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Modelling and Prediction of Diesel Engine Performance

using Relevance Vector Machine
a a b
Ka In Wong , Pak Kin Wong & Chun Shun Cheung
a
Department of Electromechanical Engineering, University of Macau, Macau
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
Accepted author version posted online: 27 Mar 2014.Published online: 23 Oct 2014.

To cite this article: Ka In Wong, Pak Kin Wong & Chun Shun Cheung (2015) Modelling and Prediction of Diesel
Engine Performance using Relevance Vector Machine, International Journal of Green Energy, 12:3, 265-271, DOI:
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 International Journal of Green Energy (2015) 12, 265–271
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1543-5075 print / 1543-5083 online
DOI: 10.1080/15435075.2014.891513

Modelling and Prediction of Diesel Engine Performance using

Relevance Vector Machine
KA IN WONG1 , PAK KIN WONG1, and CHUN SHUN CHEUNG2
1
Department of Electromechanical Engineering, University of Macau, Macau
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
Downloaded by [University of Macau Library] at 19:11 27 October 2014

Diesel engines are being increasingly adopted by many car manufacturers today, yet no exact mathematical diesel engine model exists due
to its highly nonlinear nature. In the current literature, black-box identification has been widely used for diesel engine modelling and many
artificial neural network (ANN) based models have been developed. However, ANN has many drawbacks such as multiple local minima,
user burden on selection of optimal network structure, large training data size, and over-fitting risk. To overcome these drawbacks, this
article proposes to apply an emerging machine learning technique, relevance vector machine (RVM), to model and predict the diesel engine
performance. The property of global optimal solution of RVM allows the model to be trained using only a few experimental data sets. In this
study, the inputs of the model are engine speed, load, and cooling water temperature, while the output parameters are the brake-specific
fuel consumption and the amount of exhaust emissions like nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide. Experimental results show that the model
accuracy is satisfactory even the training data is scarce. Moreover, the model accuracy is compared with that using typical ANN. Evaluation
results also show that RVM is superior to typical ANN approach.
Keywords: Diesel engine modelling, Engine performance, Artificial neural network, Relevance vector machine, Data scarcity

