ARTICLE IN PRESS

Optics & Laser Technology 42 (2010) 1038–1043

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Optics & Laser Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/optlastec

Signal processing of laser Doppler self-velocimeter

Jian Zhou , Xingwu Long
College of Optoelectronic Science and Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China

a r t i c l e in f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A frequency spectrum refinement and correction algorithm has been put forward to improve the
Received 27 November 2009 accuracy of measurements, and the Cramer–Rao lower bound (CRLB) of Gaussian group Doppler signal
Received in revised form was given based on the introduction of acceleration. Results of simulations and experiments showed
4 January 2010
that the Goertzel refinement algorithm could improve the resolution of the spectrum of the Doppler
Accepted 18 January 2010
Available online 6 February 2010
signal; the ratio correction algorithm made the results closer to the real value. The CRLBs of the
estimated parameters were related to the sampling data, the signal to noise ratio (SNR) and the
Keywords: broadness of Gaussian group, and it can be decreased by increasing the length of the sampling data or
Laser Doppler improving the SNR; the gap between the variances of the measuring results and the CRLBs narrowed
Signal processing
when the SNR of the signal was improved, and was almost eliminated when the SNR was higher than
Cramer–Rao low bound
6 dB.
& 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Laser Doppler velocimeter (LDV) has become a very useful tool
for the measurement of its own velocity in the vehicle inertial
navigation system [1,2]. Precision of measurements, fast response
time and low invasiveness are among the advantages leading
to the success of LDV, in which the Doppler shifted and
backscattered light from a target is coherently mixed with the
source light to produce a beat-frequency intensity modulation.
Fast Fourier transform (FFT) is used to obtain the velocity by
calculating the beat-frequency of the signal spectrum. The
Cramer–Rao low bound (CRLB) is often used to evaluate the
accuracy degree of the measurement for signal processing.
Firstly, if we regard the frequency of the spectral peak
as Doppler frequency, the accuracy would not be high [3]; secondly,
ignoring the acceleration, the CRLB of simple-frequency sinusoidal
signal was used as an approximate value in previous literature [4].
So, in this paper, a frequency spectrum refinement and correction
algorithm was put forward to improve the accuracy of measure-
ments, and the CRLB of Gaussian group Doppler signal was given
based on the introduction of acceleration.
2. Signal processing
The primary result of LDV is a current pulse from the
photodetector. This current contains the frequency information
 Corresponding author. Tel.: + 86 13739091383; fax: + 86 073184576314.
E-mail address: wttzhoujian@163.com (J. Zhou).
relating to the velocity of the measured point and many kinds of
noise, such as photodetection shot noise, light scattered from
outside the measuring volume, and so on. To better estimate the
Doppler frequency of noisy signals, frequency domain processing
techniques are used. With the fast development of digital signal
processing, the fast Fourier transform (FFT) is usually used in
processing Doppler signals. The power spectrum S of a discretized
Doppler signal x is given by
X
N 1
Sk ¼ j xn expðj2pkn=NÞj2 ð1Þ
n¼0
where N is the number of discrete samples and
k=  N, N+ 1,y,N 1. The Doppler frequency is given by the
peak of the spectrum.
On the other hand as a matter of fact, if we put the frequency
of spectral peak as the Doppler frequency, the accuracy would not
be high because the frequency resolution of FFT is given by
Df ¼ fs =N ð2Þ
where fs is the sampling frequency.
It seems that we can improve the frequency resolution by
decreasing the sampling frequency fs or increasing the number
of the sampling data N. However, fs cannot be decreased because
of the wide range of the measured velocity, and N cannot be
increased because of the huge extent of computation. Hence a
frequency spectrum refinement and correction algorithm
was used to improve the frequency resolution. To assist in
understanding, a block diagram of the signal processing is shown
in Fig. 1.

0030-3992/$ - see front matter & 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.optlastec.2010.01.027
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Zhou, X. Long / Optics & Laser Technology 42 (2010) 1038–1043 1039

Fig. 1. Signal processing block diagram.

