VIRUSES

Viruses are such simple organisms that biologists do not regard them as truly
living. They have the following main characteristics:

 They are less than 300 nm in size - around 50 times smaller than a bacterium
(1 nm, or nanometre, is one thousand millionth of a metre). They can be
seen only with an electron microscope.
 They contain nucleic acid (DNA or RNA).
 The nucleic acid is surrounded by a coat (two, in the case of HIV) of
protein (known as the capsid)
 They can reproduce only inside living ('host) cells.
 They are parasites, and cause disease (they are pathogenic). Examples of
diseases caused by viruses are influenza, measles and AIDS.
 Viruses are not affected by antibiotics.
BACTERIA

Bacteria are the simplest of the (truly) living organisms. They have the
following characteristics:

 They have a size in the range of 0.5-5 um (1 um mm). 1000

 They are unicellular.
 They have no true nucleus (their DNA lies 'loose' in the cytoplasm).
 They have a cell wall.
 They may be (pathogenic) PARASITES or they may be SAPROTROPHS
feeding on dead organic matter causing it to decay. Some may be
involved in NITROGEN FIXATION (see the section on the nitrogen cycle,
p. 106).
 They are killed by antibiotics.
FUNGI

Fungi are usually much larger organisms, visible to the naked eye. They have
the following characteristics:

 They have no chlorophyll, and thus have heterotrophic nutrition:

digesting large molecules with enzymes and absorbing the soluble
products. They are parasites or saprotrophs.
 They have a 'cell' wall made of chitin.
 They are usually made of a large number of tubular threads (hyphae)
intertwined to form a mycelium.
 Hyphae are not divided into individual cells. The lining of cytoplasm has
many nuclei and the central space in the hyphae is a vacuole full of
(vacuolar) sap.
 If they store carbohydrate, they store glycogen.
 They reproduce by producing spores.
THE ROLE OF MICROORGANISMS IN DECOMPOSITION
Many microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi feed as saprotrophs, using
external digestion. They release enzymes onto their dead organic substrate
('food'). These enzymes are:

 PROTEASE which digests proteins to amino acids. Amino acids are

then
further broken down to ammonium ions.
 AMYLASE which digests starch to simple sugars.
 LIPASE which digests fats to fatty acids and glycerol.

Some of the end-products are absorbed by the microorganisms for use in their
own metabolism. For example, amino acids for building up proteins during
growth; sugars for energy release during respiration with CO, and H20 as
waste products; fats for energy storage. Gradually, the dead matter is broken
down, releasing its mineral ions which are returned to the soil for recycling as
they are taken up for use by plants.

THE ROLES OF BACTERIA AND FUNGI IN FOOD PRODUCTION

A. Bacteria and yoghurt
Milk is heated to 90°C, then cooled to between 40°C and 45°C. The correct
species of bacterium (e.g. Lactobacillus) is added and the milk is kept at this
temperature for 24-36 hours. Over this time the bacteria convert milk sugar
(lactose) into lactic acid by anaerobic respiration. The acid curdles the milk
to produce the characteristic texture and sharp flavour of yoghurt.
B. Bacteria and cheese
Milk is warmed to 40°C, inoculated with bacteria (e.g. Streptococcus) and
mixed with rennin, an enzyme found in the stomachs of young mammals.
Lactic acid produced by the bacteria creates the correct pH for the rennin to
work. The milk clots. The solid part (the.curd) is separated from the liquid