Human Behavior and Victimology

Human Behaviour and Victimology (2021)
Human behavior
And
VICTIMOLOGY
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By: Dean MARK LESTER M. FLORES, MSCJ, CSP, CST
Lecturer & Instructor
PART ONE
I. INTRODUCTION
PSYCHOLOGY is the scientific study of behaviour and the mind. This definition contains three
elements. The first is that psychology is a scientific enterprise that obtains knowledge through systematic
and objective methods of observation and experimentation. Second is that psychologists study
behaviours, which refers to any action or reaction that can be measured or observed—such as the blink of
an eye, an increase in heart rate, or the unruly violence that often erupts in a mob . Third is that
psychologists study the mind, which refers to both conscious and unconscious mental states. These
states cannot actually be seen, only inferred from observable behaviour. (Kassin, S., 2008)
II. PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER SCIENCES

Psychology overlaps with other sciences that investigate behaviour and mental processes .
Certain parts of the field share much with the biological sciences, especially physiology, the biological
study of the functions of living organisms and their parts. Like PHYSIOLOGISTS, many psychologists
study the inner workings of the body from a biological perspective. However, psychologists usually focus
on the activity of the brain and nervous system. (Kassin, S., 2008)
The social sciences of SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY, which study human societies and
cultures, also intersect with psychology. For example, both psychology and sociology explore how people
behave when they are in groups. However, psychologists try to understand behaviour from the vantage
point of the individual, whereas sociologists focus on how behaviour is shaped by social forces and social
institutions. Anthropologists investigate behaviour as well, paying particular attention to the similarities and
differences between human cultures around the world. (Kassin, S., 2008)
Psychology is closely connected with PSYCHIATRY, which is the branch of medicine
specializing in mental illnesses. The study of mental illness is one of the largest areas of research in
psychology. PSYCHIATRISTS and PSYCHOLOGISTS differ in their training. A person seeking to become
a psychiatrist first obtains a medical degree and then engages in further formal medical education in
psychiatry. Most psychologists have a doctoral graduate degree in psychology. (Kassin, S., 2008)
To psychologist, most of their efforts are dedicated and devoted to helping distributed, troubled and
mentally ill people. They resorted also to predicting the probable behaviour a particular person may have
at a particular time and sometimes uses also the techniques they psychiatrist uses. To law enforcer and
criminologist, reading one’s man mind is an important skills to be developed. This is because from time
to time he will be dealing with an individual who are mentally unstable and mentally distributed. It is
noteworthy to mention that very few psychologists employed as law enforcers, and these psychologists in
the law enforcement profession can easily cope with the situation involving man’s behaviour. (Beralde, W., 2004)
III. HUMAN PSYCHOLOGY

The science of human mind in any of its aspect, operation, powers, or functions means
PSYCHOLOGY. It is the systematic investigation or mental phenomena, especially those associated with
consciousness, behaviour, and the problems of adjustment to environment. The aggregate of emotions,
traits and behaviour patterns regarded as characteristics of an individual or type.
The aim of psychology is to predict the future actions of a person and the control of such activity by
either adding to the subjects’ make – up to prevent the subjects’ activity from harming the society. (Beralde, W.,
2004)
a. Personality and Temperamental Defined: (Beralde, W., 2004)

 Personality is the sum total of an individual’s mental, emotional and temperamental make – up.
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 Psychologists have defined temperament in different ways. The most useful definition for the
industrial relations, man is the one that considers temperament as one’s behaviour tendency. In
other words, an individual’s personality is his total being.
 Description of Temperament: Many people have tendency to behave in a:
 Domineering fashion
 Argumentative Tendency
 Other are Retiring
One person may be described also are:
 Hot headed
 Sensitive
 Quite Excitable
b. Maladjusted Person
Maladjusted Person – is an individual whose tendency temperament is extreme or whose
tendencies in conflict to the extent that tension, strain, or anxiety is characterized as such. His personality
is not well integrated, and other things being equal, he will be less satisfactory as an employee. (Beralde, W.,
2004)
c. Seven (7) Basic Components of Personality (Beralde, W., 2004)
1. The Normal Component

Self – control is the regulatory force in our make – up. It is very desirable, for it to bring out best
that is in us, as well as to provide a check on undesirable tendencies. The stronger this component of
personality, the more we are inclined to conduct which is by nature conservative, perfectionist, serious
and calm. (Beralde, W., 2004)
2. The Hysteriod Component
People with strong degree of hysteriod component have a great interest in acquiring wealth. They
seem to judge everything and everybody in terms of material things. These people like to gamble, not just
for the love of gambling but for the opportunity to make a quick wealth working for it. (Beralde, W., 2004)
All their activities seem to be characterized by the lack of a sense of fair play. An additional mark of
their temperament is that they tend to push undesirable work assignment to others. (Beralde, W., 2004)
3. The Manic Component
The third component has something to do with sociability. Most of us enjoy parties’ dinner and
luncheons. The following are some of the descriptions of manic component personality:
 He usually had a large stock of stories, and his jokes come in endless streams. He is a good
entertainer, and you like him because he is trying to entertain you. (Beralde, W., 2004)
 He is distractible by nature. He is an individual who sits in his office hoping that someone will come
in and distract him. In other words he wants to be interrupted. (Beralde, W., 2004)
 This person has a lot of get up and goes lots of pep and energy. He prides himself in working long
hours, but there is something wrong, he is likely to mix too much fun with his work. The manic is
one who is overly sociable. He is a fine fellow, but the doesn’t get much done. The person of a little
scalability simply the ability to be friendly and cordial. (Beralde, W., 2004)
4. The Depressive Component

This person is likely to worry about things, which are unrelated to his immediate interest. He is very
cautions and indecisive. In the extreme, he may entertain thoughts of self – destruction. (Beralde, W., 2004)
5. The Autistic Component
These are person with a morbid tendency of daydreaming and introspection uninfluenced by
objectives norms and realities. (Beralde, W., 2004)
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6. The Paranoid Component

A paranoid component is closely likely allied with autistic component. A paranoid person has a
feeling of inferiority, but he would rather die than display them. In connection with this component is the
disregard for authority as expressed in the attitude of “down with everything” except me. (Beralde, W., 2004)
7. The Epileptoid Component
The Epileptoid component is a planner, and who wants to be an ideal man. They gets an idea and
depend on someone else to work them out. These people are quite irritated when interrupted and may
display great anger when distracted. (Beralde, W., 2004)
d. Inferiority Complex (Beralde, W., 2004)

