Professional Documents
Culture Documents
from
A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control
Chapter 3 _____________________________________________________________ 2
Modeling - Power Transmission Lines ______________________________________ 2
3.1 Introduction____________________________________________________________ 2
3.2 Power Line Designs ______________________________________________________ 2
3.3 Inductance _____________________________________________________________ 9
3.3.1 Magnetic Field Around a Conductor ____________________________________________ 10
3.3.2 Inductive Equations of a Mutilconductor Line _____________________________________ 16
3.3.3 Inductive Equations of an Overhead Multiconductor Line ___________________________ 22
3.3.4 Bundle Conductors __________________________________________________________ 25
3.4 Resistance_____________________________________________________________ 26
3.5 Capacitance ___________________________________________________________ 28
3.5.1 Basic Electric Field Equations Around a Conductor ________________________________ 28
3.5.2. Capacitive Equations of a Multiconductor Line ___________________________________ 31
3.5.3 Capacitive equations of an Overhead Multiconductor Line __________________________ 37
3.6 Power Line Analysis - Single Phase________________________________________ 41
3.6.1 Single-Phase Transmission Line – Time Domain Model _____________________________ 44
3.6.2 Single-Phase Transmission Line – Frequency Domain Model ________________________ 46
3.6.3 Single-Phase Transmission Line – Equivalent Circuit_______________________________ 50
3.7 Power Line Analysis - Three Phase ________________________________________ 53
3.7.1 Three Phase Transmission Line – Time Domain Model______________________________ 54
3.7.2 Three-Phase Transmission Line – Frequency Domain Model_________________________ 59
3.7.3 Three-Phase Transmission Line – Sequence Models _______________________________ 60
3.8 Transmission Line Power Equations_______________________________________ 70
3.9 Transmission Line Power Transfer Limitations _____________________________ 73
3.10 Summary and Discussion _______________________________________________ 75
3.11 Problems ____________________________________________________________ 76
Power System Modeling, Analysis and Control: Chapter 3, Meliopoulos
Chapter 3
Modeling - Power Transmission Lines
3.1 Introduction
Power lines are a vital part of the electric power system. They interconnect the various
parts of the system and transfer electric power from generating plants to consumers.
Power lines may be connected in a network configuration or in a radial configuration.
Power lines may be overhead, underground and they may operate at voltages from very
high to very low. The parameters of power lines affect the flow of power, the power
transfer capability and the voltage magnitude along the power line. Therefore power lines
impact the performance of the power system. It is expedient to develop appropriate
mathematical models for power lines that are suitable for a variety of power system
analyses. In this chapter we examine modeling procedures for power lines. Our approach
will be to consider the physical construction of the power lines, consider first principles
of the operation of the line and develop appropriate equivalent circuits.
Before we embark on the modeling issue of power lines, a brief review of the physical
construction of lines will be discussed.
Overhead power lines are suspended on towers or poles. The design of transmission
towers depends on the operating voltage of the line and other mechanical strength
considerations. Three example transmission tower/pole designs are illustrated in Figures
3.2, 3.3, and 3.4 for 230-, 115-, and 12-kV lines, respectively. Note that the 12-kV line,
which is typically used in distribution circuits, does not have an OHGW. Instead, it has a
fourth conductor, the neutral, which is suspended below the phase conductors. The size
of the neutral conductor is comparable to that of the phase conductors and it is intended
to carry the full load current. The reason for this practice is the fact that distribution
circuits may supply single phase loads connected between a phase and the neutral
conductor. This practice generates unbalanced conditions and the neutral conductor may
carry a substantial electrical current.
HA
LA
HB
LB
LC
HC
Neutral
Power lines can be also constructed from power cables. Cables may be three phase, or
single phase cables connected in a three phase arrangement. A typical single phase power
cable construction is illustrated in Figure 3.6a and a typical three phase power cable
construction is illustrated in Figure 3.6b.
1'-1"
4' 4'
11'-6"
7'-7"
9'-6" 9'-6"
17'-0"
7'-7"
9'-6"
58'-0"
0.25'
9.74'
2
1
8.17'
3
5.50' 5.50'
1.0'
44.21' 40'
Figure 3.7 suggests that distribution systems may operate (and in fact they do operate)
under unbalanced conditions. Some of this imbalance may transmit to the transmission
system. This means that distribution systems present some unique analysis problems. In
addition, recent advances in end use equipment technology has resulted in electric loads
that may be interacting with the system dynamically. For example, solid-state motor
controllers, rectifiers, and so on, inject harmonics into the distribution system. Analysis
and understanding of theses phenomena require that the distribution system be modeled
and understood not only for the power frequency (60-Hz in the United States, 50 Hz in
Europe) but also for other frequencies, such as the harmonics of 60 Hz.
2.16'
b c
3.5'
4.5'
Neutral
31.75'
5' 7.5'
o
37.5' 20
20'
o
55 13.3'
42.5'
Pole conductor::
2 x 1590 kcm
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.6 Typical Power Cables: (a) Single Phase Solid Dielectric, (b)
Three Phase Oil Filled
(a)
Distribution
Substation
b'
c'
a'
Loads
Residential/
Commercial
Load
Industrial/Commercial
Loads
Pad-Mounted
Transformer
Residential/
Commercial
Load
Underground Cable
(b)
Figure 3.7 A Power Distribution System
(a) Perspective View
(b) Wire Line Diagram
For several technical and safety reasons, electric power installations must be grounded.
Grounding of power systems is achieved by embedding metallic structures (conductors)
into earth and electrically connecting these conductors to the neutral of the power system.
In this way a low impedance is provided between the power system neutral and the vast
conducting soil, which guarantees that the voltage of the neutral, with respect to earth,
will be low under all conditions. Grounding is necessary for several reasons: (a) to assure
correct operation of electrical devices, (b) to provide safety during normal or fault
conditions, (c) to stabilize the voltage during transient conditions, and (d) to dissipate
lightning strokes.
The described physical structures are typically modelled with proper mathematical
models. Depending on the objectives of the analysis the mathematical models may be
different for the same physical structure. As an example for analysis of a power line
under steady state 60 Hz sinusoidal operation, a π-equivalent circuit completely captures
the behavior of the line. However for the same line, this equivalent circuit is inadequate
to describe transients on the line. In general, the following models of transmission lines
and relative applications may be encounter:
The presentation of line modeling will be done in several steps. First, we shall examine
the per unit length parameters of a power line. These parameters are: resistance,
inductance, and capacitance. Next, analysis procedures will be introduced by which the
sequence equivalent circuits of power lines will be developed.
3.3 Inductance
Power circuits generate a magnetic field around the line due to the lectric current that
flows through the conductors. The magnetic field induces voltages on the conductors.
The induced voltages are interrelated to electric currents via the inductance of the line. In
this section we develop models for induced voltages and inductances of power lines. The
procedures are applicable to any power line.
Conceptually, the phenomena to be studied can be explained through the simple two-
conductor line illustrated in Figure 3.7. Assume that electric current i(t), which is time
dependent, flows through one conductor. The current generates a magnetic field that is
time dependent. Consider an infinitesimal length dx of conductor. Let dλ(t) be the
magnetic flux linking the electric current i(t) flowing in the infinitesimal length dx of the
conductor. By definition, the inductance of the length dx of the conductor is dL, where
dλ ( t )
dL = (3.1)
i (t )
Since the magnetic flux linkage is time varying, a voltage dv(t) will be induced along
length dx of the conductor:
dλ ( t ) di (t )
dv (t ) = = dL
dt dt
Now assume that the inductance of the conductor is L henries per meter; then
dL = Ldx
dv(t)
+ -
i(t)
dx
-i(t)
Upon substitution in the equations above and subsequent solution for L, we have
dv (t )
L = dx henries/meter (3.2)
di (t )
dt
Equation (3.1) or (3.2) defines the inductance of a conductor. Specifically, Equation (3.1)
states that the inductance equals the magnetic flux linkage divided by the electric current.
Alternatively, Equation (3.2) states that the inductance equals the induced voltage per
unit length divided by the time derivative of the electric current.
We introduce the basic concepts by considering the magnetic field around an infinitely
long conductor of circular cross section. For simplicity, assume that the conductor
material is nonmagnetic. In other words, the permeability of the conductor material is µ 0 .
A cross section of the conductor is shown in Figure 3.8a. The radius of the conductor is a.
Further assume that the conductor carries an electric current i(t), which is uniformly
distributed in the cross section of the conductor (i.e., constant current density). Under
these assumptions, it is relatively easy to compute the magnetic field in and around the
conductor and subsequently the inductance of the line.
Because of the existing cylindrical symmetry, the magnetic field intensity H at a point A,
illustrated in Figure 3.8a, will be perpendicular to the segment OA and the magnitude
will be constant on the circular contour with center O and radius OA. In other words, the
magnitude of the magnetic field intensity, H, is a function of the radius r=OA only, i.e.