Introduction emission characteristics of the diesel engine. Obviously these

Air pollution is a serious problem in many cities. Despite the
tightening of emission standards, the amount of exhaust emis-
sions is still increasing as more and more motor vehicles are
being used on roads. According to a recent study (Lim et al.
2012), more than 3.2 millions of people around the world died
prematurely in 2010 because of the ambient air pollution prob-
lem, mainly caused by diesel soot and exhaust gases. On the
other hand, there is also a demand on the reduction of fuel
consumption so as to reduce reliance on fossil fuel. Therefore,
many researchers have been working on the improvement of
vehicle engines, aiming to reduce the exhaust emission and fuel
consumption concurrently.
Diesel engines are almost exclusively used on commercial
vehicles like buses and trucks due to their high fuel efficiency
and high durability. However, they are the major emitter of many
pollutant gases, including carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and nitrogen
oxides (NOx ). The former is a global warming gas while the lat-
ter is posing significant threat to human health. These two gases
together bring along both health and environmental problems.
Therefore, in order to reduce these emissions and fuel consump-
tion simultaneously, the combustion process of the diesel engine
must be well controlled. To do so, more dedicated investiga-
tions have to be conducted to understand the performance and
Address correspondence to Ka In Wong, Department of
Electromechanical Engineering, University of Macau, Macau.
E-mail: imkain@gmail.com
investigations are complicated, expensive, and time-consuming
(Canakci, Erdil, and Arcaklioglu 2006; Wong et al. 2010).
A way to solve these problems is to create a mathematical
diesel engine model so that all the costly and immeasurable data
can be predicted and virtual sensors can be built to replace the
costly sensors (Hanzevack et al. 1997). Figure 1 is an example
of diesel engine performance map originated from (Heywood
1988), which shows that the relationship among the engine
torque, engine speed and brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC)
is already highly nonlinear. It could be imagined that if the
emissions and combustion parameters are studied together, the
model will be even more complicated. For example, the com-
bustion process of a diesel engine includes sub-processes like
fuel spray, fuel ignition, and flame propagation, which are too
complex for building up an exact mathematical model. Although
several analytical multi-zone models of diesel engine have been
developed (Hiroyasu, Kadota, and Arai 1983; Babajimopoulos
et al. 2005; Rakopoulos, Antonopoulos, and Rakopoulos 2007),
these models require many assumptions and human knowledge
in defining those engine-specific parameters, making themselves
constrictive in application.
Black-box identification, as its name, can manage complex
and uncertain information without any knowledge of its internal
workings. It is, therefore, very suitable for engine modelling and
prediction. Many recent researches in black-box identification
have already described the use of artificial neural network (ANN)
on the modelling of diesel engine performance based on experi-
mental data. For instance, Traver, Atkinson, and Atkinson (1999)
described the use of three different types of ANNs as a virtual
 266
Downloaded by [University of Macau Library] at 19:11 27 October 2014
Fig. 1. Performance map for an air-cooled naturally aspirated diesel
engine (Heywood 1988).
sensor for the prediction of diesel engine emissions. Najafi et al.
(2007) conducted an analysis of a commercial diesel engine with
the aid of an ANN model that was developed based on the
experimental data collected from that engine. Canakci, Erdil, and
Arcaklioglu (2006), Ghobadian et al. (2009) and Aydogan, Altun,
and Ozcelik (2011) also constructed biodiesel engine models
using ANN with back-propagation algorithm. More recently,
Ismail et al. (2012) still used ANN to predict different engine
responses for a diesel engine fuelled with biodiesel blends. Many
other related works of diesel engine modelling using ANN could
still be found in the current literature (Oguz, Saritas, and Baydan
2010; Ozgur et al. 2011; Yusaf, Yousif, and Elawad 2011).
Although ANN has been adopted in many researches, accord-
ing to the studies of Haykin (1999) and Wong et al. (2010), ANN
has, in general, three main drawbacks for its learning process,
which make these ANN models not favorable for practice use.
These drawbacks are summarized as follows:
1. The architecture of ANN, including the number of hidden neu-
rons, has to be determined a priori or modified while training
by heuristic, which results in a sub-optimal network structure.
2. The training process (i.e., the minimization of the resid-
ual squared error cost function) in ANN can easily become
stuck in local minima. Various ways of preventing local min-
ima, like early stopping, weight decay, have been employed.
However, these methods greatly affect the generalization of
the estimated function (i.e., the capacity of handling new input
cases).
3. The amount of training data is usually large for ANN.
Normally, ANN require at least 200–400 sets of training
Wong, Wong, and Cheung
data to build an accurate gasoline engine model (Wong et al.
2010). However, in the case of diesel engine, the collection
of the engine emission and performance data is very time-
consuming and costly, and the range of the engine operating
speed is narrow too. Therefore, the size of the representative
training data set is always very small, resulting in that ANN
may not be a good solution for diesel engine modelling.
Fortunately, an algorithm entitled relevance vector machine
(RVM) was recently proposed by Tipping (2001) to overcome the
aforementioned drawbacks of ANN. It is an approach based on
sparse Bayesian inference, so the solutions are obtained proba-
bilistically and the corresponding weights are highly sparse. The
most compelling feature of RVM is that it reduces the effort of
tuning numerous parameters as required by traditional ANN. The
training algorithm of RVM also ensures a global optimal solution
(i.e., good generalization), whereas the learning process of ANN
may lead to a local optimal solution, which is the reason why
ANN requires more representative training data to minimize the
risk (Haykin 1999). With these advantageous properties, RVM
do not require too much sample data to build an accurate model.
Although one deficiency of this approach is that the training time
is approximately in the cube of the sample numbers, an accel-
erated training algorithm was further developed by Tipping and
Faul (2003). In this algorithm, an empty model is initialized first.
Then, within the same principal framework, samples are sequen-
tially added to increase the marginal likelihood or deleted to
avoid any redundant, while their weights are modified at the same
time.
Owing to the accelerated algorithm, RVM becomes very
favorable for modelling and prediction. It was recently adopted
by many researchers for system modelling and predictive control
problems. For example, Khalil et al. (2005) utilized RVM and
other modelling approaches for the simulation and prediction of
contaminant levels in groundwater. Yuan et al. (2007) applied
RVM to the modelling of seed-separating process. Wong et al.
(2012) also compared RVM with other modelling approaches on
the modelling and control of a piezostage. These researches show
that RVM is generally superior to the ANN. Nevertheless, the
application of RVM to the modelling of diesel engines is still very
few. For these reasons, RVM is employed to model and predict
the diesel engine performance in the present study. Experiments
are conducted to collect sample data for RVM model training
and validation. An ANN-based diesel engine model is also con-
structed based on the same sample data set and compared with
the RVM model in order to demonstrate the effectiveness of this
approach.
Experimental Setup for Sample Data Collection
RVM, like other black-box identification method, is data-driven,
so experiments were conducted to collect sampling data for
model training and validation. A naturally aspirated, water-
cooled, 4-cylinder, direct-injection diesel engine was employed
for the experiment. The engine specification is shown in Table 1,
and the experimental setup is illustrated in Figure 2.
In the setup, the engine was connected to an eddy-current
dynamometer with a control system used for adjusting its
 Diesel Engine Performance 267