Persons suffering from inferiority complex are extremely sensitive to criticism. They will often try to
justify their faults. They often think that general criticism is directed at them. They love praise because it
gives them temporary self – confidence. They do not like competition unless they are certain to win,
because it hurts them too much when they lose. (Beralde, W., 2004)
In effect, supervisors must be careful in belittling or criticizing such person, because this will only
add to their feeling of inferiority. (Beralde, W., 2004)
IV. CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY
Criminal Psychology, study of the mental processes and behavior of persons who defy ethical,
moral, or legal laws.
Literally, criminal psychology should be that form of psychology used in dealing with crime; not
merely, the psychopathology of criminals, the common definition of criminal psychology is the branch of
psychology which investigates the psychology of crime with particular reference to the
personality factors of the criminal. (Beralde, W., 2004)
Criminal Psychology – is a study that deals on known criminal behaviour. It is a must for police
officer as knowledge to assess the difference in abnormal behaviour can enable them to make important
judgements regarding the seriousness of criminal behaviour. (Guevara & Bautists, 2008)
The term ‘criminal psychology’ has been defined in a number of different ways. Even today there
is no accepted definition. For example, ten years ago two leading criminal psychologists in the UK defined
it as ‘that branch of applied psychology which is concerned with the collection, examination and
presentation of evidence for judicial purposes’ (Gudjonsson and Haward 1998 as cited in Bull, E. et.,al, 2006) . It would seem
from this explanation that criminal psychology is concerned with investigative (those to do with the police)
and court processes. However, with the growth in the last quarter of a century in the involvement of
criminal psychologists in the assessment and treatment of offenders following their sentencing, it would
not be surprising if there were some disagreement with a definition which would exclude these groups of
professionals from being called criminal psychologists. (Bull, E. et.al. 2006)
It would seem therefore that a wider definition of the term is needed. A leading American psychologist has
gone some way to provide this. He described criminal psychology as ‘any application of psychological
knowledge or methods to a task faced by the legal system’ (Wrightsman 2001,as cited in Bull, E. et.,al, 2006) ). This more
inclusive definition involves the whole of the legal system. Criminal psychologists can be involved in all
areas of the judicial process (including post sentence) and a broad-based definition is needed to
encompass all of this work. (Bull, E. et.al. 2006)
In 1981 Professor Lionel Haward, one of the UK’s FOUNDING FATHERS OF CRIMINAL
PSYCHOLOGY described the four roles that psychologists may perform when they become professionally
involved in criminal proceedings. These are:
1. CLINICAL - in this situation the psychologist will usually be involved in the assessment of an individual
in order to provide a clinical judgement. The psychologist could use interviews, assessment tools or
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psychometric tests (i.e. special questionnaires) to aid in his or her assessment. These assessments can
inform the police, the courts, or the prison and probation services about the psychological functioning of
an individual and can therefore influence how the different sections of the criminal justice system process
the individual in question. For example, a psychologist may be asked to assess individuals in order to
determine whether they are fit to stand trial or whether they have a mental illness which means that they
would not understand the proceedings. (Bull, E. et.al. 2006)
2. EXPERIMENTAL - this can involve the psychologist performing research in order to inform a case. This
can involve carrying out experimental tests in order to illustrate a point or provide further information to the
courts (for example, how likely it is that someone can correctly identify an object in the hand of an
individual from a distance of 100 metres at twilight). Alternatively, it can involve psychologists providing
the court with a summary of current research findings which may be relevant to the case in question. (Bull, E.
et.al. 2006)
3. ACTUARIAL - in this instance the word ‘actuarial’ relates to the use of statistics in order to inform a
case. One example of how a psychologist may act in an actuarial role is if they are required to present
actuarial information relating to the probability of an event occurring to the court. For example, a court may
wish to know how likely an offender is to reoffend before the sentence is decided. In such a case, a
psychologist could be called upon in order to inform the pre-sentence report to the court. (Bull, E. et.al. 2006)
4. ADVISORY - in this role the psychologist may provide advice to the police about how to proceed with
an investigation. For example, an offender’s profile could inform the investigation, or advice could be
provided about how best to interview a particular suspect. Alternatively, a prosecution or defence lawyer
may ask for advice on how best to cross-examine a vulnerable witness or another expert witness. This
role involves the use of the psychologist’s expertise in order to advise the police, courts or prison and
probation services. (Bull, E. et.al. 2006)
a. The Role of a Psychologist in Criminal Investigations

The role of a psychologist in criminal investigations can take a variety of forms. Professor Laurence
Alison of the University of Liverpool has suggested a number of ways in which the expertise of a
psychologist could aid the police and support the work that they do.
1. Crime Analysis - Crime analysis (sometimes also called intelligence analysis) isone field of work
which draws upon criminal psychologicalmethods. This process involves the linkage of crimes based
on thesimilarities in the behaviours of the offender as reported bythe victim or as inferred from the
crime scene.(Bull, E. et.al. 2006)
2. Offender profiling or criminal investigative analysis - Offender profiling has received a great deal
of attention from themedia in recent years. Media reporting of the utilization of criminalpsychologists in
high profile cases has introduced the generalpublic to the notion of offender profiling. While this has
raised theprofile of the field, it could be argued that the (largely) sensationalistportrayal of profiling has
resulted in a general confusion ofwhat profiling actually is, how often it is done and who does it.This
uncertainty amongst the general public is not altogether surprisinghowever, as there is an absence of
an agreed definition ofthe term ‘profiling’, even in academic circles. (Bull, E. et.al. 2006)
Offender profiling - is the inferring of an offender’s characteristics from his or her crime scene
behaviour.
3.Interviewing, Detecting deception and Eyewitness research - One of the most important tasks
during an investigation is collectingreliable evidence in order to put together a case of whathappened
during the event in question. One of the main sourcesof this evidence is the people who were
eyewitnesses to the event. (Bull, E. et.al. 2006)
In order to gain this information, an interview needs to be conductedby the investigating police
officers with the aim of gainingas much accurate information from the witness as possible. Inaddition,
once a suspect has been identified, he or she too is interviewedin order to gain his or her view of
events and to possiblyextract a confession to the crime. Hence the interview (whetherwith a witness or
suspect) and the manner in which it is conductedcan be crucial to a case. (Bull, E. et.al. 2006)
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The police can also use psychologists in order to gain advice onhow to interview particular types of
witnesses or suspects. Forexample, psychologists have conducted research into interviewswith
vulnerable witnesses such as the young, the elderly and learningdisabled witnesses. (Bull, E. et.al. 2006)
Research performed by criminal psychologists investigatingthe detection of deception also has
useful applications for thepolice when interviewing witnesses and in particular suspects. (Bull, E. et.al. 2006)
b. Nature of Criminal Behaviour

Antisocial behaviouras defined by many criminologists, is a variety of irresponsible, aggressive,
or criminal types of behaviour that usually begins in childhood or adolescence and persist into
adult life. (Mednich as cited in Sanchez, 2005)
Criminal behaviour is characterized as an antisocial act against social norms and rules or
laws. (Hernstein & Wilson as cited in Sanchez, 2005)
c. Factors in Criminal Behaviour
1. Genes and Environment