H(r). H(r) is computed with a direct application of Ampere's law on the described
configuration. There are two cases.
a
C
o
H
r
(a)
(b)
Case a. Magnetic field outside conductor. In this case, the point A is located outside the
conductor, i.e. r=OA>a.
i (t ) = ∫ H ( r ) ⋅ d l = 2π (OA) H ( r ) = 2πrH ( r )
C
i (t )
H (r) = , for r > a (3.3)
2πr
µ 0 i (t )
B( r ) = µ 0 H ( r ) = , for r > a (3.4)
2πr
Case b. Magnetic field inside conductor. In this case, the point A is located inside the
conductor, i.e. r=OA<a.
Under the assumption that the electric current density is constant inside the conductor, we
have
πr 2
2
⎛r⎞
electric current inside contour C = 2 i (t ) = ⎜ ⎟ i (t ), r < a
πa ⎝a⎠
ri (t )
H (r) = , r<a (3.5)
2πa 2
and
µ 0 ri (t )
B( r ) = µ 0 H (r ) = , r<a (3.6)
2πa 2
The results are summarized in Figure 3.8b, where the magnetic flux density B(r) is
plotted as a function of r along a radial direction.
From the magnetic flux density B, the magnetic flux Φ crossing any surface S is
computed from the integral
Φ = ∫ B⋅ds
S
If the surface S crosses the conductor and since the electric current is distributed inside
the conductor, the magnetic flux will link variable portions of the electric current. In this
case, the use of the concept of magnetic flux linkage is expedient. The magnetic flux
linkage is defined by
λ = ∫ wB ⋅ d s
S
where w is the portion of electric current linked with the infinitesimal magnetic flux
B⋅ds .
Given the magnetic flux linkage though a surface S, the induced voltage v(t) along the
perimeter of the surface is computed by
dλ ( t )
v (t ) =
dt
l
dr surface S
D
dr
2a
i(t)
conductor
πr 2 µ 0 r 3i ( t )
dλint (t ) = 2 B ( r )l = ldr
πa 2πa 4
The magnetic flux linkage of a second infinitesimal strip ldr , which is located outside
the conductor, links the entire electric current through the conductor. The magnetic flux
linkage of this infinitesimal strip dλext is
µ 0i (t )
dλext (t ) = ldr
2πr
a µ 0 r 3i ( t ) D µ i (t )
λ (t ) = ∫ ldr + ∫ 0
ldr
r = 0 2πa 4 r = a 2πr
µ 0 li ( t ) ⎛ 1 D⎞
λ (t ) = ⎜ + ln ⎟ (3.7)
2π ⎝ 4 a⎠
µ 0 i (t )l D
λ= ln (3.8)
2π d
where
1
−
d = ae 4
µ 0 = 4π × 10 −7 H /m (3.9)
The quantity d is known as the geometric mean radius of the conductor. The physical
meaning of the geometric mean radius is that a thin hollow conductor of radius equal to
the geometric mean radius and carrying the same electric current i(t), produces the same
magnetic flux linkage as the conductor under consideration. This interpretation will be
illustrated by the following example.
(a)
(b)
µ 0 i (t )l D
λ= ln
2π d
Solution: The magnetic field density around this configuration is illustrated in Fig.
E3.1b. Specifically, the magnetic field density is
⎡0 r<d
B( r ) = ⎢ µ 0 i (t )
⎢⎣ 2πr r>d
D µ 0 i (t ) µ i (t )l D
λ (t ) = ∫ ldr = 0 ln
r =d 2πr 2π d
The induced voltage across the conductor due to the magnetic flux is readily computed
from
dλ (t ) µ 0 l D di (t )
v (t ) = = ln
dt 2π d dt
λ (t ) µ0 l D
Lt = = ln
i (t ) 2π d
µ0 D
L= ln (3.10)
2π d
One should observe that the inductance of the conductor is dependent on the width D of
the selected surface S. Since the width D can be selected arbitrarily, the result above does
not have any physical meaning. This peculiarity occurs because the path of return of the
electric current i(t) has been neglected. It is apparent that in order to compute the
inductance of the conductor in a unique and meaningful way, it is necessary to consider
the entire circuit, including the path of return of the electric current. In any practical
situation, all conductors or objects carrying electric current will be located in a finite
area. In this case, as we shall see in subsequent sections, the inductance of the conductors
is uniquely defined. Despite the lack of realism of the configuration being considered, the
results obtained are fundamental for the computation of the inductances of realistic
transmission line configurations, as we shall see in subsequent sections.
In summary we have derived expressions for the magnetic field density and magnetic
flux linkage of a current carrying conductor. We will use these results for the analysis of
practical transmission lines.
Consider a rectangular frame with one side of the frame located on the axis of conductor
j. The frame extends to a distance x from the axis of the conductor and its length is l .
The flux linkage through this frame with respect to the current through conductor j, i.e.
the flux linkage of conductor j will be
λ jx (t ) = λ jjx (t ) + ∑ λ jkx (t )
k
where λ jkx (t ) is the contribution of conductor k current to the flux linkage of conductor j.
I1
+ Vj -
Ij
x
Ik
l
In
To compute this term consider Figure 3.11, which illustrates the cross section of the
system of conductors (only conductors j and k are shown) and the frame jx. We would
like to determine the flux linkage through the frame jx defined with the axis of conductor
j and a line parallel to conductor j passing through point x. Note that the contribution to
the magnetic flux linkage from the current of conductor j is:
µ0 d jx
λ jjx (t ) = i j (t ) ln
2π dj
Also note that the contribution to the magnetic flux linkage of conductor j from the
electric current of conductor k is the magnetic flux linkage through the surface defined
with the line djx. This magnetic flux equals the flux linkage through the line mx which is
given by
µ0 d
λ jkx = ik (t ) ln kx
2π d km
Note that the distance dkm is the same as the distance djk. The total magnetic flux linkage
through the frame jx can be formed from the contribution to the flux from all conductors,
i.e.:
djk x
m
dkx
k
M
Fl agn
u x et
ic
µ d jx µ d
λ jx = i j (t ) ln + ∑ ik (t ) ln kx
2π d j k ≠ j 2π d jk
n
µ d
λ jx = ∑ i k (t ) ln kx
k =1 2π d jk
The total magnetic flux linkage of conductor j is computed by stretching the frame jx to
infinity, i.e. x → ∞ . In this case the total magnetic flux linkage is:
n
µ
λ jx ( x → ∞ ) → λ j = ∑
1
ik (t ) ln
k =1 2π d jk
Proof: In order to prove above equation, it is first noted that the basic physical law of
charge conservation dictates that the sum of all electric currents must be equal to zero,
i.e.
∑i
k =1
k (t ) = 0
The current of the last conductor n can be written as the negative sum of all other
currents:
n −1
i n ( t ) = − ∑ ik ( t )
k =1
n −1
µ d n −1
µ d
λ jx = ∑ ik (t ) ln kx − ∑ ik (t ) ln nx
k =1 2π d jk k =1 2π d jn
Above expression can be rewritten in the following form (by simply rearranging):
n −1
µ 1 n −1
µ 1 n −1
µ d
λ jx = ∑ i k (t ) ln −∑ i k (t ) ln +∑ i k (t ) ln kx
k =1 2π d jk k =1 2π d jn k =1 2π d nx
Note that the last sum will vanish as the point x goes to infinity:
d kx ⎛ ⎞
(x → ∞) → 1.0 therefore ln⎜⎜ d kx ⎟⎟ → 0.0
d nx ⎝ d nx ⎠
The second sum can be expressed in terms of the current in conductor n. Thus:
n
µ 1
λj = ∑ i k (t ) ln
k =1 2π d jk
The induced voltage along the conductor is computed as the time derivative of the
magnetic flux linkage of the conductor.
dλ j n
µ dik (t ) 1
v j (t ) = =∑ ln
dt k =1 2π dt d jk
( ~
i k (t ) = Re 2 I j e jωt )
Upon substitution and subsequent manipulations:
n
jωµ ~ 1 n
Vj = ∑ = ∑ x jk I k
~ ~
I k ln
k =1 2π d jk k =1
where
jωµ 1
x jk = ln
2π d jk
The previous results can be directly used to determine the induced per unit length of any
line. An example of a three-phase line will be discussed.
Three Phase Symmetric Line: Consider a three-phase line. For simplicity assume the
three phase conductors of the line are placed on the corners of an equilateral triangle as it
is illustrated in Figure 3.12. The distance between any two phase conductors is D. The
neutral is placed in the center of the equilateral triangle. This results in a symmetric three
phase line. Assume that the electric currents at the three phases and the neutral are
~ ~ ~ ~
I a , I b , I c , and I n respectively. At any point along the line, the sum of all currents equals
~ ~ ~ ~
zero (i.e., I a + I b + I c + I n = 0 ).