2.1. Frequency spectrum refinement using Goertzel algorithm [5–7] x (n) yk (n)

There are many frequency spectrum refinement algorithms,

including Goertzel refinement, phase compensation refinement z−1
and complex modulation refinement. The Goertzel refinement is 2cos (2k/N) −WN−k
the most suitable method in LDV, because it has the least extent of
computation and the highest speed [8].
z−1
If x(r) is a N point sequence its Fourier transform is given by
−1
X
N 1
jð2p=NÞrk
XðkÞ ¼ xðrÞe ð3Þ Fig. 2. Calculation flowchart of Goertzel algorithm.
r¼0

where r = 0,1, y ,N 1 and k= 0,1, y ,N 1. Defining WN ¼ ejð2p=NÞ ,

and Eq. (3) reduces to
2.2. Frequency spectrum correction using ratio algorithm [9]
X
N1
XðkÞ ¼ xðrÞWNrk ð4Þ
r¼0 There are many frequency spectrum correction algorithms,
The periodicity of twiddle factor is used in Goertzel algorithm including energy centrobaric correction, ratio correction and
to reduce the extent of computation. The equation is given by phase difference correction. But the ratio correction is the
most suitable method in LDV, because it has a simple formula,
WNkN ¼ eðjð2p=NÞÞðkNÞ ¼ 1 ð5Þ the least extent of computation and the highest accuracy
[9–11].
where WNkN is the twiddle factor. Using Eqs. (5), (4) reduces to The basic principle of ratio correction is setting up a equation
X
N 1 X
N 1 using two spectral lines near the spectral peak to determine the
XðkÞ ¼ xðrÞWNkr WNkN ¼ xðrÞWNkðNrÞ ð6Þ corrected frequency. Define the Hanning window as follows [12]:
r¼0 r¼0
wðnÞ ¼ 0:5½1cos ð2pn=ðN1ÞÞ ð11Þ
Defining yk(n) as follows:
This considered as a high resolving window or raised cosine
X
1 window. The frequency spectrum function of the Hanning
yk ðnÞ ¼ xðnÞWNkðnmÞ uðnmÞ ð7Þ window is given by
m ¼ 1
  sinðpf Þ 1
where  Non oN and N omoN; u(n) is a step function gðf Þ ¼ FT wðnÞ ¼ ð12Þ
whose definition is given by pf 2ð1f 2 Þ
( where FT stands for the Fourier transform and f is the corrected
1 ðn Z0Þ
uðnÞ ¼ ð8Þ frequency. The main equation is given by
0 ðn o 0Þ
gðf Þ=gðf þ 1Þ ¼ yk =yk þ 1 ð13Þ
We know that when n o0 and nZN, x(n)= 0. Using Eqs. (7) and
where yk is the discrete frequency spectrum of f, yk + 1 the discrete
(8), Eq. (6) reduces to
frequency spectrum of f+1 and k the digital frequency of f. From
XðkÞ ¼ yk ðnÞjn ¼ N ð9Þ Eqs. (12) and (13), we know that
In other words, yk(n) is the response of x(n) with the pulse f ¼ ðyk 2yk þ 1 Þ=ðyk þ 1 yk Þ ð14Þ
response WNkn uðnÞ. Specifically, X(k) is the output when n = N. In
order to further reduce the extent of computation, the transfer
function Hk(z) is simplified as follows:
3. CRLBs of the Doppler circular frequency and its first order
1 1WNk z1 rate of change
Hk ðzÞ ¼ ¼
1WNk z1 ð1WNk z1 Þð1WNk z1 Þ
When LDV is used to measure the velocity of solid target,
1WNk z1 especially aircrafts, missiles and tanks, they not only have high
¼ ð10Þ
12 cosð2pk=NÞz1 þ z2 speed but also large acceleration. Because of the existence of
acceleration, the velocity changes when the particles pass through
The calculation flowchart is shown in Fig. 2. the volume of LDV, which broadens the spectrum at the Doppler
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1040 J. Zhou, X. Long / Optics & Laser Technology 42 (2010) 1038–1043

frequency [13]. Hence we need to introduce the acceleration reduces to

when investigating the CRLB of Doppler frequency. 0 1
J11 0 0 0 0
In this paper, the signal model with Gaussian group is given by
B 0 J
B 22 0 J11 0 CC
Z ¼ X þ jY ð15Þ B C
J¼BB 0 0 J33 0 J35 C
C ð25Þ
In the model, X, Y, Xn and Yn are given by B 0 J
@ 11 0 J44 0 CA
X ¼ ½XN ; XN þ 1 ; . . . XN T ð16Þ 0 0 J35 0 J55