Nature and nurture theory work together like two hands. Genetic influences help explain individual
differences in traits such as aggressiveness. For psychological traits, human differences are nearly
always the results of both genetic and environmental variations. Criminal and aggressive tendencies are
known to be genetically influenced. (Myers as cited in Sanchez, 2005)
a.a. Genes Influence – Studies show that crimes have an aggressive component and a foundation
that is at least in part biological. The average man was more aggressive than the woman in all known
societies and that human aggression has been directly tied to sex hormones, particularly male sex
hormones. However, these studies show the genetic influence on criminality but only few. It is
therefore, insufficient enough to support and explain further the relationship between heredity and
criminality. (Herstein & Wilson as cited in Sanchez, 2005)
i. Inherent Factors: Age and Gender – there are social explanations for the effects of age and
sex on crime. in most societies boys are trained by their parents as well as th society to be more
aggressive than girls. They are expected to be tough, to fight back, not to cry, to play and win. The
male gender implies the “machismo” image and thus means that a man should be stronger than
a woman. It also suggests that being one of the males simply mean being one who has the power
over the other. (Sanchez, 2005)
b.b. Environmental Influences – there are studies that point to the relationship of environmental
factors with violence and criminality. Human violence is a product of social forces rather direct result
of a biological drive. Even if it turns out that there is a specific hormonal or genetic type if its turns out
that there is a specific hormonal or genetic type of violent person, we should stay optimistic and try to
find out why these potentially violent hormonal types do not become violent people in some societies.
(Wilkes as cited in Sanchez, 2005)
The environment is believed to shape the individual by the experiences one encounters as he/she
grows. The society has a great influence in the life of the individual. More often than not, one is
expected to mingle and interact with the people in his/her community as well as the whole society.
(Sanchez, 2005)
i. Materialism – Criminologists and social scientist have almost completely overlooked the fact
that materialism is the root cause of crime. False identification of the body as the self leads to
people to believe that sense of enjoyment will make them happy and satisfied, and that most of the
crimes are directly or indirectly connected with the attempt to find satisfaction in the sense of
enjoyment. (Guro, 1987 as cited in Sanchez, 2005)
ii. Poverty - the fact there are at least as many “ wealthy” criminals as there are “poor” criminals
effectively destroy the belief that the root cause of crime is poverty and that the solution to the
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crime is to make everybody rich. Obviously “if poverty is the root cause of crime, then no wealthy
people would engage and commit crimes”. In fact, criminals, whether rich or poor, are criminals not
because they are poor or rich, but because they are in the illusion that material sense of enjoyment
will satisfy them through doing such crimes. (Guro, 1987 as cited in Sanchez, 2005)
There are those children who are neglected by their parents. Some of them, though they
are wanted, are simply the victims of hopeless poverty; their mothers are too busy, too harassed
by the responsibilities she has to do for her children. Any child can escape from poverty if only he
has the desire to better himself and is willing to work hard. But this idea is not completely
discredited. Deprived childhood leaves a permanent mark. (Sanchez, 2005)
iii. Maltreatment – research has shown that there is a direct relation between a child’s exposure to
negative mental, emotional, social and environment events and the presence of problems in the
adult life. Maltreatment during childhood is but one of many factors that leads a person to become
an abusive individual. Later criminal behavior is one of the most commonly discussed
consequences of child abuse particularly maltreatment. It has been linked to both juvenile
delinquency and adult criminality. (Starr, 1993 as cited in Sanchez, 2005)
iv. Family Relationship and Parenting Styles – most of the delinquency may well develop due to
ineffective parenting skills. (Patterson as cited in Sanchez, 2005)
Ineffective parenting skills do not mean parents who are unable to maintain clear house
rules, monitor compliance and handle even minor violations with non – physical punishment. (Dan Hurley,
1995 as cited in Sanchez, 2005)
V. ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR
Abnormal behaviour – defined as behaviour that is personally distressful, personally dysfunctional ,
and /or so culturally deviant that other people judge it to be inappropriate or maladaptive. (Passer, M.W. & Smith, R.E)
a. Abnormality and Mental Deficiency

Although few criminologists adhere to the belief that the only explanation of crime is low
intelligence, the idea remains popular among the general public and the media as something believed in
and entertaining. Some people view intelligence along demonological lines mush like the idea that ugly is
evil (for physical deformity), the parallel being that mental slowness or dullness must be a curse of God
(for mental deficiency). People with low intelligence are often seen as not knowing any better. (Beralde,W., 2004)
Zeleny (1933) as cited in Beralde 2004 identified at least four (4) ways a person of low intelligence
could commit crime:
 by being duped;
 by sheer folly;
 by inability to understand; and
 by attempting to provide for self.
While it may be true that foolish people do foolish things (and stupid is a s stupid does), there are
certain patterns to FOLLY that deserve study in their own right. Perkins (2002) claims that there are three
(3) basic patterns to folly:
1. Mistuning – it is a problem in people with low intelligence that occurs when something is obviously
wrong with the timing and intensify of their build-up toward an emotion. Take anger, for example, as
you often see stupid people lose their temper too early and/or too strongly. This is not a sociological
definition of the situation but instead is their low intelligence causing them to prematurely quit
processing information about something. (Beralde, W., 2004)
2. Entrenchment – this occurs among the mentally deficient when they get absorbed in attempting to
complete a task. Psychologists call this the Zeigarnik effect named after a German psychologist
Bluma Zeigarnik where unfinished cognitive tasks tend to linger and take up valuable space in our
memory until those tasks are resolved. (Beralde, W., 2004)
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3. Undermanagement – it is failure to manage the moment, or a failure to adapt, that is brough on by

being caught up in one’s own momentum or excitement as carried over from situation to situation.
Such a person would be acting like a “fool” because they haven’t calmed down yet from a previous
situation. These types are characterized by:
 Procrastination – putting something off for another day.
 Backsliding –force of habit.
 Vacillation – can’t make up their mind.
 Over commitment – taking on too much responsibility.
 Indulgence – laziness or wallowing in excess.
 Self-handicapping – under achievement.
 Rationalization – the “leaky roof” syndrome, this means you can’t fix the roof while it’s raining
and there’s no need to fix it when it’s not raining.
b. Classification of Abnormal Behaviour
The ability to assess variances in behaviour can enable social workers, correctional officers and
law enforcement officers to make important judgements regarding the seriousness of that behaviour.
(Guevara & Bautista 2008)
1. Neuroses – anxiety which is centered on worry and apprehension; depression which manifests
melancholy and despair, or phobia. (Guevara & Bautista 2008)
Neurosis is a disorder of the psychic or mental functions without lesions of nerves and less
severity than a psychosis.Neurotic is a person suffering from neurosis. They are characterized by
morbid nature or tendency. (Beralde, W., 2004)
Neurosis, in psychoanalysis, a mental illness characterized by anxiety and disturbances in one’s
personality. Generally, only psychologists who adhere to a psychoanalytic or psychodynamic model
of abnormal behaviour use the term neurosis. Psychiatrists and psychologists no longer accept the
term as a formal diagnosis. Lay persons sometimes use the word neurotic to DESCRIBE AN
EMOTIONALLY UNSTABLE PERSON. (Bufka and Barlow, 2008)
Scottish physician William Cullen coined the term neurosisnear the end of the 18th century to
describe a wide variety of nervous behaviours with no apparent physical cause. Austrian
psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud and his followers popularized the word in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries. Freud defined neurosis as one class of mental illnesses. In his view, people became
neurotic when their conscious mind repressed inappropriate fantasies of the unconscious mind. (Bufka and
Barlow, 2008)
Neurosis encompassed variety of mental illnesses, most common are:

