame
d before water from hose made in contact with the
fire

16 In arson cases, which of the following is not used

in determining if accelerants are used in starting
the fire?
a Heat and fire pattern
b Early color of smoke
c Conditions of doors and windows
d Presence of distinct odor

17 In cases where a structure is completely burned to

the ground, the position of doors and windows
during the fire whether opened or closed may be
ascertained by …
a consulting the original structure blueprint on
file
b interviewing spectators
c collecting broken pieces of window glasses
d locating the hardware used in the construction
of such doors
 P a g e | 109

18 Using electrical appliances, which draws electrical

current beyond the designed capacity of the
electrical circuit, is known as..
a Over using
b over loading
c Over plugging
d over capacity

19 Which of the following statement is not applicable

with dry chemicals as a fire fighting agent?
a Effect is only temporary
b Has a smothering effect
c Has no cooling effect
d No protection against re-flash

20 Among the statements below is the best protection

against fire.
a Performing good housekeeping chores
b Practicing fire prevention measures
c Having adequate fire fighting facilities
d Awareness of fire hazards

21 Fire is divided into four general classification to

indicate the following, except :
a nature of the combustible or fuel involved
b methods of extinguishing fire
c most suitable extinguishing agent
d flammability of the combustible
 P a g e | 110

22 Perhaps no other motive is so frequently

responsible for the commission of arson if not..
a due to profit
b due to jealousy
c due to duress
d due to spite

23 Which of the following does not match?

a Combustible metal-inorganic-hydrogen gas
b Complete combustion-ashes- carbon dioxide
c Incomplete combustion-carbon-carbon
monoxide
d Humid combustible-white smoke-hydrogen
sulfide

24 The burning of combustible materials without

external source is:
a an accidental fire
b a spontaneous fire
c a providential fire
d an intentional fire

25 Trailers are devices used to ...

a spread the fire throughout the structure
b accelerate the burning process
c ignite combustible materials
d none of the foregoing

26 This is the purpose to use any means to effect the

act of burning.
 P a g e | 111

a Motive
b Intent
c Both A and B
d neither A nor B

27 The primary responsibility of a fire investigator is

__.
a to determine the true cause of fire
b to determine the origin of fire
c to identify the victims
d to locate the perpetrator/s

28 What is the active principle of burning

accompanied by light and heat?
a Light
b Pyrolysis
c Fire
d Synopsis

29 What is the chemical reaction whereby energy or

heat is released?
a Exothermic reaction
b endothermic reaction
c Conduction
d Pyrolysis

30 The following are elements of fire, except:

a Fire gases
b Fuel
c Heat
 P a g e | 112

d oxygen

31 The vertical natural movement of smoke through

the building caused by the difference in the
temperature between the inside and outside air is
called ..
a High effect
b Smoke effect
c Stock effect
d Stack effect

32 The following statements indicate hazards of fire

gases, except _.
a displaced the breathing air
b direct evidence
c poisoning
d corroborative evidence

33 In most cases, arson investigators rely on:

a circumstantial evidence
b direct evidence
c eye witnesses
d corroborative evidence

34 The injury resulting to burns is caused by direct

contact with..
a heat
b flame
c smoke
d fire gas
 P a g e | 113

35 When there is a reaction between the elements of

fire, it causes the burning of:
a Substances
b solids
c the free radicals
d fire gases

36 Heat transfer and the dangerous behavior of fire is

obvious in its ..
a free burning phase
b initial stage
c final stage/smoldering phase
d none of the foregoing

37 In what stage of the burning/pyrolitic process

maximized the intensity of the fire to become
destructive?
a free burning phase
b initial stage
c final stage/smoldering phase
d all of the foregoing

38 Smoke of usual color that changes to yellow or

grayish yellow is caused by…
a back draft condition
b flashback condition
c flash over condition
d stack effect
 P a g e | 114