Ia C
Ib
Ic N
In A B
(b)
(a)
The induced voltage on each one of the four conductors per unit length of the line is
obtained by application of Equation (3.23). The induced voltages on phases A, B, C and
the neutral is:
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Va = x aa I a + x ab I b + x ac I c + x an I n
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Vb = x ba I a + x bb I b + x bc I c + x bn I n
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Vc = x ca I a + x cb I b + x cc I c + x cn I n
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Vn = x na I a + x nb I b + x nc I c + x nn I n
Note that:
jωµ ⎛ 1 ⎞
x aa = x bb = x cc = x nn = x s = ln ⎜ ⎟
2π ⎝ d ⎠
jωµ ⎛ 1 ⎞
x ab = x bc = x ca = x m = ln ⎜ ⎟
2π ⎝ D ⎠
jωµ 3
x an = x bn = x cn = x mn = ln
2π D
Using above notation and substituting the current in the neutral with the negative sum of
the phase conductor currents, the induced voltage along the conductors of the three
phases are:
~ ~ ~ ~
Va = ( x s − x mn ) I a + ( x m − x mn ) I b + ( x m − x mn ) I c
~ ~ ~ ~
Vb = ( x m − x mn ) I a + ( x s − x mn ) I b + ( x m − x mn ) I c
~ ~ ~ ~
Vc = ( x m − x mn ) I a + ( x m − x mn ) I b + ( x s − x mn ) I c
~
(
~ ~ ~
Vn = −( x s − x mn ) I a + I b + I c )
It is expedient to express the induced phase voltages as the voltage of the phase-neutral
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
loop, i.e. Van = Va − Vn , Vbn = Vb − Vn , etc. In this case, above equations become:
~ ~ ~ ~
Van = 2( x s − x mn ) I a + ( x s + x m − 2 x mn ) I b + ( x s + x m − 2 x mn ) I c
~ ~ ~ ~
Vbn = ( x s + x m − 2 x mn ) I a + 2( x s − x mn ) I b + ( x s + x m − 2 x mn ) I c
~ ~ ~ ~
Vcn = ( x s + x m − 2 x mn ) I a + ( x s + x m − 2 x mn ) I b + 2( x s − x mn ) I c
where:
jωµ D
z1 = z 2 = x s − x m = ln
2π d
jωµ ⎛ D ⎞
z 0 = 4 x s + 2 x m − 6 x mn = 4 ln⎜ ⎟
2π ⎜⎝ d 4 27 ⎟⎠
The terms z1 , z 2 , and z 0 represent the positive, negative and zero sequence series
reactance of this power line.
Overhead or underground power lines are characterized by the fact that earth is one of the
paths for the flow of electric current. During normal operating conditions, some electric
current is induced and flows in the conductive earth soil. In general, the magnitude of this
current is comparatively low. During abnormal operating conditions (faults), a substantial
amount of electric current may flow through earth. In any case, this current (earth
current) induces a voltage along the conductors of the power line, thus affecting its
performance. As a matter of fact, most three-phase overhead circuits are designed in such
a way that during ground faults the majority of the fault current may flow through the
earth.
The distribution of the current in the earth follows a complex, nonuniform pattern. As a
result, the computation of the inductive reactance of the earth path and the mutual
inductance between the earth path and overhead conductors is very complex. In this
section a simplified formula will be given which results from the work of Carson [???]
and Rudenberg [???]. This simplified formula is valid only for usual soil resistivities (50
to 500 Ω⋅m), for low frequencies such as the power frequency (50 or 60 Hz), and for
usual overhead line configurations. Consider the simplest configuration of two overhead
conductors, j and k respectively, parallel to the surface of the earth and carrying electric
~ ~
currents I j and I k , respectively. The configuration is illustrated in Figure 3.16. Assume
no other conductors exist in the vicinity. Then the current through the soil path, i.e. the
~ ~ ~
earth current, is I e = − I j − I k . Carson[???] has given a solution to this problem in terms
of a complex infinite series. For details see Meliopoulos [???]. A simplified version of
~
this results is obtained by retaining the first term of the series. The induced voltage V
along the conductor, using this approximation, is:
~ jωµ ⎛ De ⎞ ~ jωµ ⎛⎜ De ⎞⎟ ~
V≅ ln⎜ ⎟ I j + ln Ik
2π ⎝ d ⎠ 2π ⎜⎝ d jk ⎟⎠
where
d jk
j
(a) (b)
The above result can be used to a general n-conductor configuration above soil by
considering two conductors at a time. Specifically, the inductance per unit length of a
power line is represented by an inductance matrix consisting of the self and mutual
inductances of the line conductors. The inductance matrix of an n-conductor line above
soil is given by
⎡ ⎛ De ⎞ ⎛D ⎞ ⎛ D ⎞⎤
⎢ ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ln⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ ... ln⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟⎥
⎢ ⎝ d1 ⎠ ⎝ d 12 ⎠ ⎝ d 1n ⎠⎥
µ ⎢ ... ... ... ... ⎥
L= ⎢
2π ... ... ... ... ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ln⎛⎜ De ⎞⎟ ln⎛⎜ De ⎞⎟ ... ln⎛⎜ De ⎞⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ d 1n ⎟⎠ ⎜d ⎟
⎝ 2n ⎠
⎜ d ⎟⎥
⎝ n ⎠⎦
The series impedance matrix per unit length, Z, of a power line can be obtained from the
inductance matrix as follows:
Z = jωL
Example E3.2: Consider the three-phase electric power line of Figure E3.2. The phase
conductors are ACSR, 556.5 kcm, 26 strands. The line does not have an overhead ground
wire. The soil resistivity is 75 ohm.m. Compute the inductance matrix, and the positive,
negative and zero sequence inductances of the line.
phase
Conductors
ACSR, 556500
cm,26 Strands
a
9'
5'
c
14'
45'
Figure E3.2
⎡ De De De ⎤
⎢ln d ln
d ab
ln
d ac ⎥⎥
⎢ aa
µ ⎢ De
ln e ⎥
D D
L= ln ln e
2π ⎢ d ba d bb d bc ⎥
⎢ D D D ⎥
⎢ln e ln e ln e ⎥
⎢⎣ d ca d cb d cc ⎥⎦
where:
d ab = d ba = 14.56 ft
d ac = d ca = 14.87 ft
d bc = d cb = 9.0 ft
d aa = d bb = d cc = 0.0315 ft , (taken from the Tables of ACSR conductors)
75
De = 2160 = 2,415 ft
60
Upon substitution into the inductance matrix:
To compute the sequence inductances, first the admittance matrix is “symmetrized”, i.e.
all the off-diagonal entries are substituted with their average value of 1.053x10-6
Henries/meter. Then, the symmetrical transformation is applied to the resulting matrix,
yielding:
Thus the positive and negative sequence inductance is 1.196 microhenries per meter and
the zero sequence inductance is 4.355 microhenries per meter.
conductor bundling on the inductive reactance of the line. This effect can be quantified in
terms of the equivalent geometric mean radius of the bundled conductor. Two cases of
practical importance are given below:
Case 1: Bundle consisting of two identical conductor. Each conductor has a geometric
mean radius of d and the distance between the two conductors is D. The equivalent
geometric mean radius of the bundle is:
d eq = dD
Case 2: Bundle consisting of three identical conductor. Each conductor has a geometric
mean radius of d, the three conductors are placed at the vertices of an equilateral triangle
and the distance between any two conductors is D. The equivalent geometric mean radius
of the bundle is:
d eq = 3 dD 2
3.4 Resistance
The resistance of power conductors is dependednt upon the frequency of the electric
current. For example the DC resistance per unit length ( rdc , f=0 Hertz) can be directly
computed from the conductor material resistivity:
1
rdc = ρ (3.11)
A
where ρ is the Resistivity of the conductor material and A is the cross section of the
conductor.
ka M 0 ( ka ) ⎛ π⎞
rac = rdc sin ⎜ θ 1 ( ka ) − θ 0 ( ka ) − ⎟ (3.12)
2 M 1 ( ka ) ⎝ 4⎠
Where:
k = ωµσ , ω = 2πf
Tabulation of these functions can be found in the references. For easy reference, Table
3.1 provides the numerical values of these functions for the argument range (0 to 10).