a.a. Anxiety disorders
Anxiety disorders involve excessive apprehension, worry, and fear. People with generalized
anxiety disorder experience constant anxiety about routine events in their lives. Phobias are fears
of specific objects, situations, or activities. Panic disorder is an anxiety disorder in which people
experience sudden, intense terror and such physical symptoms as rapid heartbeat and shortness
of breath. People with obsessive-compulsive disorder experience intrusive thoughts or images
(obsessions) or feel compelled to perform certain behaviour’s (compulsions). People with post-
traumatic stress disorder relive traumatic events from their past and feel extreme anxiety and
distress about the event.(Cohen, A. and Kleinman, A., 2008)
 Phobia
Phobia, intense and persistent fear of a specific object, situation, or activity. Because
of this intense and persistent fear, the phobic person often leads a constricted life. The
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anxiety is typically out of proportion to the real situation, and the victim is fully aware that
the fear is irrational.
Phobias Names
Acrophobia -Heights Mysophobia -Dirt and germs

Aerophobia -Flying Nudophobia -Nudity
Agoraphobia -Open spaces, public Numerophobia -Numbers
places Nyctophobia -Darkness, night
Aichmophobia -Sharp pointed objects Ochlophobia -Crowds
Ailurophobia -Cats Ophidiophobia -Snakes
Amaxophobia -Vehicles, driving Ornithophobia -Birds
Anthropophobia -People Phasmophobia -Ghosts
Aquaphobia -Water Phobophobia -Phobias
Arachnephobia -Spiders Pnigophobia -Choking
Astraphobia -Lightning Pogonophobia -Beards
Batrachophobia -Frogs, amphibians Pyrophobia -Fire
Blennophobia -Slime Siderodromophobia -Trains
Brontophobia -Thunder Taphephobia -Being buried alive
Carcinophobia -Cancer Thanatophobia -Death
Claustrophobia -Closed spaces, Trichophobia -Hair
confinement Triskaidekaphobia -The number 13
Clinophobia -Going to bed Trypanophobia -Injections
Cynophobia -Dogs Xenophobia -Strangers
Dementophobia -Insanity Zoophobia -Animals
Dromophobia -Crossing streets
Emetophobia -Vomiting
Entomophobia -Insects
Genophobia -Sex
Gephyrophobia -Crossing bridges
Hematophobia -Blood
Herpetophobia -Reptiles
Homilophobia -Sermons
Linonophobia -String
Monophobia -Being alone
Musophobia -Mice
 Panic Disorder
Panic Disorder, mental illness in which a person experiences repeated, unexpected
panic attacks and persistent anxiety about the possibility that the panic attacks will recur.
A panic attack is a period of intense fear, apprehension, or discomfort. In panic disorder,
the attacks usually occur without warning. Symptoms include a racing heart, shortness
of breath, trembling, choking or smothering sensations, and fears of “going crazy,” losing
control, or dying from a heart attack. Panic attacks may last from a few seconds to
several hours. Most peak within 10 minutes and end within 20 or 30 minutes.(Bufka, L. & Barlow,
D., 2008)
Additionally, panic attacks may occur as part of other anxiety disorders, such as
phobias—in which a specific object or situation triggers the attack—and, more rarely,
post-traumatic stress disorder.(Bufka, L. & Barlow, D., 2008)
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Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder - mental illness that some people develop after

experiencing traumatic or life-threatening events. Such events include warfare, rape and
other sexual assaults, violent physical attacks, torture, child abuse, natural disasters
such as earthquakes and floods, and automobile or airplane crashes. People who
witness traumatic events may also develop the disorder. (Bufka, L. & Barlow, D., 2008)
b.b. Mood disorders
Mood disorders, also called affective disorders, create disturbances in a person’s emotional
life. DEPRESSION, MANIA, AND BIPOLAR DISORDER are examples of mood disorders.
Symptoms of depression may include feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and worthlessness, as
well as complaints of physical pain and changes in appetite, sleep patterns, and energy level. In
mania, on the other hand, an individual experiences an abnormally elevated mood, often marked
by exaggerated self-importance, irritability, agitation, and a decreased need for sleep. In bipolar
disorder, also called manic-depressive illness, a person’s mood alternates between extremes of
mania and depression.(Cohen, A. and Kleinman, A., 2008)
 Depression- (psychology), mental illness in which a person experiences deep, unshakable
sadness and diminished interest in nearly all activities. People also use the term depression
to describe the temporary sadness, loneliness, or blues that everyone feels from time to
time. In contrast to normal sadness, severe depression, also called major depression, can
dramatically impair a person’s ability to function in social situations and at work. People with
major depression often have feelings of despair, hopelessness, and worthlessness, as well
as thoughts of committing suicide. (Cohen, A., 2008)
 Mania - abnormal mental state characterized by an elevated or irritable mood, exaggerated
self-importance, racing thoughts, and hyperactivity. People with mania typically feel
intoxicated with themselves and with life. They may display an indiscriminate enthusiasm for
manipulating people, spending money, and pursuing sexual adventure. Manic people may
also display impatience or hostility toward other people. If frustrated, they may physically
abuse their friends, children, or spouse. (Cohen, A., 2008)
Severe mania may include delusions of grandeur, such as the belief that one is
chosen by God for a special mission. Mania typically involves a decreased need for sleep,
so manic people often wake up early in a highly energized state. Mania makes people
extremely talkative. Their loud, rapid-fire speech sometimes continues unabated without
regard for others. Mania also involves a flight of ideas, racing thoughts that cause speech to
go off in many different directions. (Cohen, A., 2008)
c.c. Personality disorders
Personality disordersare mental illnesses in which one’s personality results in personal
distress or a significant impairment in social or work functioning. In general, people with
personality disorders have poor perceptions of themselves or others. They may have low self-
esteem or overwhelming narcissism, poor impulse control, troubled social relationships, and
inappropriate emotional responses. Considerable controversy exists over where to draw the
distinction between a normal personality and a personality disorder. (Cohen, A. and Kleinman, A., 2008)
d.d. Cognitive disorders
Cognitive disorders, such as delirium and dementia, involve a significant loss of mental
functioning. Dementia, for example, is characterized by impaired memory and difficulties in such
functions as speaking, abstract thinking, and the ability to identify familiar objects. The conditions
in this category usually result from a medical condition, substance abuse, or adverse reactions to
medication or poisonous substances.(Cohen, A. and Kleinman, A., 2008)
DELIRIUM, condition common in many illnesses in which the sufferer is temporarily
disoriented and incoherent and may have hallucinations and delusions. Any disease causing high
fever may bring on delirium.
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SENILE DEMENTIA, form of general intellectual impairment observed in elderly people.