39 What is refers by a “pot of gold” in fire

investigation?
a area of origin of fire
b fire setter
c located evidence
d all of the foregoing

40 Arson classification is based on the following,

except:
a extent of damage
b kind
c location
d character

41 Burning one’s own property constitute the crime of

arson, in what manner?
a means of destroying own property
b means of committing arson
c means of concealing another crime
d means of destroying evidences

42 Any of the prima facie evidence of arson is

sufficient to establish the fact of the crime if:
a not proven
b uncontradicted
c doubtful
d none of the above

43 Which of the ff. is the least reliable method of

identifying dead bodies in fatal fire?
 P a g e | 115

a direct/visual examination
b personal effects
c clothing
d fingerprints

44 When autopsy examination reveals that there is no

carbon monoxide in the dead body, it indicates that
the person died
a during the fire
b before the fire
c after the fire
d any of the above

45 What is the common motive in the crime of arson?

a Revenge
b terrorism
c Spite of jealousy
d profit

46 One of the following statements cannot be

considered as a prima facie evidence for the crime
of arson.
a suspect was seen in the area before the fire
b presence of combustible materials within the
area
c fire has more than one point of origin
d demand of money was made

47 The following are indications that a fire incident is

not accidental, except __.
 P a g e | 116

a removal of valuable materials away from the

area before the fire
b absence of effort to put off the fir
c ill-feeling between suspect and owner of the
structure burned
d absence of incendiary mechanism

48 Any witness in a fire incident should be questioned

on his/her observation about the exact location of
the blaze at the time of observation in order to
a develop prime suspects
b establish motive of arsonist
c point out the origin of the fire
d look for evidences

49 The following are important factors in processing

evidences in arson, except _.
a admissibility of the object
b qualification of investigator
c admissibility of the laboratory result
d interpretation of the findings

50 Killing a person by means of fire constitute the

crime of…
a Arson
b Arson with Homicide
c Murder with arson
d Murder
 P a g e | 117

51 One thing that differentiates the flaming type of

combustion from the flameless type is ..
a radiative feedback of heat
b pyrolitic distillation
c state of matter of fuel
d uninhibited chain reaction

52 The place where the fire actually broke out is

called..
a the scene of the crime
b the point of origin of fire
c the point of heat of fire
d the fingerprint of fire

53 The observation that is obvious that the first

fireman at the fire scene will suspect arson is …
a faulty electrical wiring
b spontaneous combustion process]
c two or more separate break out
d careless handling of electrical appliances

54 When lightning is the cause of fire __.

a the color of the flame is blue
b the smoke produced is reddish-brown
c smoke marks are very noticeable
d odor of ozone maybe detected

55 Which of the following statement is true

concerning combustion?
a all of the following
 P a g e | 118

b it is always accompanied by flame

c it will continue until materials is cooled to
below its kindling temperature
d a gas is compressed and this result in the
increase of temperature

56 It is a common knowledge that when the sun’s rays

are focused on the head of a match by the use of
hand lens, it will ignite. What means of heat
transfer burned the match head?
a Conduction
b radiation
c Convection
d condensation

57 What factor will influence the ignition and burning

of wood?
a kind of heat energy source
b method of heat transfer
c physical form
d the purpose of ignition

58 An investigator at the fire scene noticed that the

color of the smoke coming out of the building is
white. He may conclude that.
a vegetable materials are being burned
b chlorine gas is given off by the burning
material
c petroleum products are being burned
d hydrogen products are ignited
 P a g e | 119

59 Which of the following situation may produce

chemical heat energy?
a A copper wire gets red hot because it carries
mere current
b Two solids rubbed together and friction is
generated
c A substance is dissolved in a liquid and
releases heat.
d A gas is compressed and increased
temperature.