Table 1. Engine specifications From the experiments, only 22 sets of data corresponding to
different engine speeds and torque were collected. From the view
Model Isuzu 4HF1 point of the machine learning approaches, 22 sets are considered
Type In-line four-cylinder as scarce. This problem of scarce data set is always encountered
Maximum power 88 kW/3200 rpm in small-scale test laboratories. The collected sampling data,
Maximum torque 285 Nm/1800 rpm including the BSFC, CO2 , and NOx emissions, corresponding to
Bore × stroke 112 mm × 110 mm different load and speed settings, are summarized in Table 3.
Displacement 4334 cc
Compression ratio 19.0:1
Diesel Engine Modelling
Fuel injection timing (BTDC) 8◦
Injection pump type Bosch in-line type
Injection nozzle Hole type (with five Model Parameters
orifices) Before constructing the diesel engine model, the input and out-
put parameters must be defined in advance. Since 22 data sets
were collected from the experiments, to separate them, 18 of
Downloaded by [University of Macau Library] at 19:11 27 October 2014

them were used as the training data for the model construction,
Dynamometer Eddy-current Data acquisition
control system dynamometer system
and the rest of 4 sets were used as testing data for model evalu-
ation. The two controllable parameters, engine speed and engine
load, are selected as the input parameters. The cooling water gov-
Exhaust erns the engine temperature, so the cooling water temperature is
gases
Diesel engine Gas analyzers considered as an important factor and thus it is treated as the
input parameter in this study too. For the output parameters, the
measured data like BSFC, CO2 and NOx emissions are chosen.
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of experimental setup.
   
engine speed BSFC
i.e., x = engine torque ,y= CO2 (1)
speed and torque. Ultra-low sulfur diesel fuel containing less coolant temperature NOx
than 10-ppm-wt sulfur was used for data sampling. Anapol
EU5000 exhaust gas analyzer was used to measure the gaseous
Modelling Using RVM
species in the engine exhaust on a continuous basis. It used infra-
sensors for measuring CO2 concentrations and used chemical According to the theory of RVM (Tipping 2001; Tipping and Faul
cells for measuring nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen diox- 2003), the diesel engine model can be approximated by Eq. (2):
ide (NO2 ) to obtain the NOx concentration. The gas analyzer was
calibrated with standard and zero gases before each experiment. 
N
The resolution of the equipment is summarized in Table 2. Y = w0 + wk K (X, xk ) = wφ (X) (2)
The experiments were conducted at engine speeds of 1200, k=1
1400, 1600, 1800, and 2000 rpm, and each at engine torque of 28,
70, 140, 210, and 252 Nm. At each speed and torque, data were where Y is the prediction output of the RVM model for
recorded after the engine had reached the steady state, which was the unseen input data X, xk is the kth input vector of the
indicated by the lubricating oil temperature and the cooling water training data sets, w = [w0 , . . . , wN ] is the weight vector of
temperature. For the purpose of reducing experimental uncertain- the RVM model, K(X, xk ) is the kernel function and φ(X) =
ties, the data were recorded continuously for 5 min and each test [1, K(X, x1 ), . . . , K(X, xN )]T . Gaussian radial basis function was
was carried out three times and the average values were used. selected as the kernel function because it can easily fit scattered
Besides, in each test, the volumetric flow rate of fuel was mea- and highly nonlinear behavior and usually outperforms other
sured using a measuring cylinder and then converted into mass mapping in regression problem domain (Seeger 2004):
consumption rate based on the density of the fuel (i.e., fuel flow  
rate). The BSFC was then derived based on the engine speed, X − x2k
K (X, xk ) = exp − . (3)
engine torque and fuel flow rate. σ2