Y ¼ ½YN ; YN þ 1 ; . . . YN T ð17Þ where

"pffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffi !  #
Xn ¼ mðnÞ þwðnÞ ¼ A cosðj0 þ oD tn þ rD tn2 Þ expðtn2 =Tw
2
Þ þ wðnÞ ð18Þ A2 T 2 2p 3 2N 2 2N2
J11 ¼ Kw erf NKw exp  2
2s2 4 Kw Kw
Yn ¼ nðnÞ þ wðnÞ
 ¼ A sinðj0 þ oD tn þrD tn2 Þexpðtn2 =Tw
2 
Þ þ wðnÞ ð19Þ   pffiffiffiffiffiffi
A2 N 3 Kw 2 4
T 2N 2 3 2pA2 Kw 5 4
T
Here n =  N, N+ 1,y,N and  NTrtn rNT. In Eqs. (18) and J22 ¼  exp  þ erf
2s 2 Kw2 32s 2
(19), m(n) and n(n) denote pure Doppler signals, A and j0 are the pffiffiffi !   p ffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffi !
2N 3A2 Kw4 4
T N 2N2 2pKw 2N
amplitude and phase of the signal, respectively, oD and rD are the   exp  J33 ¼ erf
Doppler circular frequency and its first order rate of change, T is
Kw 8s2 Kw 2 2s2 Kw
the sampling period and Tw the time duration when particles pass pffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffi !
2pA2 Kw 2N
through the volume of LDV; w(n) and wðnÞ  are sequences of J44 ¼ erf
2s2 Kw
Gaussian white noise with variance s2 and they are Hilbert pffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffi !  
transforms of each other. The signal to noise ratio (SNR) is given 3 2pA2 2N 2A2 N 3 2N2
J55 ¼ 2 erf  2 4 2 exp  2
by 8s Kw T 2 Kw s Kw T Kw
 
SNR ¼ A2 =ð2s2 Þ ð20Þ 3A2 N 2N 2
 2 2 2 exp  2
2 s Kw T Kw
In the model, oD and rD are the parameters that we concerned "pffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffi !  #
among the five unknown parameters. The vector of the para- A 2p 3 2N 2 2N 2
J35 ¼ 2 3 K erf NKw exp  2 ð26Þ
meters is given by s Kw T 4 w Kw Kw

Z ¼ ½ oD rD A j0 Tw T ð21Þ
In Eq. (26), Kw =Tw/T is the width of the Gaussian group and
Based on the theory of mathematical statistics, we need to pffiffiffiffi R x 2

calculate the corresponding Fish matrix J at first to acquire the erf ðxÞ ¼ ð2= pÞ 0 er dr is the error function. Using Eqs. (25) and
CRLBs of the parameters. The relationship is given by [14] (26), the first and second diagonal elements are then given by

ðZi ÞCRLB ZðJ 1 Þii ð22Þ 1 2s2

ðJ 1 Þ11 ¼ ¼ hpffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffi
J11 2 p
A2 T 2 4 Kw 3 erf ð 2N=K ÞNK 2 expð2N 2 =K 2 Þ
where (J  1)ii is the ith diagonal element of the inverse matrix of J. w w w

J is a symmetric matrix, and its elements are given by [14] ð27Þ

!
1 X N
@mn @mn @nn @nn
Jij ¼ 2 þ ð23Þ J44
s n ¼ N @Zi @Zj @Zi @Zj ðJ 1 Þ22 ¼ 2
J22 J44 J24
Using Eqs. (18), (19) and (23), we can obtain "    pffiffiffiffiffiffi 2 5 4
A2 N 3 Kw
2 4
T A 2 Kw4 4
T N 2N2 2pA Kw T
A2 X
N ¼   exp  þ
J11 ¼ tn2 expð2tn2 =Tw
2
Þ; 2s2 8s2 2
Kw 16s2
s2 n ¼ N pffiffiffi !   pffiffiffi !#1
2N A2 T 4 N 2 K 3 4N 2 2N
A2 X
N erf  pffiffiffiffiffiffi w exp  2 erf 1
J21 ¼ J12 ¼ tn3 expð2tn2 =Tw
2
Þ; J31 ¼ J13 ¼ 0 Kw 2 2ps2 Kw Kw
s2 n ¼ N
ð28Þ
A2 X
N
J41 ¼ J14 ¼ tn expð2tn2 =Tw
2
Þ;
s2 n ¼ N Combining Eqs. (22), (27) and (28), we can obtain the CRLBs of
A2 X
N the Doppler circular frequency and its first order rate of change:
J51 ¼ J15 ¼ 0; J22 ¼ tn4 expð2tn2 =Tw
2
Þ
s2 n ¼ N
2s2
J32 ¼ J23 ¼ 0; J42 ¼ J24 ¼ J11 ; J52 ¼ J25 ¼ 0; ðoD ÞCRLB Z hpffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffi ð29Þ
2p 3
A2 T 2 4 Kw
2 expð2N 2 =K 2 Þ
erf ð 2N=Kw ÞNKw w
1 X N
J33 ¼ 2 expð2tn2 =Tw2
Þ
s "
n ¼ N    pffiffiffiffiffiffi 2 5 4
A2 N3 Kw
2 4
T A2 Kw
4 4
T N 2N 2 2pA Kw T
2A X N
ðrD ÞCRLB Z   exp  þ
J43 ¼ J34 ¼ 0; J53 ¼ J35 ¼ 2 3 t 2 expð2tn2 =Tw
2
Þ; 2s2 8s2 Kw2 16s2
s Tw n ¼ N n
A2 X
N pffiffiffi !   pffiffiffi !#1
J44 ¼ expð2tn2 =Tw
2
Þ 2N A2 T 4 N 2 K 3 4N 2 2N
s2 n ¼ N erf  pffiffiffiffiffiffi w exp  2 erf 1
Kw 2 2ps2 Kw Kw
4A2 X N
ð30Þ
J54 ¼ J45 ¼ 0; J55 ¼ t 4 expð2tn2 =Tw
2
Þ ð24Þ
s Tw n ¼ N n
2 6