1.000 1.0155 14.23 0.5013 142.16 5.000 6.2312 178.93 5.8091 273.55
1.025 1.0171 14.94 0.5140 142.52 5.500 8.4473 199.28 7.9253 293.48
1.050 1.0188 15.66 0.5267 142.89 6.000 11.5008 219.62 10.8502 313.45
1.075 1.0207 16.40 0.5394 143.27 6.500 15.7170 239.96 14.8961 333.46
1.100 1.0227 17.16 0.5521 143.66 7.000 21.5479 260.29 20.5003 353.51
1.125 1.0248 17.93 0.5648 144.05 7.500 29.6223 280.61 28.2737 373.59
1.150 1.0270 18.72 0.5776 144.46 8.000 40.8176 300.92 39.0697 393.69
1.175 1.0294 19.52 0.5904 144.87 8.500 56.3586 321.22 54.0807 413.82
1.200 1.0320 20.34 0.6032 145.29 9.000 77.9565 341.52 74.9740 433.96
1.225 1.0347 21.17 0.6161 145.73 9.500 108.0039 361.81 104.0822 454.11
1.250 1.0376 22.02 0.6290 146.17 10.000 149.8476 382.10 144.6705 474.28
For other conductor cross section geometries, the reader is encourage to consult the
references.
3.5 Capacitance
In this section we discuss methods by which the capacitance of a transmission line can be
computed. For this purpose we employ an approach analogous to the one for computing
the inductive reactance of a transmission line. Recall that for the computation of the
inductive reactance, the magnetic field around the transmission line was examined. For
the computation of the line capacitance, the electric field around the line will be
examined. The source of this electric field is electric charge, which is deposited on the
surface of the line conductors. The analysis of the electric field results in a model relating
the electric charge and the conductor voltage. The time derivative of the total electric
charge on the surface of the conductors is by definition the capacitive current (or the
charging current) of the line. Utilizing this definition, the model can be transformed into
a relationship between the line voltage and the capacitive current. The line capacitance
can be extracted from this model.
This general approach will be utilized to introduce the analysis of capacitive phenomena
in lines in a step-by-step procedure. Specifically, first the simplest case of single circular
conductor will be examined to establish the basic equation. Then the analysis will be
extended to two parallel conductors and the general n-conductor line configuration.
Consider the simple case of one circular infinitely long conductor. We shall assume that
the conductor is electrically charged and we shall seek the relationship between the
electric charge and the conductor voltage. Specifically, assume that the conductor is
charged with electric charge q (coulombs per meter). Because of symmetry, the electric
charge will be uniformly distributed on the conductor surface. The electric charge
generates an electric field around the conductor. Because of symmetry, the electric field
intensity, E, will be radially directed and the magnitude will depend only on the distance
of the point of observation from the axis of the conductor, as illustrated in Figure 3.19,
r r
E = E ( r )a r (3.13)
r
Where ar is a unit vector in the radial direction r.
Consider a cylinder of length l and circular bases of radius r. The axis of the cylinder
is taken on the axis of the conductor as it is illustrated Figure 3.14. Let S be the surface of
the cylinder and V its volume. Application of Gauss' s law yields
r r
∫∫∫ ρdv = ∫∫ D.ds
V S
(3.14)
B
ds
A
rB
r R dθ
Surface S
Volume V
(b)
(a)
(c)
where
ρ = electric charge density, C/m3
r
D = electric field density
dv = infinitesimal volume
r
ds = infinitesimal surface area
The volume integral of the electric charge density inside the volume of the cylinder
equals the total electric charge enclosed in the volume. It can be immediately computed
by observing that electric charge exists only on the conductor surface at a density of q
coulombs per meter. Thus
The surface integral on the right-hand side of Equation (3.14) is computed as follows:
r r r r r r r r
∫∫
S
D .d s = ∫∫ .ds +
D
S1
∫∫ .ds +
S2
D ∫∫ .ds
S3
D
where S1, S2 are the bases of the cylinder and S3 is the side surface of the cylinder. Note
that because the electric field is radially directed, the contributions of the bases of the
cylinder will vanish, that is,
r r r r
∫∫ D.ds = ∫∫ D.ds = 0.0
S1 S2
r r
As has been discussed, the magnitude of the electric field intensity E and therefore D is
a function of the radial distance r only. Thus on the surface S3, the magnitude of the
r
electric field density, D(r), is constant. In addition, the vector D is perpendicular to the
r
surface S3 and thus parallel to ds . Thus
r r
∫∫ D.ds = 2πrlD( r )
S3
ql = 2πrlD ( r ) = 2πrlεE ( r )
q
E (r) = (3.15)
2πεr
The computed electric field intensity provides the basis for computation of the potential
difference between any two points A and B. This difference is the voltage VAB between
points A and B, defined by:
r r
V AB ≡ Φ ( A) − Φ ( B ) ≡ ∫ E ( r ).d l
A→ B
The value of above integral depends only on points A and B. (the reader is encouraged to
prove it). Evaluation of the integral yields:
r r q d
V AB = ∫ E
A→ B
( r ). d l= ln B
2πε d A
(3.16)
where: dA and dB are the distances of points A and B respectively from the axis of the
conductor.
Equation (3.16) relates the electric charge on the conductor to the potential difference
between two points located at a radial distance dA and dB, respectively, from the axis of
the conductor. Equation (3.16) is the basic equation utilized in the analysis of
transmission line capacitance.
Consider a configuration of n conductors which are parallel and infinitely long. The
conductor cross section is circular. Figure 3.16 shows a cross section of the
configuration. Assume that electric charge qi(t) per unit length has been accumulated on
the surface of conductor i which is uniformly distributed over the surface of the
conductor. As a first step, we consider the potential of conductor i with respect to an
arbitrarily selected point of reference X which is illustrated in Figure 3.16. For this
purpose the principle of superposition and the results of section 3.5.1 are employed to
yield:
q X
1
q 2
q j
q n
1 n d jx
vix (t ) = Φ i (t ) − Φ x (t ) =
2πε
∑ q (t ) ln d
j =1
j (3.17)
ij
where
Equation (3.17) expresses the potential difference between conductor i and an arbitrarily
selected point x. If point x is taken to infinity, the voltage v ix will become the absolute
voltage of conductor i, v i . To derive the absolute voltage of conductor i, the general
expression for v i is rewritten as:
n n
1 1 1 1
vix (t ) =
2πε
∑ q j (t ) ln
j =1
−
d ij 2πε
∑ q (t ) ln d
j =1
j
jx
Now observe that if the n conductors are the only objects with electric charge, the sum of
the electric charges, q1 ( t ),....., q n ( t ) , must equal zero, that is,
∑q
j =1
j (t ) = 0 (3.18)
In this case it can be shown that (the reader is encouraged to prove it):
n
1 1
lim
x →∞ 2πε
∑ q (t ) ln d
j =1
j → 0.0 (3.19)
jx
n
1 1
v i (t ) =
2πε
∑q j =1
j (t ) ln
d ij
(3.20)
n
q n (t ) = −∑ q j (t )
j =1
n n −1
1 1 1 d nx
∑
2πε j =1
q j (t ) ln =
d jx 2πε
∑q
j =1
j (t ) ln
d jx
It is expedient to repeat the assumptions under which Equation (3.20) has been obtained:
n
Assumption 1: ∑q j =1
j = 0. This assumption is valid for any transmission line
configuration, assuming that all conductors have been accounted for. For overhead lines,
since the conducting soil represents one of the conductors, this means that the earth must
be also accounted for.
Equation (3.20) can be transformed into an equation relating the conductor capacitive
current to the conductor voltage. For this purpose, Equation (3.20) is differentiated with
respect to time, yielding.
dvi (t ) n 1 dq j (t ) 1
=∑ ln
dt j =1 2πε dt d ij
By definition, the time derivative of the conductor electric charge is the capacitive
current (or charging current):
dq j (t )
≡ i 'j (t ) capacitive current of conductor j
dt
dvi (t ) n 1 ' 1
=∑ i j (t ) ln (3.21)
dt j =1 2πε d ij
Equation (3.21) is the basic equation for modeling the capacitive effects of a
multiconductor power line. For sinusoidal steady-state analysis, Equation (3.21) is
converted into an algebraic equation. For this purpose, recall that under sinusoidal
steady-state conditions, the voltage and currents will have the following general time
variation:
~
(
v i (t ) = Re 2Vi e jωt )
~
(
ii' (t ) = Re 2 I i ' e jωt )
~ ~
where Vi and I j' are complex numbers representing the phasors of the voltage and the
~
capacitive current. Substitution in Equation (3.21) and solution for Vi gives us
n
1 ~' 1
Vi = ∑
~
I i ln , i = 1, 2,..., n (3.22)
j =1 jω 2πε d ij
1 1
x ' ij = ln , i ≠ j ohm⋅meters (3.23a)
jω 2πε d ij
1 1
x ' ii = ln ohm⋅meters (3.23b)
jω 2πε a i
which will be called the separation component of the capacitive reactance and the
conductor component of the capacitive reactance respectively. These quantities depend
on the geometry and material of the components of the capacitive reactance. Using these
variables, Equation (3.22) takes the following simple form:
n
Vi = ∑ x ij' I i '
~ ~
(3.24)
j =1
It is noted that the components of capacitive reactance for all commercially available
conductors have been tabulated. As in the case of the components of inductive reactance,
note that the mathematically rigorous reader will be offended by the expressions for x'ii
and x'ij since they involve the terms ln(1/ai) and ln(1/dij). It should be observed that if
the quantities ai and dij are expressed in the same unit, the final result will be correct.