60 For heating purposes, which is better, aluminous

flame or non-luminous flame?
a Luminous because the brighter the color, the
higher the temperature.
b Non-luminous because practically all the
carbon fuel oxidized.
c None of the above
d Both A and B

61 What is the simpler method of computing the

distance between the heel of the ladder and the
building?
a divide the length of ladder by 4 and add 2
b divide the length of the ladder by 4
c divide the length of the ladder by 5 and add 2
d divide the length of the ladder by 6 and add 2
 P a g e | 120

62 The very useful tool used to make quick

connection to damaged mate house connections is:
a Couplings
b Spanner Wrench
c Universal thread adopter
d Hydrant Wrench

63 The clearing of smoke and heated gases at the

highest point of the roof is referred to as:
a Vertical ventilation
b Cross ventilation
c Forced ventilation
d Combination of cross ventilation

64 Which of the following occurs when a room is

heated enough the flame sweep over the entire
surface?
a Backdraft
b Flashover
c Oxidation
d Combustion

65 The tarpaulins known as “tarps”, made of cotton

canvas material treated with a waterproofing
compound are referred to as:
a Salvage covers
b Fire covers
c Canvass covers
d Sawdust
 P a g e | 121

66 An in-depth investigation to determine more

specific details of the cause and effects of fire.
a Basic investigation
b Technical investigation
c Arson investigation
d Follow-up investigation

67 When the burning materials are primarily

composed of liquid fuel, the fire is considered as:
a Class A
b Class B
c Class C
d Class D

68 A fire investigator is necessary to conduct some

observation and examination during the fire which
includes the following, except:
a Burned building
b Separate fire
c Color of fire
d Color of smoke

69 The concentration of short-lived intermediate

chemical reactants in fuel and oxidizers:
a Flames
b Luminous
c Oxidation
d diffusion
e Laminar
 P a g e | 122

70 What branch of knowledge deals with industrial

arts and sciences?
a Chemistry
b Technology
c Science
d Atomic studies
e Modernization

71 Which of the following items enumerated below

is a good indicator of the intensity of the fire and
an important factor in determining incendiarism?
a Size of fire
b Color of flame
c Direction of travel
d Color of smoke
e Smoke marks

72 The presence of chlorine is indicated by:

a Black smoke
b biting smoke
c reddish smoke
d white smoke

73 What is the lowest temperature of a liquid in an

open container at which vapors are evolved fast
enough to support continuous combustion?
a Boiling point
b Fire point
c Flashpoint
d Velocity
 P a g e | 123

e Vapor pressure

74 What kind of smoke indicates lack of air?

a Black smoke
b biting smoke
c reddish smoke
d white smoke

75 The changes whereby energy is absorbed before

the reaction takes place is:
a Exothermic reactions
b Flame
c Endothermic reactions
d Kindling point
e Oxidation

76 The minimum temperature to which the

substance in the air must be heated in order to
initiate or cause self-contained combustion without
the addition of heart from outside source.
a Exothermic reactions
b Flame
c Endothermic reactions
d Kindling point
e Oxidation

77 Spontaneous heating is an example of what kind

of reaction?
a Exothermic reactions
b Flame
 P a g e | 124

c Endothermic reactions
d Kindling point
e Oxidation

78 The following are the laboratory aids utilize in

the identifying the incendiary area, except:
a Spectrographic analysis
b fire analysis
c Fiber analysis
d soil analysis
e Identification of matchstick

79 What will be the result of a fuel if mixed with

certain elements as oxygen or chlorine or fluorine?
a Heat
b Explosion
c Flame
d Gas
e Fire

80 The reaction that gives off energy that the

reactants is referred to as:
a Exothermic reactions
b Flame
c Endothermic reactions
d Kindling point
e Oxidation

81 The following are the major factors in which an

investigator should concentrate on, except:
 P a g e | 125

a Point of origin of the fire

b motive of fire setters
c Modus operandi of arsonist
d none of the above
e Identify of persons who might benefit from
the fire