From Eqs. (29) and (30), we know that the CRLBs of the
In actual measurements, integral can replace the summation in Doppler circular frequency and its first order rate of change are
Eq. (22) because the sampling frequency fs is often much related to the number of sampling data, the SNR and the width of
larger than the estimated Doppler frequency fD. Hence, Eq. (24) the Gaussian group.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Zhou, X. Long / Optics & Laser Technology 42 (2010) 1038–1043 1041

4. Simulation and experiments
Simulation of sinusoidal signals with Goertzel refinement
algorithm and ratio correction algorithm as well as comparison
between the results and their FFT are carried out. The parameters
of the simulation and the signal are shown in Table 1.
Fig. 3 shows the comparison of results between the spectrum
after Goertzel refinement and FFT directly. From the marked
points in Fig. 3(d)–(f), we know that Df= 7812.5 Hz using FFT
directly when the frequency of the signal is 100, 200 and 400 kHz.
From Fig. 3(a)–(c), we know that Df =1953.125 Hz after the
frequency spectrum refinement. The resolution of the spectrum
improved considerably. Fig. 3(a)–(c) also tells us that we can just
refine part of spectrum that we interested, so the extent of the
calculation of the algorithm can be reduced considerably.
Table 1
Parameter configuration in the simulation.
Parameters of the simulation and the signal
Sampling frequency
Number of sample data
Refining multiple
Number of points for FFT
Amplitude of the sinusoidal signal
Frequencies of the sinusoidal signal
Table 2 shows the comparison of results before and after
correction. From the table, we know the error of the frequency is
1.56%, 1.56% and 0.39%, respectively, using FFT directly when the
frequency of the signal is 100, 200 and 300 kHz; the average error
of the frequency is 0.0006%, 0.0026%, and 0.0021%, respectively,
after the frequency correction when the frequency of the signal is
the same as above. Obviously the estimated frequency with
correction is much closer to the real value than that without
correction. The accuracy of the estimated frequency improved
considerably.
When the velocity of the moving vehicle was 1.554 m/s
measured by a high-accuracy GPS, the data acquisition system
collected a sequence of the Doppler signal. The corresponding
Doppler frequency was 1.84 MHz, while the sampling frequency
was 10 MHz and the number of sampling data was 1024 in the
experiment. The Doppler signal and its spectrum after refinement
and correction are shown in Fig. 4. From this figure, we know the
Goertzel refinement algorithm improved the resolution of the
Doppler signal spectrum, and the ratio correction algorithm made
the results closer to the real value.
Fig. 5 shows the relationship among SNR and CRLBs of Doppler
circular frequency as well as its first order rate of change and SNR
2 MHz with different numbers of sampling data. This figure tells us that
1024 the higher the SNR, the smaller the CRLBs, and the more the
4 sampling data, the smaller the CRLBs.
256 The variances of the results were calculated using the
1
100, 200 and 400 kHz
frequency spectrum refinement and correction algorithm, and
compared with the CRLBs. Fig. 6 shows the relationship between

x 105 x 105 x 105

3 3 3

2.5 2.5 2.5

amplitude spectrum

amplitude spectrum

amplitude spectrum

X = 99609.375 X = 400390.625
2 2 X = 199218.75 2 Y = 229708.838
Y = 229413.6893
Y = 150781.37
1.5 1.5 1.5

1 1 1

X = 197265.625 X = 398437.5
0.5 X = 97656.25 0.5 0.5 Y = 14264.3571
Y = 6373.5306 Y = 12438.2973

0 0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5
f x 105 f x 105 f x 105