For this reason it has been accepted that ai and dij will be expressed in feet under the
understanding that each quantity x'ii, x'ij is meaningless if considered individually.
In summary, the capacitive effects of a power line are represented with Equation (3.21).
Specifically, for each conductor in a power line, one equation can be written relating the
capacitive current of the conductors and the time derivative of the conductor voltage. For
sinusoidal steady-state analysis, these equations are converted into a set of algebraic
equations [Equation (3.24)] relating the phasors of the conductor capacitive currents to
the phasor of the conductor voltage. The computation of line capacitance will be
illustrated for a specific power line example.
Three Phase Symmetric Line: Consider the symmetric three-phase line of Figure 3.12.
The distance between any two phase conductors is D and the neutral is placed in the
center of the equilateral triangle. The distance between any phase conductor and neutral
is: Dn = D / 3 . Assume that the charging currents at the three phases and the neutral are
~ ~ ~ ~
I a' , I b' , I c' , and I n' respectively. Figure 3.17 illustrates the geometry and the charging
currents. At any point along the line, the sum of all charging currents equals zero.
Application of equation (3.24) to this system yields.
a I'a
I'n I'c
c
b
I'b
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Note that I a' + I b' + I c' + I n' = 0 . Solving for I n' and substituting in above equations.
Above equations can be utilized to derive the capacitive reactance of the line under
various conditions. For example the sequence components of the capacitive reactance of
the line can be computed. For this purpose, the equations are written in the form:
⎡ an an an ⎤
⎢ln a ln
D
ln
D⎥
~ 1 ~' ⎢ a an a ⎥
Vabcn = C ' I abc where C ' = ⎢ln n ln ln n ⎥
j 2πωε ⎢ D a D⎥
⎢ln a n ln
an
ln
an ⎥
⎢⎣ D D a ⎥⎦
~ 1 ~'
V120 = TC 'T −1 I 120
j 2πωε
⎡ D ⎤
⎢ln a 0 0 ⎥
⎢ D ⎥
TC ' T −1 =⎢ 0 ln 0 ⎥
⎢ a ⎥
⎢ a n3 ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 ln
aD 2 ⎥⎦
or
~ 1 D ~'
V1 = ln
I1 (3.25a)
j 2πωε a
~ 1 D~
V2 = ln I 2' (3.25b)
j 2πωε a
~ 3 an ~ '
V0 = ln I0 (3.25c)
j 2πωε 3
aD 2
Above equations state that the positive, negative and zero sequance capacitive reactance
of the line per unit length is:
1 D
x1' = x 2' = ln
j 2πωε a
3 an
x 0' = ln
j 2πωε 3
aD 2
Most overhead transmission lines have ground wires to protect them against lightning.
Overhead distribution lines have neutral conductors for unbalanced current return. All
overhead power lines are suspended above earth. Neutral/ground wires and the earth are
conducting media in the vicinity of the line which may be charged with electric charge
due to the electric field of the line. Alternatively, these conducting media alter the
electric field of the line and affect the capacitance of the line. In this section we examine
methods by which the effects of earth and neutral or overhead ground wires on line
capacitance can be quantified.
Consider a multiconductor line above earth. The space around the line consists of two
media: a nonconducting medium (above earth) and a highly conducting medium (earth).
Assume the interface to be a plane, as illustrated in Figure 3.17. The conductors of the
line are located in the nonconducting medium. The earth is charged in such a way that the
electric field on the surface of the earth is perpendicular to the earth-air interface and the
electric field inside the earth is zero. The charged conductors will establish an electric
field in the nonconducting medium (air). The theory of images [???] guarantees that the
electric field in the space of the nonconducting medium is identical to the electric field
generated by two sets of conductors, the original set of conductors located in the
nonconducting medium, and another set of conductors which are the geometric images of
the actual conductors with respect to the plane interface of the two media. If the electric
charge on an actual conductor is q, the electric charge of its image is -q. This condition
guarantees that the electric field intensity on the interface will be perpendicular to the
plane interface. Thus the boundary conditions of the problem are matched. A
consequence of this condition is that if the voltage of an actual conductor is V, the
voltage of its image will be -V.
q
1
1
2
3
-q
1
(a) (b)
Consider the general transmission line suspended above earth, as illustrated in Figure
3.17a. Application of the theory of images results in the equivalent configuration of
Figure 3.17b. Subsequently, the capacitive currents of the conductors are computed as
~ ~
follows: The voltages of the conductors, V1 , V2 ,... , are expressed in terms of the
~ ~
capacitive currents I 1' , I 2' ,... In this analysis the capacitive currents of the images are also
included. The voltage of conductor i will be:
n
~ n
Vi = ∑ x ' ij I j' − ∑ x ' ij ' I j' , i = 1, 2,....n
~ ~
(3.26)
j =1 j =1
where:
1 1
x ' ij = ln
jω 2πε d ij
1 1
x' ij ' = ln
jω 2πε d ij '
Equation (3.26) is rewritten by combining the terms with the same electric current,
yielding the compact form:
n ⎛ d ij ' ⎞~ '
1
Vi = ∑ ⎜
~ ⎟I j , i = 1, 2,...n
ln (3.27)
⎜
j =1 ⎝ jω 2πε d ⎟
ij ⎠
~
Assuming that the voltage Vi , i = 1, 2,...n , are known, Equation (3.27) is solved to
~
provide the capacitive currents I j' , j = 1, 2,...n . The earth will also carry a capacitive
~
currents, I e' , which is given by the equation
n
I e' = − ∑ I j'
~ ~
j =1
Example E3.3. Consider the three phase line of Figure E3.3. Compute the positive,
negative and zero sequence capacitive reactance of the line per unit length. Consider the
effect of the earth.
phase
Conductors
ACSR, 556500
cm,26 Strands
a
9'
5'
c
14'
45'
Figure E3.3
Solution: Recall that the distances among the phases of this line are:
d ab = d ba = 14.56 ft
d ac = d ca = 14.87 ft
d bc = d cb = 9.0 ft
The radii opf the phase conductors are (from the Tables of ACSR conductors):
a aa = a bb = a cc = 0.04 feet
or
~ ~'
⎡Va ⎤ ⎡7.8241 1.9751 1.8652 ⎤ ⎡ I a ⎤
⎢~ ⎥ 1 ⎢1.9751 7.9102 2.3979⎥ ⎢ I~ ' ⎥
⎢Vb ⎥ = jω 2πε ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ~b ⎥
⎢V~c ⎥ ⎢⎣1.8652 2.3979 7.7187⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I c' ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦
To compute the sequence capacitances, first the impedance matrix is “symmetrized”, i.e.
all the diagonal entries are substituted with their average value of 7.8177 and the off-
diagonal entries are substituted with their average value of 2.0794. Then, the symmetrical
transformation to the voltages and currents yielding:
~ ~
⎡V1 ⎤ ⎡5.7383 0.0 0.0 ⎤ ⎡ I 1' ⎤
⎢~ ⎥ ⎢ 0.0 ⎢~ ⎥
0.0 ⎥ ⎢ I 2' ⎥
1
⎢V2 ⎥ = jω 2πε ⎢
5.7383
⎥ ~
⎢V~0 ⎥ ⎣⎢ 0.0 0.0 11.9765⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ I 0' ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦
Upon computation of the capacitance values above, the sequence values of the
capacitances are:
C1 = C 2 = 9.6947 pF / m
C 0 = 4.645 pF / m
problems, such as (a) Power flow analysis, (b) Short-circuit analysis, (c) Stability
analysis, (d) Harmonic analysis, (e) Electrical transients analysis, etc.
The procedure of developing power line models from the per nuit length parameters of
the line is dependent upon the intended application, i.e. the physical phenomena that must
be captured. The conditions involved in these analysis problems range from the steady-
state low-frequency (50 or 60 Hz) nearly balanced operation to very fast transients
(switching surges or lightning-induced transients). In addition, certain phenomena (such
as asymmetric operation, fault conditions, or transients) involve the earth as one of many
paths of electric current flow. In these cases, accurate modeling of the earth path is
required. Transmission line modeling procedures are drastically simplified by developing
specific transmission line models for specific applications. These models result from
specific simplifying approximations which are reasonable for the application under
consideration. For example, the sequence models of a transmission line, computed at the
power frequency, are utilized for power flow, short-circuit analysis or stability analysis.
On the other hand, for fast electromagnetic transients the distributed nature of the
transmission line parameters must be modeled explicitly.