82 What stage in the commission of arson is

accomplished if a person intended to burn a
wooden house, collected rags soaked in gasoline
and placed it inside the wall, but when he lighted
the wall and a small portion was already burning,
he as seen by another who ran after him and
arrested him?
a Attempted stage
b none of the above
c Frustrated
d any of the above
e Consummated

83 What is the law amending the law on arson?

a PD No. 1613
b RA 6975
c RA 1813
d RA 8551

84 In essence, it is a chemical reaction in which a

substance combines with oxygen, heat is released
and the form of substance is destroyed.
a Fire
 P a g e | 126

b Fuel
c Oxygen
d Ignition

85 Of the three things essential before a fire can

occur which one of the following is not included.
a Fuel
b Wind
c Oxygen
d Initial source of heat

86 In fire statistics, the initial source of heat is

generally termed as…
a Determinant
b Cause
c Primer
d Ignition

87 The term describes the transfer of heat within a

solid material from hotter to cooler parts.
a Conduction
b Convection
c Radiation
d Fire

88 The term describes a mass movement in a fluid

(i.e., a liquid or a gas) where a fluid at one
temperature and density moves under the influence
of through surrounding fluid at a different
temperature and density, mixing it with and
 P a g e | 127

gradually exchanging heat wit until is all at the

temperature.
a Conduction
b Convection
c Radiation
d Fire
89 The term describes the transfer of heat through a
gas or vacuum in a similar way to light.
a Conduction
b Convection
c Radiation
d Fire

90 It is a measurement use in fire of the rate at

which heat produced.
a “Intensity” of combustion
b Density
c Velocity
d Temperature

91 It is a term of the start of combustion. Its detailed

process of a solid is very complicated, since the
proportions of different flammable vapors evolved
vary from one material to another and contact with
oxygen must take place before combustion can
begin.
a Combustion
b Ignition
c Propellant
d Starter
 P a g e | 128

92 Wood, and its products, such as hardboard and

fireboard are the principal combustible materials
present in the construction of a building.
a Combustible contents
b Combustible structure
c Solids
d Dusts

93 Articles inside a building will normally include

many combustible materials, which may be present
in considerable quantity and represent a total
caloric value many times greater than that of the
combustible materials used in the construction of
the building.
a Combustible contents
b Combustible structure
c Solids
d Dusts

94 This will burn very readily if the surface area is

large in proportion to the weight of material.
a Combustible contents
b Combustible structure
c Solids
d Dusts

95 This is a term used to describe a transition which

occur in the development of a fire when, for
example, most of all of the combustible surfaces
 P a g e | 129

within a room are heated above their ignition

temperature at the same time.
a Ignition
b Flashover
c Starter
d Intensity

96 This term is reserved to describe the behavior of

a building material in a fire; it is used to predict
how long it will resist the effects of a fire before it
fails.
a Fire proof
b Fire resistance
c Building resistance
d Fire duration

97 It consists of small carbonaceous particles,

suspended in the atmosphere, which may of such
colors, size and quality that they can obscure the
passage of light, thus preventing exists and exit
sins from being seen. It may also contribute to
panic because of its effects on eyes, nose and
throat.
a Smoke
b Fire
c Carbonmonoxide
d Toxic

98 It is the main product of the combustion of

carbon. It is a poisonous but is an asphyxiant,
 P a g e | 130

which lowers the proportion of oxygen available

for breathing.
a Carbon dioxide
b Carbon monoxide
c Smoke
d Gas

99 It is used to include not only architects

responsible for the design and erection of a
complete building but also the various specialist
engineers who may be concerned with the
structure, the electrical installation, the heating and
ventilation system and so on.
a Building contractors
b Designers
c Office of Building Permit
d Building Planners

100 The primary purpose of statutory requirements

for fire protection is…
a To see to it that buildings are insured
b To safeguard life
c To see to it that buildings are fire hazard
free
d To generate income for the government

-oOo-