150 100 150

X = 203125
Y = 96.0706
80
amplitude spectrum

amplitude spectrum

amplitude spectrum

X = 101562.5 X = 398437.5
100 Y = 119.7465 100 Y = 119.4335
60 X = 195312.5
Y = 65.4005

40
50 X = 93750 50
Y = 29.9522 X = 390625
20 Y = 19.6473

0 0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 5
f x 105 f x 105 f x 105

Fig. 3. Comparison of results between spectrum after Goertzel refinement and FFT directly: (a) spectrum after Goertzel refinement when the frequency is 100 kHz, (b)
spectrum after Goertzel refinement when the frequency is 200 kHz, (c) spectrum after Goertzel refinement when the frequency is 400 kHz, (d) result of FFT when the
frequency is 100 kHz, (e) result of FFT when the frequency is 200 kHz and (f) result of FFT when the frequency is 400 kHz.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1042 J. Zhou, X. Long / Optics & Laser Technology 42 (2010) 1038–1043

Table 2
Comparison of results before correction and after correction.

f = 100 kHz f = 200 kHz f = 400 kHz

Frequency before Frequency after Frequency before Frequency after Frequency before Frequency after
correction (Hz) correction (Hz) correction (Hz) correction (Hz) correction (Hz) correction (Hz)

101,562 99,997.5 203,125 199,992 398,438 399,993

101,562 100,002 203,125 199,999 398,438 399,997
101,562 99,997 203,125 199,996 398,438 399,994
101,562 100,005 203,125 199,998 398,438 399,993
101,562 100,013 203,125 199,998 398,438 399,990
101,562 99,997.3 203,125 199,983 398,438 399,989
101,562 99,999.2 203,125 199,994 398,438 399,993
101,562 100,000 203,125 200,000 398,438 399,992
101,562 100,010 203,125 199,993 398,438 399,990
101,562 99,985.1 203,125 199,995 398,438 399,987

0.015 1.5

0.01 X: 1.836e+006

amplitude spectrum
Y: 1.001
0.005 1
voltage

-0.005 X: 1.816e+006
0.5
Y: 0.2968

-0.01

-0.015 0
200 400 600 800 1000 1 1.5 2 2.5
n f x 106

2
refining spectrum
result of correction 1.6
amplitude spectrum

X: 1.836e+006 X: 1.839e+006
amplitude spectrum

1.5 X: 1.836e+006 Y: 1.614 Y: 1.613

1.5
Y: 1.614
1.4
1
1.3
X: 1.826e+006
0.5
Y: 0.3925 1.2
1.1

0 1
1.5 2 2.5 1.82 1.83 1.84 1.85 1.86
f x 106 f x 106

Fig. 4. Actual measuring Doppler signal and its spectrum after refinement and correction: (a) the actual measuring Doppler signal, (b) result of FFT directly, (c) spectrum
after refinement and correction and (d) local enlarged image of the spectrum after refinement and correction.

the variances and the CRLBs of the Doppler frequency with its first measurement for LDV. The CRLB of Gaussian group Doppler signal
order rate of change when fs = 1 MHz, N= 128 and f=200 kHz. From was given based on the introduction of acceleration. The results of
this figure we know the gap between the variances and the CRLBs simulations and experiments showed that the error of the
narrowed when the SNR of the signal was improved, and was estimated frequency reduced owing to the technology of
almost eliminated when the SNR was higher than 6 dB. frequency spectrum refinement and correction; the CRLBs of the
estimated parameters are related to the sampling data, SNR, and
broadness of Gaussian group, and they can be decreased by
5. Conclusion increasing the length of sampling data or improving the SNR; the
gap between the variances and the CRLBs narrowed when the SNR
We have demonstrated that the frequency spectrum refine- of the signal was improved, and was almost eliminated when the
ment and correction algorithm can improve the accuracy of the SNR was higher than 6 dB.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Zhou, X. Long / Optics & Laser Technology 42 (2010) 1038–1043 1043

70 160
65 150
60
140
55
130

CRLB/dB

CRLB/dB
50
45 120
40 110
35
N = 128 100 N = 128
30 N = 256 N = 256
25 N = 512 90 N = 512
N = 1024 N = 1024
20 80
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
SNR/dB SNR/dB

Fig. 5. Relationship among SNR and CRLBs of Doppler circular frequency (a) as well as its first order rate of change and SNR (b).

x 106 x 1015
8 4
7 3.5
6 3
CRLB
5 CRLB 2.5 variance of spectral
variance

variance of spectral variance estimation

4 estimation 2
3 1.5
2 1
1 0.5
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
SNR SNR

Fig. 6. Relationship between the variance of the Doppler frequency with its first order rate of change and the CRLBs and SNR when N= 128 and f= 200 kHz: (a) Doppler
circular frequency and (b) the first order rate of change of Doppler circular frequency.

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