In this book we focus on near steady state operation of power systems. Thus, the
objective of this section is to develop transmission line equivalent models under steady
state low frequency operation and to spell out the specific assumptions and
simplifications leading to these models. For this purpose we shall consider the basic
equations of a transmission line. These equations are in the form of first-order partial
differential equations. From these equations we shall develop transmission line models
suitable for representing the line during steady-state operation. The traditional approach
is to neglect asymmetries among the phases of a power line. This is a reasonable
approximation for the applications covered in this book. For coverage of nonsymmetric
lines see reference [???].
The procedure for computing the symmetric line models is llustrated in Figure 3.18.
Specifically, two approaches are represented in Figure 3.18. In the first approach, given
the geometry of the transmission line, the positive, negative and zero sequence (per unit
length) resistance, inductance and capacitance of the line is computed. Having these
parameters, each set of parameters (positive, negative or zero sequence parameters) is
treated as a sinlge phase transmission line. Transmission line analysis will provide the
model in terms of the terminal voltages and currents and the equivalent circuit. Since this
procedure is applied separately on each set of parameters (positive, negative and zero
sequence) the end result will be three models and three equivalent circuits (positive,
negative and zero sequence equivalent circuit). In the second approach, the per unit
length resistance, inductance and capacitance matrices of the line are computed first.
Next transmission line analysis is applied to develop the three phase line model. The
resulting model is a set of coupled equations. The symmetrical transformation is applied
to this model. By imposing symmetry on the model matrices, this transformation results
in three sets of decoupled equations which represent the positive, negative and zero
sequence models of the three-phase line. Each one of these models represents an
equivalent circuit. In this way the positive, negative and zero sequence equivalent circuits
are obtained.
Note that the end result of both approaches is the three equivalent circuits, i.e. positive,
negative and zero sequence equivalent circuit. Both procedures provide identical results.
It should be emphasized that the assumption of symmetry results in an approximate
model of the line.
Symmetry
Assumption
R 1, L 1, C 1 + seq equivalent
3 Phase R 2=R 1, L 2=L 1, C 2=C 1 - seq equivalent
Line
R 0, L 0, C 0 0 seq equivalent
(a)
Yes
Symmetry
Assumption
No
+ Seq Model
3 Phase Matrices
- Seq Model
Line R, L, C
0 Seq Model
Coupled
Differential
Equations
(b)
Figure 3.18. Two Alternate Procedures for Deriving Sequence Models of
Three Phase Transmission Lines
(a) Computation of Per Unit Sequence Parameters and Then Equivalents
(b) Transformation of Three Phase Line Model into Sequence Models
The last parameter is typically zero for power lines, but it was added for completeness
and generality. It should be obvious that above parameters may represent the parameters
of a physically single-phase line or they may be the positive, negative or zero sequence
parameters of a three-phase line.
y=0 y y=
i(0,t) dy i( ,t)
v(0,t) v( ,t)
+ +
v(y,t) v(y+dy,t)
gdy Cdy
- -
⎛ d⎞
− v ( y , t ) − ⎜ rdy + Ldy ⎟i ( y + dy , t ) + v ( y + dy , t ) = 0
⎝ dt ⎠
dv ( y , t )
i ( y , t ) + gdy v ( y , t ) + Cdy − i ( y + dy , t ) = 0
dt
Above equations are rewritten as follows (by dividing by “dy” and rearranging):
v ( y + dy , t ) − v ( y , t ) d
= ri ( y + dy , t ) + L i ( y + dy , t )
dy dt
i ( y + dy , t ) − i ( y , t ) dv ( y , t )
= gv ( y , t ) + C
dy dt
∂v ( y , t ) di ( y , t )
= ri ( y , t ) + L (3.28a)
dy dt
∂i ( y , t ) dv ( y , t )
= gv ( y , t ) + C (3.28b)
dy dt
The partial differential equations (3.28) define the model of a single-phase transmission
line in terms of the parameters r, L, g, and C.
∂ 2 i ( y, t ) dv( y, t ) d dv( y, t )
2
=g +C
dy dy dt dy
∂ 2 i ( y, t ) ∂ 2 i( y, t ) di( y, t )
2
= CL 2
+ ( gL + Cr ) + gri( y , t ) (3.29a)
dy dt dt
Note that Equation (3.29a) is decoupled (i.e., it is an equation in terms of the current
function only). A similar procedure yields a differential equation in terms of the voltage
function only:
∂ 2 v( y, t ) ∂ 2 v( y, t ) dv ( y , t )
2
= LC 2
+ ( Lg + rC ) + rgv ( y , t ) (3.29b)
dy dt dt
The partial differential equations (3.28) or (3.29) described the general model of a single-
phase line.
Most of the time, power systems operate under sinusoidal steady-state conditions. In this
case the imposed voltages and currents on the transmission line vary sinusoidally with
frequency f. Since the transmission line is a linear system, the currents and voltages at
any point, y, in the transmission line will vary sinusoidally with time. Thus, in general,
( ~
i ( y , t ) = Re 2 I ( y )e jωt ) (3.32a)
( ~
v ( y , t ) = Re 2V ( y )e jωt ) (3.32b)
~ ~
where I ( y ) , V ( y ) are complex numbers (phasors) and ω=2πf. The models of a single-
phase line under these conditions is developed next.
~
⎛ jωt d 2V ( y ) ⎞
2 Re⎜⎜ e 2
~
( ~ ~
⎟⎟ = 2 Re [−ω 2 LCV ( y ) + jω ( Lg + rC )V ( y ) + rgV ( y )]e jωt )
⎝ dy ⎠
~
⎛ dV ( y ) ⎞
2 Re⎜⎜ e jωt ( ~
⎟⎟ = 2 Re e jωt ( r + jωL) I ( y ) )
⎝ dy ⎠
The equation above must be satisfied for any time t. Thus the coefficients of the time
functions on the two sides of the equation must be identical, yielding.
~
d 2V ( y ) ~
2
= [ −ω 2 LC + jω ( Lg + rC ) + rg ]V ( y )
dy
~
dV ( y ) ~
= ( r + jωL ) I ( y )
dy
~
dV ( y ) ~
= ( r + jωL ) I ( y ) (3.33b)
dy
y ' ≡ g + jωC = shunt admittance per unit length of the line at frequency ω
~
dV ( y ) ~
= zI ( y ) (3.34b)
dy
Equations (3.34) represent the single-phase line model at sinusoidal steady state. The
general solution of Equation (3.34a) is
~
V ( y ) = ae py + be − py (3.35)
where a, b are constants dependent on the boundary conditions of the line, and
p = zy ' = − ω 2 LC + jω ( Lg + rC ) + rg (3.36)
Note that p is dependent on the angular frequency ω = 2πf . The dimension of the
constant p is inverse of length. The constant p characterizes the propagation of voltage
through the transmission line. For this reason it is called the propagation constant. The
real and imaginary parts of the propagation constant is referred to as the attenuation and
phase constant, respectively. That is, p = κ + jη , where κ is the attenuation constant
andη is the phase constant.
~
The general solution for the electric current phasor I ( y ) is obtained by substituting
Equation (3.35) into Equation (3.34b). The result is
~ p
I ( y ) = ( ae py − be − py )
z
Observe that
p y'
=
z z
Define
z 1
Z0 = '
= (3.37)
y Y0
Note that the quantity Z0 has dimensions of impedance and it is a characteristic of the
transmission line under consideration. We refer to it as the characteristic impedance of
the line. The quantity Y0 will the the characteristic admittance of the line. In terms of the
characteristic impedance or admittance, the equation for the line current becomes
~ a py b − py
I ( y) = e − e = aY0 e py − bY0 e − py (3.38)
Z0 Z0
while:
~
V ( y ) = ae py + be − py
Above equation provides the general solution for the voltage and current phasors at a
location y of a single-phase line. The solution is expressed in terms of the propagation
constant p, the characteristic impedance Z0, and two constants a and b. The quantities p
and Z0 depend on the parameters of the line, while the constants a, b are dependent on the
boundary conditions. If enough boundary conditions are given, for example the terminal
voltage and current at one end of the line, the constants a and b can be expressed as a
function of the boundary data.