Table 2. Resolution of the equipment

Equipment Resolution

Ono Sokki diesel engine system Speed control 1 rpm

Torque control 0.1 Nm
Throttle control 0.1%
CO2 analyzer 0.01%
NOx analyzer 1 ppm
Measuring cylinder 1%
 268 Wong, Wong, and Cheung

Table 3. Experimental data for model training and validation

NOx
Data set Engine speed Engine torque Coolant CO2 concentration concentration
number (rpm) (Nm) temperature (◦ C) BSFC (g/kWh) (%) (ppm)

1 1200 140 80.7 233.16 5.88 665.25

2 1200 210 82.8 225.23 8.67 900.50
3 1200 252 83.2 232.83 10.58 957.19
4 1400 28 79.3 478.57 3.11 199.84
5 1400 70 80.2 292.57 4.33 325.21
6 1400 140 80.7 236.49 6.5 610.04
7 1400 210 83.2 227.94 8.75 818.10
8 1400 252 83.7 237.09 10.9 836.57
9 1600 28 80.3 506.77 3.11 175.13
10 1600 70 80.4 300.99 4.33 303.89
11 1600 140 81.5 238.77 6.5 566.38
Downloaded by [University of Macau Library] at 19:11 27 October 2014

12 1600 210 82.3 229.92 9.09 795.66

13 1600 252 84.3 244.17 11.46 814.56
14 1800 28 80.2 537.04 3.3 170.97
15 1800 70 80.7 311.98 4.51 283.75
16 1800 140 82.1 248.01 6.77 526.49
17 1800 210 83.1 237.34 9.59 748.64
18 1800 252 85.0 258.16 12.02 730.34
19 2000 28 80.7 570.84 3.58 171.73
20 2000 70 80.8 239.71 4.88 280.93
21 2000 140 82.8 257.99 7.12 507.44
22 2000 210 83.6 247.54 10.01 683.83

In order to construct an accurate model, the weight vec-
tor in Eq. (2) and the basis width (σ ) of the kernel function
need to be well estimated. In the RVM algorithm, this can
be done by firstly determining the hyperparameter vector α =
[α0 , . . . , αN ] through the maximization of the likelihood function
as formulated by Eq. (4).
1  
L(α) = − N log 2π + log σ 2 I + φAφ T 
2 dataset.
(4)
−1  Before training the RVM model, each input and output value,
+ yT σ 2 I + φAφ T y
where A is defined as diag (α 0 , . . . , α N ), and y is the output
vector of the training data sets.
The maximization of Eq. (4) over α is known as the type-II
maximum likelihood procedure, which can be accelerated using
the strategy in (Tipping and Faul 2003), where an empty model is
first initialized and then samples within the same principal frame-
work are sequentially added or deleted to increase the marginal
likelihood. After the most probable α is generated from the
procedure, it is then put into Eq. (5) to evaluate the posterior
mean μ:
−1 dicted by the model need to be de-normalized using the inverse
μ = σ −2 A + σ −2 φ T φ φ T y. (5)
The posterior mean μ calculated from Eq. (5), which consists
of very few non-zero elements (i.e., highly sparse), is used as
the estimation of the weight vector. As a result, the RVM diesel
engine model can be further defined as:

N  
X − x2k
Y = μ0 + μk exp − . (6)
k=1
σ2
From the above RVM algorithm, only the value of the basis
width σ need to be defined by the user. In this study, this σ
value is tuned by using leave-one-out cross-validation, which is
a well-known validation scheme specifically suitable for scarce
say v, in the data sets was normalized according to the proce-
dure in (Pyle 1999) in order to increase the model accuracy and
prevent any parameter from dominating the output values. The
normalization range is [0, +1], which can be done using Eq. (7).
(v − vmin )
N(v) = v∗ (7)
(vmax − vmin )
where v∗ , vmax and vmin are the normalized parameter, the upper
limit of the input/output parameter before normalization and the
lower limit of the input/output parameter before normalization,
respectively. After the model is trained, the output values pre-
of Eq. (7) to obtain the actual values.
The above RVM modelling algorithm, including the vali-
dation and the normalization scheme, was implemented using
MATLAB R2012a and executed under Windows 7 on a computer
with Intel Core i7 processor and 6 GB RAM onboard to build the
diesel engine model.
 Diesel Engine Performance 269