Approximately 10 per cent of all people more than 65 years of age have clinically important
intellectual impairment.
d.d. Dissociative disorders
Dissociative disordersinvolve disturbances in a person’s consciousness, memories, identity,
and perception of the environment. Dissociative disorders include AMNESIA that has no physical
cause; DISSOCIATIVE IDENTITY DISORDER, in which a person has two or more distinct
personalities that alternate in their control of the person’s behavior; DEPERSONALIZATION
DISORDER, characterized by a chronic feeling of being detached from one’s body or mental
processes; and DISSOCIATIVE FUGUE, an episode of sudden departure from home or work with
an accompanying loss of memory. In some parts of the world people experience dissociative
states as “possession” by a god or ghost instead of separate personalities. In many societies,
trance and possession states are normal parts of cultural and religious practices and are not
considered dissociative disorders.(Cohen, A. and Kleinman, A., 2008)
 AMNESIA, loss or impairment of memory. Amnesia is usually associated with some form
of brain damage, but it may also be caused by severe psychological trauma. Amnesia with
a physical cause is called organic amnesia, whereas amnesia of psychological origin is
called functional amnesia.
 DISSOCIATIVE IDENTITY DISORDER, often called multiple personality disorder, mental
illness in which a person has two or more distinct identities or personality states, which
recurrently take control of the person’s consciousness and behavior.
 DEPERSONALIZATION DISORDER, mental illness in which people experience an
unwelcome sense of detachment from their own bodies. They may feel as though they are
floating above the ground, outside observers of their own mental or physical processes.
Other symptoms may include a feeling that they or other people are mechanical or unreal,
a feeling of being in a dream, a feeling that their hands or feet are larger or smaller than
usual, and a deadening of emotional responses. (Spiegel, D., 2008)
 DISSOCIATIVE FUGUE, mental illness in which a person forgets his or her personal
identity and unexpectedly wanders away from home. In many cases, people with this
disorder travel to a distant location and adopt a new identity, complete with a new name,
personal history, and place of residence. They may wander hundreds of miles, leaving their
families mystified about their disappearance. (Spiegel, D., 2008)
e.e. Somatoform disorders
Somatoform disorders are characterized by the presence of physical symptoms that cannot
be explained by a medical condition or another mental illness. Thus, physicians often judge that
such symptoms result from psychological conflicts or distress. For example, in conversion
disorder, also called hysteria, a person may experience blindness, deafness, or seizures, but a
physician cannot find anything wrong with the person. People with another somatoform disorder,
hypochondriasis, constantly fear that they will develop a serious disease and misinterpret minor
physical symptoms as evidence of illness. The term somatoform comes from the Greek word
soma, meaning “body.” (Cohen, A. and Kleinman, A., 2008)
HYSTERIA, type of mental illness, in which emotionally laden mental conflicts appear as
physical symptoms, called conversion reactions, or as severe mental dissociation. In modern
psychological classification, hysteria is known as somatization disorder or conversion disorder,
depending on the specific symptoms displayed.
HYPOCHONDRIA, traditional term for a morbid condition characterized by the simulation of
the symptoms of any of several diseases. Convinced of a grave illness, the hypochondriac may
suffer acutely, not only from the symptoms of the presumed disease, but also from anxiety and
melancholia.
11
f.f. Factitious Disorders

In contrast to people with somatoform disorders , people with factitious disorders
intentionally produce or fake physical or psychological symptoms in order to receive medical
attention and care. For example, an individual might falsely report shortness of breath to gain
admittance to a hospital, report thoughts of suicide to solicit attention, or fabricate blood in the
urine or the symptoms of rash so as to appear ill. Munchausen syndrome represents the most
extreme and chronic variant of the factitious disorders. (Cohen, A. and Kleinman, A., 2008)
MUNCHAUSEN SYNDROME, mental illness in which a person intentionally deceives
health-care professionals into believing he or she is ill. People with this disorder migrate from
hospital to hospital, attempting to get admitted by continually faking or producing symptoms of
illness. They embellish their medical histories with dramatic stories to attract attention, and they
willingly undergo tests and treatments—even surgery—for contrived physical or psychological
ailments.
The term “Munchausen’s syndrome” was coined in 1951 by British physician Richard
Asher, who adapted it from the surname of Baron Münchhausen. (Feldman, Marc D, 2008)
g.g. Substance-related disorders
Substance-related disorders result from the abuse of drugs, side effects of medications, or
exposure to toxic substances. Many mental health professionals regard these disorders as
behavioural or addictive disorders rather than as mental illnesses, although substance-related
disorders commonly occur in people with mental illnesses. Common substance-related disorders
include alcoholism and other forms of drug dependence. In addition, drug use can contribute to
symptoms of other mental disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and psychosis. Drugs
associated with substance-related disorders include alcohol, caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, heroin,
amphetamines, hallucinogens, and sedatives. (Cohen, A. and Kleinman, A., 2008)
h.h. Eating disorders
Eating disordersare conditions in which an individual experiences severe disturbances in
eating behaviours. People with anorexia nervosa have an intense fear about gaining weight and
refuse to eat adequately or maintain a normal body weight. People with bulimia nervosa
repeatedly engage in episodes of binge eating, usually followed by self-induced vomiting or the
use of laxatives, diuretics, or other medications to prevent weight gain. Eating disorders occur
mostly among young women in Western societies and certain parts of Asia. (Cohen, A. and Kleinman, A., 2008)
ANOREXIA NERVOSA, mental illness in which a person has an intense fear of gaining
weight and a distorted perception of their weight and body shape. People with this illness believe
themselves to be fat even when their weight is so low that their health is in danger. A person with
anorexia nervosa severely restricts food intake and usually becomes extremely thin.
BULIMIA, an eating disorder in which persistent overconcern with body weight and shape
leads to repeated episodes of binging (consuming large amounts of food in a short time)
associated with induced vomiting, use of laxatives, fasting, and/or excessive exercise to control
weight. Bulimia was classified as a distinct disorder by the American Psychiatric Association in
1980; the name was changed to bulimia nervosa in 1987.
i.i. Impulse-Control Disorders
People with impulse-control disorders cannot control an impulse to engage in harmful
behaviour’s, such as explosive anger, stealing (KLEPTOMANIA), setting fires (PYROMANIA),
gambling, or pulling out their own hair (TRICHOTILLOMANIA). Some mental illnesses—such as
mania, schizophrenia, and antisocial personality disorder—may include symptoms of impulsive
behaviour. (Cohen, A. and Kleinman, A., 2008)
KLEPTOMANIA, a recurrent failure to resist the impulse to steal objects not needed for
personal use or their monetary value. There is an increasing sense of tension preceding the
unplanned theft, followed by a relief at the time of the theft. The theft is not done with others and
not done out of anger or vengeance.
12
PYROMANIA, mental illness in which fires are repeatedly deliberately set, without anger
and not for monetary gain or other benefit, because the individual cannot resist the impulse to set
fires. The individual experiences tension before setting the fire and pleasure, relief, or erotic
gratification after setting the fire.
PATHOLOGICAL GAMBLING, behaviour disorder in which an individual becomes
progressively unable to resist the impulse to gamble. Listed in 1980 as “pathological gambling” in
the American Psychiatric Association diagnostic manual, this disorder afflicts 2 to 3 percent of the
U.S. adult population. They show little interest in passive games of chance, such as lotteries.
2. Psychoses – There is a significant distortion or reality – delusion (false belief), hallucination
(false sensory perception), repression (not aware). (Guevara & Bautista 2008)
Psychosis, mental illness in which a person loses contact with reality and has difficulty
functioning in daily life. Psychotic symptoms can indicate severe mental illnesses, such as
schizophrenia and bipolar disorder (manic-depressive illness). Unlike people with less severe
psychological problems, psychotic individuals do not usually recognize that their mental functioning is
disturbed. (Mueser, K. T., 2008)
 SCHIZOPHRENIA, severe mental illness characterized by a variety of symptoms, including loss of
contact with reality, bizarre behaviour, disorganized thinking and speech, decreased emotional
expressiveness, and social withdrawal. Usually only some of these symptoms occur in any one
person. The term schizophrenia comes from Greek words meaning “split mind.” However, contrary
to common belief, schizophrenia does not refer to a person with a split personality or multiple
personality. (Mueser, K. T., 2008)
 BIPOLAR DISORDER, mental illness in which a person’s mood alternates between extreme
mania and depression. Bipolar disorder is also called manic-depressive illness. When manic,
people with bipolar disorder feel intensely elated, self-important, energetic, and irritable. When
depressed, they experience painful sadness, negative thinking, and indifference to things that used
to bring them happiness. (Mueser, K. T., 2008)
o Mania, abnormal mental state characterized by an elevated or irritable mood, exaggerated
self-importance, racing thoughts, and hyperactivity.
Mental health professionals generally divide psychotic symptoms into three broad types:
hallucinations, delusions, and bizarre behaviour.
 HALLUCINATIONS refer to hearing, seeing, smelling, feeling, or tasting something when
nothing in the environment actually caused that sensation. For example, a person experiencing
an auditory hallucination might hear a voice calling her or his name even though no one else is
actually present. (Mueser, K. T., 2008)
 A DELUSIONis a false belief held by a person that appears obviously untrue to other people in
that person’s culture. For example, a man may believe that Martians have implanted a microchip
in his brain that controls his thoughts. (Mueser, K. T., 2008)
 BIZARRE BEHAVIOR refers to behaviour in a person that is strange or incomprehensible to
others who know the person. For example, hoarding unused scraps of tin because of their
“magical properties” would be a type of bizarre behaviour. (Mueser, K. T., 2008)
VI. PERSONALITY DISORDERS
Personality Disorders, disorders in which one’s personality results in personal distress or
significantly impairs social or work functioning. Personality disorders involve behaviour that deviates from
the norms or expectations of one’s culture.
Kinds of Personality Disorders

The fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), published
by the American Psychiatric Association, describes ten personality disorders. This article describes in
detail two of the most common personality disorders, antisocial personality disorder and borderline
personality disorder. It also provides brief descriptions of other types of personality disorders.
13
What is DSM – IV?

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSM), medical reference book published by
the American Psychiatric Association (APA) that describes and classifies all known mental illnesses and
emotional disorders. The fourth edition, referred to as DSM-IV, was issued in 1994 and lists more than
300 psychiatric disorders.(Woods, M., 2008)
a. Antisocial Personality Disorder

People with antisocial personality disorderact in a way that disregards the feelings and rights of
other people. Antisocial personalities often break the law, and they may use or exploit other people for
their own gain. They may lie repeatedly, act impulsively, and get into physical fights. They may mistreat
their spouses, neglect or abuse their children, and exploit their employees. They may even kill other
people. People with this disorder are also sometimes called sociopaths or psychopaths. Antisocial
behaviour in people less than 18 years old is called conduct disorder. (Widiger, T. A., 2009)
b. Borderline Personality Disorder

People with borderline personality disorder experience intense emotional instability, particularly in
relationships with others. They may make frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment by others.
They may experience minor problems as major crises. They may also express their anger, frustration, and
dismay through suicidal gestures, self-mutilation, and other self-destructive acts. They tend to have an
unstable self-image or sense of self. (Widiger, T. A., 2009)
Borderline personalities are at high risk for developing depression, alcoholism, drug dependence,
bulimia, dissociative disorders, and post-traumatic stress disorder. As many as 10 per cent of people with
this disorder commit suicide by the age of 30. People with borderline personality disorder are among the
most difficult to treat with psychotherapy, in part because their relationship with their therapist may
become as intense and unstable as their other personal relationships. (Widiger, T. A., 2009)
c. Avoidant Personality Disorder
Avoidant personality disorder is social withdrawal due to intense, anxious shyness. People with
avoidant personalities are reluctant to interact with others unless they feel certain of being liked. They fear
being criticized and rejected. Often they view themselves as socially inept and inferior to others. (Widiger, T. A.,
2009)
d. Dependent Personality Disorder
Dependent personality disorder involves severe and disabling emotional dependency on others.
People with this disorder have difficulty making decisions without a great deal of advice and reassurance
from others. They urgently seek out another relationship when a close relationship ends. They feel
uncomfortable by themselves.(Widiger, T. A., 2009)
e. Histrionic Personality Disorder

People with histrionic personality disorder constantly strive to be the center of attention. They may
act overly flirtatious or dress in ways that draw attention. They may also talk in a dramatic or theatrical
style and display exaggerated emotional reactions. (Widiger, T. A., 2009)
f. Narcissistic Personality Disorder

People with narcissistic personality disorder have a grandiose sense of self-importance. They seek
excessive admiration from others and fantasize about unlimited success or power. They believe they are
special, unique, or superior to others. However, they often have very fragile self-esteem. (Widiger, T. A., 2009)
h. Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder
14
Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder is characterized by a preoccupation with details,

orderliness, perfection, and control. People with this disorder often devote excessive amounts of time to
work and productivity and fail to take time for leisure activities and friendships. They tend to be rigid,
formal, stubborn, and serious. This disorder differs from obsessive-compulsive disorder, which often
includes more bizarre behaviour and rituals. (Widiger, T. A., 2009)
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, mental illness in which a person experiences recurrent, intrusive
thoughts (obsessions) and feels compelled to perform certain behaviours ( compulsions) again and again.
Most people have experienced bizarre or inappropriate thoughts and have engaged in repetitive
behaviours at times. (Bufka, L. & Barlow, D., 2008)
i. Paranoid Personality Disorder
People with paranoid personality disorderfeel constant suspicion and distrust toward other people.
They believe that others are against them and constantly look for evidence to support their suspicions.
They are hostile toward others and react angrily to perceived insults. (Widiger, T. A., 2009)
j. Schizoid Personality Disorder
Schizoid personality disorder involves social isolation and a lack of desire for close personal
relationships. People with this disorder prefer to be alone and seem withdrawn and emotionally detached.
They seem indifferent to praise or criticism from other people. (Widiger, T. A., 2009)
k. Schizotypal Personality Disorder