As an example, we will assume that the voltage and current at the receiving end of the
~ ~
line of Figure 3.19 are known to be V R and I R . Note that the receiving end of this line is
characterized with y=0. Therefore:
~ ~
V ( y = 0) = V R = a + b
~ ~ a b
I ( y = 0) = I R = −
Z0 Z0
Upon solution of two equations above for the constants a and b we obtain
~ ~
VR + Z 0 I R
a=
2
~ ~
VR − Z 0 I R
b=
2
~ ~ e py + e − py ~ e py − e − py ~ ~
V ( y ) = VR + Z0I R = V R cosh( py ) + Z 0 I R sinh( py ) (3.39a)
2 2
~
~ VR e py − e − py ~ e py + e − py ~ ~
I ( y) = + IR = Y0VR sinh( py ) + I R cosh( py ) (3.39b)
Z0 2 2
Equations (3.39) provide the voltage and current phasors at any location y along the line
in terms of the voltage and current at the receiving end of the line (y = 0). Of special
interest are the voltage and current at the other end of the line (y = l ):
~ ~ ~ ~
V S = V ( y = l) = V R cosh( pl) + Z 0 I R sinh( pl)
~ ~ ~ ~
I S = I ( y = l) = Y0V R sinh( pl) + I R cosh( pl)
This equation states that the sending-end voltage and current are a linear combination of
the receiving-end voltage and current, and vice versa. Three parameters describe this
model completely: (a) the characteristic impedance of the line Z0; (b) the propagation
constant of the line, p; and (c) the length of the line, l . Note that the model depends only
on the product p l and the characteristic impedance Z0. Alternatively, the following
parameters completely describe the single-phase transmission line: (a) A = cosh p l , (b)
B = Z0sinh p l , and (c) C = Y0sinh p l . In terms of the parameters A, B, C, the line
equations (3.39) become:
~ ~ ~
V S = AV R + BI R (3.40a)
~ ~ ~
I S = CV R + A I R (3.40b)
These parameters are known as the A, B, C constants of the line. Note that
Thus the parameters A, B, and C are not independent. Knowledge of the two is enough to
determine the third.
In previous sections we have developed the model of a single-phase line under steady-
state conditions. The model is in terms of the A, B, C parameters or alternatively, in
terms of the characteristic impedance, propagation constant, and line length. An
alternative representation of the transmission line under steady-state conditions is by
means of an equivalent circuit. This approach is more attractive because of the familiarity
of engineers with circuits. This section presents the computation of equivalent circuits
from the transmission line parameters.
Consider Equations (3.40) of a single-phase line in terms of the terminal currents and
voltages. From realization theory it is known that a two-port circuit can be found which is
described with the same equations. Furthermore, this two-port circuit is not unique. From
the multiplicity of equivalent circuits, two particular circuits have been popular among
power engineers: (a) the π equivalent, and (b) the T equivalent. In this textbook we will
develop and use the π equivalent circuit. This circuit is introduced next.
~ ~ ~ ~
V1 = V R , V2 = Vs
Upon substitution, and expressing the line terminal currents as a function of line terminal
voltages and the parameters A, B and C:
~ A~ 1 ~
I 1 = V1 − V2 (3.51a)
B B
~ 1 ~ A~
I 2 = − V1 + V2 (3.51b)
B B
~ ~
I1 Yπ I2
+ +
~ ~
V1 V2
Y'π Y'π
- -
Second, the equations expressing the terminal currents of the circuit 3.20 as a function of
the terminal voltages and the parameters of the pi-equivalent circuit are:
~ ~ ~
I 1 = (Yπ + Yπ' )V1 − Yπ V2
~ ~ ~
I 1 = −Yπ V1 + (Yπ' + Yπ )V2
1
Yπ = (3.52a)
B
A −1
Yπ' = (3.52b)
B
Equations (3.52) define the parameters of the π-equivalent circuit of a line. These
parameters are the series admittance of the equivalent circuit, Yπ, and the shunt
admittance of the equivalent circuit, Y'π. The impedance parameters of the π equivalent
circuit will be:
1
Zπ = = B = Z 0 sinh( pl)
Yπ
1 B Z sinh( pl)
Z π' = = = 0
Yπ'
A − 1 cosh( pl) − 1
sinh pl ≅ pl
( pl ) 2
cosh pl ≅ 1 +
2
Substitution of the approximations above in the equations for the parameters Zπ, and Z'π,
yields:
Z π ≅ Z 0 pl = zl = ( r + jωL )l (3.53a)
Z 0 pl 2Z 2 2
Z 'π ≅ = 0 = ' = (3.53b)
( pl) 2
pl y l ( g + jωC )l
1+ −1
2
The computation of equivalent circuits for a transmission line will be illustrated with an
example.
Problem E3.4. A three phase transmission line has the following per unit length positive
sequence parameters
Solution:
'
y
1 ⎛ pl ⎞
Yπ' = tanh ⎜ ⎟ = (0.0115 + j 6.646)10 − 4 S
Z0 ⎝ 2 ⎠
1
Z π' = = 2.626 − j1504.66 Ω
Yπ'
l
Yπ'n = y ' = j 6.551 × 10 −4 S
2
1
Z π' n = ' = − j1526.48 Ω
Yπn
8.489 8.489
(a) (b)
Self-resistance: rii = ri + re
µ De
Self-inductance: Liie = ln
2π d
µ De
Mutual inductance: Lije = ln
2π d ij
where
re = ωµ /8
ri = conductor i resistance per unit length, ohms per meter
di = conductor i geometric mean radius
ρ
De = 2,160 feet, equivalent depth of return
f
ρ = soil resistivity
f = frequency of currents
d ij = distance between conductors i and j
y=0 y y=
dy
i a(0,t) i a( ,t)
i b(0,t) i b( ,t)
i c(0,t) i c( ,t)
(a)
(b)
The self- and mutual capacitances are computed using the methods developed in earlier
sections. First the matrix C' is computed:
⎡C aa
' '
C ab C ac' ⎤
⎢ ' ⎥
C ' = ⎢C ba '
C bb C bc' ⎥
⎢C ca' C cb' C cc' ⎥⎦
⎣
where:
1 d ij
Cij' = ln
2πε d ij '
⎡C aa C ab C ac ⎤
C = (C )
' −1
= ⎢C ba C bb C bc ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣C ca C cb C cc ⎥⎦
The matrix above defines the self- and mutual capacitances. The self and mutual
parameters of the three phase conductors are represented schematically in Figure 3.21b.
For completeness, we also assume that there is self- and mutual conductance between the
phase conductors, represented by the conductance matrix G.
Now application of Kirchhoff's voltage and current law on the circuit of Figure 3.21b
yields
⎛ d⎞
− v ( y , t ) − ⎜ Rdy + Ldy ⎟i ( y + dy , t ) + v ( y + dy , t ) = 0
⎝ dt ⎠
dv ( y , t )
i ( y , t ) + Gdy v ( y , t ) + Cdy − i ( y + dy , t ) = 0
dt
where
⎡ia ( y, t )⎤
i ( y , t ) = ⎢i b ( y , t ) ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ic ( y, t ) ⎥⎦
⎡v a ( y , t )⎤
v( y, t ) = ⎢vb ( y, t )⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ v c ( y, t ) ⎥⎦
⎡ re + ra re re ⎤
R = ⎢ re re + rb re ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ re re re + rc ⎥⎦
⎡C aa C ab C ac ⎤
C = ⎢Cba C bb C bc ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣C ca C cb C cc ⎥⎦
Upon division of the matrix equations above by “dy” and taking the limit as dy → 0, the
following matrix differential equations are obtained:
∂v ( y , t ) di ( y , t )
= Ri ( y , t ) + L (3.30a)
dy dt
∂i ( y , t ) dv ( y , t )
= Gv ( y , t ) + C (3.30b)
dy dt
Again, as in the case of the single-phase line, the foregoing first-order matrix coupled
partial differential equations can be transformed into uncoupled second-order matrix
differential equations.
∂ 2i( y, t ) ∂ 2i( y, t ) di ( y , t )
2
= CL 2
+ (GL + CR ) + GRi ( y , t ) (3.31a)
dy dt dt
∂ 2 v( y, t ) ∂ 2 v( y, t ) dv ( y , t )
2
= LC 2
+ ( LG + RC ) + RGv ( y , t ) (3.31b)
dy dt dt
The computation of the matrices L, R, C, and G of the equations above are now
demonstrated with an example.
Inductance:
µ 0 De
Liie = ln
2π d i
d i = 0.0255 ft
µ 0 De
Lije = ln
2π Dij
ρ
De = 2,160 ft
f
Dab = 12.636 ft
Dac = 12.717 ft
Dbc = 8.170 ft
As in the case of a single phase transmission line, we consider the operation of the line
under sinusoidal steady state conditions. Since the three-phase transmission line is a
linear system, the currents and voltages at any point, y, in the transmission line will vary
sinusoidally with time. Thus, in general,
( ~
i ( y , t ) = Re 2 I ( y )e jωt) (3.40a)
( ~
v ( y , t ) = Re 2V ( y )e jωt ) (3.40b)
~ ~
where I ( y ), V ( y ) , are vectors of complex numbers (phasors) and ω=2πf.