Model Evaluation Table 4, which is very similar to those ANN structure proposed
by other researchers.
To illustrate the performance of the RVM model, the model pre-
The RMSE and R2 for the prediction results of both the
dicted output values are compared with the actual values from
RVM model and ANN model are summarized in Table 5.
the experimental data sets (i.e., desired values). Two performance
To make the modelling results more readable, Figures 3–5
indices, namely root mean square error (RMSE) and the coeffi-
depict the comparison between the models’ predicted values
cient of determination (R2 ), are used to evaluate the model, which
and the desire values. By comparing the modelling results in
can be calculated using Eqs. (8) and (9).
the figures, one can learn that RVM is, obviously, superior to
 ANN, and that the RVM diesel engine model constructed is

1  N
reliable.
RMSE =  (yk − Yk )2 (8)
N k=1
Discussion of the Modelling Results
N
1  From Table 5, it can be seen that RVM outperforms the ANN
2 Nt
[yk − Yk ]
R2 = 1 − k=1 2
, where y = yk (9) by 38.32% in RMSEtrain , 20.83% in RMSEtest , 16.41% in R2 train ,
N
(yk − ȳ) N k=1 and 31.40% in R2 test . The relatively high RMSEtrain of the ANN
Downloaded by [University of Macau Library] at 19:11 27 October 2014

k=1
In Eqs. (8) and (9), YK is the k th model predicted value, yk
is the desired value corresponding to the inputs that give Yk , ȳ
is the mean of the desired values, and N is the number of data
points. It has to be noticed that, a smaller RMSE means a better
model accuracy, whereas a higher R2 means the better the model
performs in prediction.
Moreover, for comparison purpose, another diesel engine
model was constructed using a multilayer feed-forward ANN
with back-propagation based on the same sampling data sets.
Since multilayer feed-forward neural network is a well-known
universal estimator (Bishop 1995) and many researches for diesel
engine modelling (Traver, Atkinson, and Atkinson 1999; Khalil
et al. 2005; Canakci, Erdil, and Arcaklioglu 2006; Najafi et al.
2007; Ghobadian et al. 2009; Oguz, Saritas, and Baydan 2010;
Yusaf, Yousif, and Elawad 2011; Aydogan, Altun, and Ozcelik
2011; Ozgur et al. 2011; Ismail et al. 2012) were done based on
this configuration, the results from it can be considered as a rather
standard benchmark. The structure of the ANN used is listed in
shows that the data sets are not sufficient for building such a
highly-nonlinear model. This agrees with the previous studies
that ANN usually requires a large sample data size to train an
accurate model. Moreover, RVM attempts to optimize ‘global’
parameters, whereas ANN easily stuck in local minima. Hence,
the prediction result of ANN is worse than RVM. Furthermore,
only one parameter, σ , needs to be tuned by the user for RVM,
while the learning rate, number of hidden layers and number
of hidden neurons are required in ANN, which means a grid
of guessed values for these parameters have to be prepared and
examined.
The RMSEs of both RVM and ANN for predicting the BSFC
are relatively large as compared to the other output parame-
ters. This is because the function of BSFC is extremely com-
plicated, only 18 training data sets are insufficient for both
modelling algorithms, but it is believed that the model accu-
racies can be improved by increasing the number of training
data. Overall, the prediction accuracy of RVM for scarce data is
satisfactory.