People with schizotypal personality disorderengage in odd thinking, speech, and behavior. They
may ramble or use words and phrases in unusual ways, and they may believe they have magical control
over others. They feel very uncomfortable with close personal relationships and tend to be suspicious of
others. Some research suggests this disorder is a less severe form of schizophrenia. (Widiger, T. A., 2009)
l. Depressive Personality Disorder

Depressive personality disorder is characterized by chronic pessimism, gloominess, and
cheerlessness. (Widiger, T. A., 2009)
m.Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder

In passive-aggressive personality disorder, a person passively resists completing tasks and
chores, criticizes and scorns authority figures, and seems negative and sullen. (Widiger, T. A., 2009)
VII. FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
a. Man and His Environment (Beralde, W., 2004)

MAN is the best creature God has ever made of all the things He created. Man is of highest quality
for the reason that GOD creates man through His own image and likeness. This makes man a
masterpiece of GOD. Man possesses three (3) faculties: The Intellect, the Will and the Soul.
However, man must live mutually with his environment. He affects it and is being affected by it
either favourably or unfavourably when one of them or both are placed in an adverse condition. (Beralde, W.,
2004)
The Forces in man’s Environment:

Man cannot livr alone by himself. He is in direct contact with numerous forces in his
environment, making him an interacting being. These forces are lumped up into three (3) major
categories:
a. Biological Forces
b. Social Forces
c. Physical Forces
15
b. The DYNAMIC of Social Interaction (Beralde, W., 2004)

Individuals may not be aware that in any social situation, a pattern of behaviour is being followed
and accepted by the participants. For every action perceived by a man from another gives meaning and
interprets it according to his perception of the action. Eventually, the individual responds according to his
own interpretation of the action. Generally, the individual interpretations are conditioned and determined
by his own culture, and the response to actions are often influenced by the set of norms prepared by the
people. (Beralde, W., 2004)
 SOCIAL INTERACTION – social interaction is the process of defining and responding to various
actions and reactions of individuals in a social situation. A social interaction goes on smoothly if the
individuals interacting share a common understanding of the actions and situations where they are
in. They must have a common definition of the situation, which interprets the situation and gives its
social meaning. (Beralde, W., 2004)
 SOCIAL PROCESSES – interaction may also pertain to the mutual experiences that individuals
and groups have upon one another in their attempt to solve the problems and in striving toward
their goals. Every society sets the goals and defines the accepted ways to achieve the goals either
through mutual efforts, competition, or opposition. (Beralde, W., 2004)
 Competition – competition is different from conflict in a way that the action of the group or
individual is directed toward a particular goal. The opposing groups neither aware nor aware
of each other but since the emphasis is on the end goal, the group may not find it necessary
to recognize and eliminate the opponent. (Beralde, W., 2004)
 Conflict - the elimination of the opponent is an important feature and characteristics of
CONFLICT. Consequently, conflict may be defined as a direct and openly antagonistic
struggle of persons or groups for the same objects or end, which is generally characterized
by emotional and violent opposition. (Beralde, W., 2004)
 Cooperation - cooperation is a social process in which people work together to achieve a
common goal and to share the benefits. The mutual sharing of efforts and abilities to
achieve the desired end of individual is the common feature and characteristics of this
process. Thus, people applied themselves because of the belief that any endeavor would
be made easier if they help each other. Cooperation starts in the family, when a child is
made to see and feel the importance of working together, the child acquires the cooperative
behavior pattern. (Beralde, W., 2004)
 Differentiation – as individuals interact, then carry with them their statures or position in the
social system. The status determines the role they play in the total situation. The more
advance the society is, the more the members are highly differentiated. The more
population increases, the more the society becomes complex, and hence differentiation
comes into play. (Beralde, W., 2004)
 Functions of Different Social Processes
 COMPETITION – competition for one, encourages people to exert their best. It stimulates
individuals to improve their skill and wider their knowledge. Efficiency is the end result. It
provides avenues for the display of skills and capabilities and therefore assigns position of
individuals in the system. (Beralde, W., 2004)
 CONFLICT – conflict on the other hand, may also promote solidarity and unity within the
group. When for example an outside force threatens the group, then the people will have
the tendency to unite themselves and work hand in hand to resist the enemy. Conflict may
also lead to a social change. The rise of conflict is sometimes and indicator of change. (Beralde,
W., 2004)
16
 COOPERATION – this is the most favoured in the social processes, promote solidarity and
cohesion. The mutual alliance and cooperative undertaking strengthening the bond that
unties the member of particular groups. (Beralde, W., 2004)
 DIFFERENTIATION – differentiation of roles may depend on such factors as se, age,
wealth accumulated and others to include education, etc. (Beralde, W., 2004)
 Cooperation as a Social Process Procedures other types of Process
COOPERATION as a social process also produces other type of processes, such as:
 ASSIMILATION – it refers to a cultural fusion in which two groups blend their cultures so
that they become one. There is here, therefore the blending of culture. (Beralde, W., 2004)
 ACCUMULATION – when two or more persons or groups are interacting and in contact with
each other, the chance is that both groups will learn and adopt some of the traits and
pattern of behaviour of the group. Cultural borrowing is an important aspect of acculturation.
(Beralde, W., 2004)
 AMALGAMATION – amalgamation is both a cause and effect of acculturation and
assimilation. It refers to the inter – marriage of persons coming from different ethnic groups
resulting in some kind of biological fusion. (Beralde, W., 2004)
 Social Movements
SOCIAL MOVEMENT refers to those activities in which people unite in an organized long –
term effort to change their society or in which they resist and express their dissatisfaction with existing
orders through outright and prolonged actions
c. Classification of Social Movements: (Beralde, W., 2004)

 REACTIONARY – reactionary attempts to preserve the traditional values and social relationship.
 CONSERVATIVE – it seeks to maintain the status quo.
 REFORMIST – it introduces a specific type of social change in different areas of life – religious
political, economic or social.
 REVOLUTIONARY – it change the whole social order, changing the goals and replacement of the
institutionalized means to achieve the goals. This movement also believes the use of radical and
violent means to achieve goals.
d. The need for Psychologist in LAW ENFORCEMENT

There is no intention of making a PSYCHOLOGIST out of any person in two easy lessons. But
every supervisor is a manger of men, and his success is primarily dependent upon his understanding of
people. Anyone practices psychology, whether he knows it or not, every time he deals with people. (Beralde,
W., 2004)
In view of the above, many used to questions this “Do Physical Characteristics have bearing on
Character”? The answer is that, it has been determined beyond doubt that profile, shape of head, color of
skin, shape of jaw, color or set of eyes, and other physical characteristics and traits of an individual. (Beralde,
W., 2004)
To summarize, supervisors, must not only realize that there are many do not job satisfactions and
employee wants or desires other pay. These desires vary with each individual. The supervisor must find
out what each employee wants out his job, and seeks to fill those wants to the maximum extent possible,
if he expects to have loyal and willing followers. For police, crisis situation once a hostage taker started to
talk and negotiate, every second in the negotiations are considered factor in reading one man’s behavior.
(Beralde, W., 2004)
17
--------------------oOo--------------------
PART TWO
VICTIMOLOGY
Victimology is the branch of criminology that examines the emotional, physical and economic
impact of crimes on the victims. Victimologist also examines the relationships between victims and their
victimizers to discover why and how the victim was chosen.
The field of victim ology emerged in the 1940’s when two European criminologist named Von
Hentig and Beniamen Mendelsohn, often called the Fathers of Victimology, began studying crime
victims. They suggested the theory that the victim’s behaviour and attitude caused the crime to be
committed. The field of Victimology originally devoted most of its energy to examining the numerous ways
victims shared the responsibility of specific crimes with the criminal offenders.
The word “VICTIM” has its roots in many ancient languages that covered a great distance from
north-western Europe to the southern tip of Asia and yet had a similar linguistic pattern.
CAUSES OF VICTIMAZATION
LIFESTYLE-EXPOSURE THEORY
1978, Michael J. Hindelang, Michael R. Gottfredson, and James Garofalo published their book, Victims of
Personal Crime: An Empirical Foundation for a Theory of Personal Victimization)
This work delineated thesocio-demographic correlates of victimization based on an analysis of

victimization survey data. They noted that particular subgroups of the U.S. population experienced greater
risk of victimization relative to other groups. Specifically, men, younger adults, and African Americans
were at an increased risk in comparison with women, older Americans, and Whites, for instance. To
account for such trends in victimization risk, Hindelang, Gottfredson, and Garofalo suggested that
victimization risk was a function of lifestyle. In particular, men, younger adults, and African Americans
tended to have lifestyles—including patterns associated with work, school, chores, leisure, etc.—that
exposed them to victimization opportunities. The specific features of lifestyles presumed to create more
exposure to crime were said to include time in public (especially at night), time away from family or
household members, and proximity to and/or association with high-offending groups. In short, these
features of lifestyle shaped the opportunity for individuals to become crime victims.
ROUTINE ACTIVITY THEORY
While Hindelang, Gottfredson, and Garofalo were publishing Victims of Personal Crime,
Lawrence E. Cohen and Marcus Felson were working on similar research, resulting in the 1979
publication in the American Sociological Review of their seminal article, “Social Change and Crime
Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach.”
18
As a starting point for their theory, Cohen and Felson defined the following three necessary
ingredients for crime:
1. a motivated offender,
2. a suitable target, and
3. absence of capable guardianship
For a predatory crime to occur, according to Cohen and Felson, a willing, motivated offender must
come into contact with a victim or target that can be overtaken in a time/space context (i.e., a time and a
place) that does not provide an adequate level of protection in the form of persons or things that could
intervene between offender and victim. The convergence in time and space of a motivated offender, a
suitable target, and absence of capable guardianship was said to present an opportunity for crime.
MULTILEVEL OPPORTUNITY
Late 1970s have underscored the importance of opportunity at various levels of aggregation,
including cities and neighbourhoods. Other work has emphasized micro level variation, including how
specific places and people differ in terms of opportunity. Taking all these theoretical perspectives together,
then, it is clear that “victim opportunity” can exist in multiple realms. Multilevel opportunity theory has been
developed to address this idea. From a multilevel perspective, a complete understanding of individual
victimization risk needs to consider the opportunities presented not only by the individual's lifestyle/routine
activities but also the opportunities presented by the environmental contexts in which the individual is
embedded, including the specific places, neighbourhoods, cities, and so on, within which the individual
moves about his or her daily activities.
Multilevel opportunity theory suggests that opportunity factors interact across realms such that
“individual risk factors for victimization” do not, in fact, pose the same risk regardless of context. From this
perspective, an overall risk of victimization involves a complex interplay between individual risk factors in
combination with risk in the multiple environments in which the individual is embedded.
STRUCTURAL-CHOICE THEORY
Terance Miethe and Robert Meier proposed a multilevel “structural-choice theory” of victimization
in their 1994 book titled Crime and Its Social Context: Toward an Integrated Theory of Offenders, Victims
and Situations.
The structural-choice perspective views crime and victimization as a result of factors at multiple
levels of analysis. However, according to Miethe and Meier, criminal opportunities are largely provided by
individual-level characteristics of victims (i.e., their individual-level exposure, target suitability, and
guardianship practices). On the other hand, environmental conditions provide motivation for the offender.
For instance, neighbourhoods with poor socioeconomic conditions, high rates of residential mobility, and
ethnic heterogeneity create “socially disorganized” climates conducive to producing criminality among
their inhabitants. According to Miethe and Meier, crime is a function of both the criminality-producing
structural factors in the environment and the indicators of vulnerability among individual citizens, which
makes them more or less likely to be chosen as targets/victims.
VICTIM PRECIPITATION THEORY
Another line of thought in trying to understand victimization is the idea that victims may precipitate
or provoke their own victimization. The classic criminological statement on this perspective was provided
by Marvin Wolfgang in 1958. Wolfgang's analysis of homicide in Philadelphia found that a substantial
19
percentage of murders analyzed (approximately 25%) resulted from a victim–offender interaction that
actually began with aggressive actions on the part of the eventual homicide victim. Wolfgang implied,
therefore, that many victims are not merely innocent victims but sometimes suffer violence that is
precipitated by their own violent or threatening actions. The victim's actions are presumed to provide
criminal motivation for the offender.
20

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Human Behaviour and Victimology (2021)

II. PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER SCIENCES

III. HUMAN PSYCHOLOGY

a. Personality and Temperamental Defined: (Beralde, W., 2004)

c. Seven (7) Basic Components of Personality (Beralde, W., 2004)

1. The Normal Component

4. The Depressive Component

6. The Paranoid Component

d. Inferiority Complex (Beralde, W., 2004)

IV. CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY

a. The Role of a Psychologist in Criminal Investigations

b. Nature of Criminal Behaviour

c. Factors in Criminal Behaviour

1. Genes and Environment

a. Abnormality and Mental Deficiency

3. Undermanagement – it is failure to manage the moment, or a failure to adapt, that is brough on by

Neurosis encompassed variety of mental illnesses, most common are:

Acrophobia -Heights Mysophobia -Dirt and germs

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder - mental illness that some people develop after

SENILE DEMENTIA, form of general intellectual impairment observed in elderly people.

f.f. Factitious Disorders

Kinds of Personality Disorders

What is DSM – IV?

a. Antisocial Personality Disorder

b. Borderline Personality Disorder

e. Histrionic Personality Disorder

f. Narcissistic Personality Disorder

Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder is characterized by a preoccupation with details,

k. Schizotypal Personality Disorder

l. Depressive Personality Disorder

m.Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder

VII. FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

a. Man and His Environment (Beralde, W., 2004)

The Forces in man’s Environment:

b. The DYNAMIC of Social Interaction (Beralde, W., 2004)

c. Classification of Social Movements: (Beralde, W., 2004)

d. The need for Psychologist in LAW ENFORCEMENT

This work delineated thesocio-demographic correlates of victimization based on an analysis of

ROUTINE ACTIVITY THEORY

VICTIM PRECIPITATION THEORY

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