Table 4. Architecture of the ANN model

Number of hidden layer 1

Number of hidden neurons 20
Activation function for hidden layer Hyperbolic tangent sigmoid transfer function (tansig)
Activation function for output layer Linear transfer function (purelin)
Adaption learning function Gradient descent with momentum weight/bias learning function (LEARNGDM)
Training function Levenberg–Marquardt method (TRAINLM)

Table 5. Prediction results of the RVM model and the ANN model
Output parameters Model RMSEtrain ∗ RMSEtest ∗ R2 train R2 test

BSFC RVM 0.0003 3.3344 0.999 0.899

ANN 55.0583 5.8887 0.776 0.684
CO2 concentration RVM 0.0197 0.6096 0.999 0.949
ANN 1.0485 1.3916 0.865 0.735
NOx concentration RVM 9.8052 49.2519 0.999 0.938
ANN 68.6788 108.4095 0.935 0.701
Overall average RVM 3.2751 17.7320 0.999 0.929
ANN 41.5952 38.5633 0.859 0.707
∗ Smaller is better.
 270 Wong, Wong, and Cheung

700 1200

Predicted value of NOx (ppm)

Predicted value of BSFC (g/kWh)

500 800

300 400

RVM ANN
RVM ANN
0
Downloaded by [University of Macau Library] at 19:11 27 October 2014

100 0 400 800 1200

100 300 500 700
Desired value of NOx (ppm)
Desired value of BSFC (g/kWh)
Fig. 5. Comparison between the models’ predicted values and the
Fig. 3. Comparison between the models’ predicted values and the desired values of NOx .
desired values of BSFC.

15 the average accuracy of the RVM model is higher than that of the
ANN model, implying that RVM is superior to the ANN.
With the diesel engine model constructed by RVM, experi-
mental efforts can be reduced significantly as the performance
Predicted value of CO2 (%)

and emissions of the diesel engine can be predicted more eas-

10 ily. A more comprehensive diesel engine model will be further
developed if other engine performance data, such as hydrocarbon
emissions, particulate mass concentration, in-cylinder pressure
and heat release rate, are available.
By applying the RVM model as a virtual sensor on diesel vehi-
cles, the exhaust emissions can be controlled more effectively by
5
incorporating with some advanced control algorithms, such as
model predictive control. The study of model predictive diesel
emission control based on RVM model will be considered as a
RVM ANN future work. Since RVM can also perform online model update,
the applications of RVM to online system modelling and online
0 control will also be explored in the future.
0 5 10 15
Desired value of CO2 (%)
Acknowledgments
Fig. 4. Comparison between the models’ predicted values and the
desired values of CO2 . The authors would like to thank the support from The Hong Kong
Polytechnic University and the technician, Mr. Hang Cheong
Wong, of the Automotive Engineering Laboratory of University
Conclusions of Macau.

In this study, RVM has been applied to model the diesel engine Funding
performance and emission characteristics under the condition
of data scarcity. Although the combustion process of the diesel The research is supported by the University of Macau Research
engine is unknown, the RVM model has successfully demon- Grant, grant numbers MYRG149(Y2-L2)-FST11-WPK and
strated the relation between the input parameters, namely the MYRG2014-00178-FST, and the short-term visiting scholar pro-
engine speeds, engine loads and cooling water temperature, and gramme of University of Macau.
the output variables, including the BSFC, CO2 , and NOx concen-
trations. Experimental results show that the RVM model is still
satisfactory even the available data sets are very few. It is believed Nomenclature
that more training data sets can improve the model accuracy.
Furthermore, a comparison between the RVM model and an ANN Artificial neural network
ANN model has also been conducted. The results indicate that BPNN Back-propagation neural network
 Diesel Engine Performance 271

BSFC Brake-specific fuel consumption Khalil, A., M.N. Almasri, M. McKee, and J.J. Kaluarachchi. 2005.
CO2 Carbon dioxide Applicability of statistical learning algorithms in groundwater quality
NOx Nitrogen oxides modeling. Water Resources Research no. 41 (5).
Lim, S.S., T. Vos, A.D. Flaxman, et al. 2012. A comparative risk assess-
RBFNN Radial basis function neural network
ment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors
RMSE Root mean square error and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990–2010: A systematic analy-
RMSEtest Root mean square error for testing data sis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. The Lancet no. 380
RMSEtrain Root mean square error for training data (9859):2224–2260.
R2 Coefficient of determination Najafi, G., B. Ghobadian, T.F. Yusaf, and H. Rahimi. 2007. Combustion
R2 test Coefficient of determination for testing data analysis of a CI engine performance using waste cooking biodiesel
R2 train Coefficient of determination for training data fuel with an artificial neural network aid. American Journal of Applied
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