Above expressions are substituted into Equations (3.31b) and (3.30a) and after
eliminating the common factors, we obtain:
~
d 2V ( y ) ~
2
= ( R + jωL )(G + jωC )V ( y ) (3.41a)
dy
~
dV ( y ) ~
= ( R + jωL ) I ( y ) (3.41b)
dy
Z ≡ R + jωL
Y ' ≡ G + jωC
Then
~
d 2V ( y ) ~
2
= ZY 'V ( y ) (3.42a)
dy
~
dV ( y ) ~
= ZI ( y ) (3.42b)
dy
The foregoing matrix differential equations in complex variables fully describe the
performance of a general three-phase transmission line. Solution of these equations for
specified boundary conditions will yield the electric currents and voltages of any phase at
any location of the line. However, solution of the equations above is rather difficult. In
the following section we discuss transformations that decompose the matrix equations
(3.42) into scalar equations. In this way, the solution of the matrix equations (3.42)
reduces to the solution of a set of scalar equations.
The model of a three-phase transmission line under sinusoidal steady state condition is
defined by Equations (3.42). Solution of these equations is in general complex because
the matrices Z, Y' are full matrices resulting in a set of three coupled differential
equations. To simplify the solution, observe that it is possible to find a transformation T
~ ~
of the voltage and current vector V ( y ) and I ( y ) as follows:
~ ~ ~ ~
TV ( y ) = V m ( y ) or V ( y ) = T −1V m ( y ) (3.43a)
~ ~ ~ ~
TI ( y ) = I m ( y ) or I ( y ) = T −1 I m ( y ) (3.43b)
~
where T is a 3×3 matrix, V m ( y ) are the transformed voltages at location y of the line,
~
and I m ( y ) are the transformed currents at location y of the line. Substitution of the
transformation above into Equations (3.42) and subsequent premuliplication of the
resulting equation by T results in
~
d 2V ( m ) ( y ) ~
2
= TZY ' T −1V ( m ) ( y ) (3.44a)
dy
~
dV ( m ) ( y ) ~
= TZT −1 I ( m ) ( y ) (3.44b)
dy
Now assume that T has been selected in such a way that the matrices TZY ' T −1 and
TZT −1 are diagonal matrices. In this case Equations (3.44) represent six uncoupled
~
differential equations. The voltages V m ( y ) are called the modal voltages of the line and
the transformation T is called a modal transformation matrix. Similarly, the currents
~
I m ( y ) are called the modal currents. The procedures is called the modal decomposition.
⎡1 a a2⎤
1⎢ ⎥ ⎡1 1 1⎤
T = ⎢1 a2 a ⎥ , where: a = e j120 , 0
and T −1
= ⎢a 2 a 1⎥
3 ⎢ ⎥
⎢1 1 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ a a 2 1⎥⎦
⎣
In general however, the symmetrical component transformation, T, will not make the
matrices, TZY ' T −1 and TZT −1 , diagonal. For this purpose, we introduce an
approximation that will make the transformed matrices diagonal. Specifically, many
transmission lines are transposed or their construction is such that the mutual parameters
(inductance, capacitance) are approximately the same for any pair of phases and the
phase self-parameters are also approximately the same for all three phases. For some
applications it is justifiable to approximate a three-phase power line with a symmetric
line. Mathematically, this is equivalent to assuming that the matrices Z and Y' have the
following symmetric structure:
⎡ zs zm zm ⎤
Z = ⎢ zm zs zm ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ z m zm z s ⎥⎦
Note that if the matrices Z and Y' do not have this form, which is usually the case, they
are put in this form using the following equations:
1
z s = ( z aa + z bb + z cc )
3
1
z m = ( z ab + z bc + z ca )
3
1
y ' s = ( y ' aa + y ' bb + y ' cc )
3
1
y ' m = ( y ' ab + y ' bc + y ' ca )
3
⎡α 1 α2 α2 ⎤
ZY ' = ⎢α 2 α1 α2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣α 2 α2 α1 ⎥⎦
where
α 1 = z s y s' + 2 z m y m'
~
⎡ I1 ( y) ⎤
~ ⎢~ ⎥
I 120 ( y ) = ⎢ I 2 ( y )⎥
⎢ I~0 ( y )⎥
⎣ ⎦
~
dV120 ( y ) ~
= Z seq I 120 ( y ) (3.45b)
dy
where
⎡m1 0 0⎤
M seq =⎢0 m1 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ 0 0 m0 ⎦⎥
⎡ z1 0 0⎤
Z seq = ⎢0 z1 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 z0 ⎥⎦
m1 = α 1 − α 2 = p12
m0 = α1 + 2α 2 = p 02
z1 = z s − z m
z0 = z s + 2 zm
The matrix equations (3.45) represent six scalar equations which can be grouped into
three sets of uncoupled equations. It is expedient to write the six scalar equations
explicitly as three sets (positive, negative and zero sequence) of uncoupled equations
with two equations per set:
~
d 2V0 ( y) ~
2
= p02V0 ( y ) (3.48a)
dy
~
dV0 ( y) ~
= z 0 I 0 ( y) (3.48b)
dy
It is now apparent that Equations (3.46), (3.47) and (3.48) represent three single-phase
lines. Note that Equations (3.46) are the positive sequence model of the line, Equations
(3.47) are the negative sequence model, and Equations (3.48) are the zero sequence
model of the line. Note that the parameters ( p1 , z1 ) of the negative sequence model are
identical to those of the positive sequence model. Collectively, we shall refer to
Equations (3.45) or equivalently Equations (3.46), (3.47), and (3.48) as the sequence
model of a three-phase line. The modal voltages and currents will be referred to as the
symmetrical components of the currents and voltages. In addition, the parameters of the
sequence models are defined as follows:
p1 , p 0 will be called the positive (or negative) and zero sequence propagation constants
of the line.
z1 , z 0 will be called the per unit length positive (or negative) and zero sequence series
impedance of the line.
For the purpose of completing the discussion of the sequence model, recall that
M seq = TZY ' T −1 = TZT −1TY ' T −1 = Z seq TY ' T −1 = Z seqY seq
'
where:
⎡ y1' 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
Y ' seq = ⎢ 0 y1' 0⎥
⎢0 0 y 0' ⎥⎦
⎣
where
Note that y1' , y 0' are the per unit length positive (or negative) and zero sequence shunt
admittance of the line.
In terms of the parameters y'1, y'0, the propagation constants p1, p2 and p0 are
p1 = p 2 = z1 y1' (3.49a)
p0 = z 0 y 0' (3.49b)
z1
Z 01 = Z 02 = (3.50a)
y1'
z0
Z 00 = (3.50b)
y 0'
~ ~
⎡ I 1 ( y )⎤ ⎡ I 1 ( y ) ⎤
~ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢~ o ⎥
I abc ( y ) = T −1 ⎢ 0 ⎥ = ⎢ I 1 ( y )e − j120 ⎥
⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ I~1 ( y )e − j 240 ⎥
o
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
As is evident from the equation above, the three phase currents are balanced and of the
positive sequence. The case is depicted in Figure 3.22a, which illustrates the three phase
currents. Note that the electric current in the earth is zero.
Similarly, if we assume that only the negative sequence component is present [i.e.,
~ ~ ~
I 1 ( y ) = 0 , I 2 ( y ) ≠ 0 , and I 0 ( y ) = 0 ], the actual phase currents are
~
⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ I 2 ( y) ⎤
⎢~ o ⎥
I abc ( y ) = T −1 ⎢ I 2 ( y )⎥ = ⎢ I 2 ( y )e j120 ⎥
~ ~
⎢ ⎥ ~
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2 ( y )e j 240 ⎥⎦
o
Again, as is evident from equation above, the three phase currents are balanced but of the
negative sequence. The case is depicted in Figure 3.22b, which illustrates the three phase
currents. Note that the electric current in the earth is zero.
~
Finally, if we assume that only the zero sequence component is present, [ i.e., I 1 ( y ) = 0 ,
~ ~
I 2 ( y ) = 0 , and I 0 ( y ) ≠ 0 ], the actual phase currents are
~
⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ I 0 ( y )⎤
⎢~ ⎥
I abc ( y ) = T −1 ⎢ 0 ⎥ = ⎢ I 0 ( y )⎥
~
⎢~ ⎥ ~
⎢⎣ I 0 ( y )⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 0 ( y )⎥⎦
As is evident from the equation above, all three phase currents are identical. Sequence
cannot be defined for these currents-thus the name "zero sequence". The earth current
~
will be the negative sum of the phase currents [i.e., − 3I 0 ( y ) ]. The case is depicted in
Figure 3.22c.
I 1(y)
o
-j120
I 1(y) e
o
-j240
I 1(y) e
(a)
I 2(y)
o
-j120
I 2(y) e
o
-j240
I 2(y) e
(b)
I 0(y)
I 0(y)
I 0(y)
-3 I 0(y)
(c)
Example E3.6. Consider the transmission line of Example E3.5. Compute the sequence
parameters of the line. Neglect the shield wire.
Solution: The Z matrix of the line, computed at 60 Hz, and then symmetrized is:
The Y' matrix of the line, computed at 60 Hz, and then symmetrized is:
The characteristic impedance and propagation constants of the sequence components are:
z1 o
Z 01 = = 369.0e − j10.365 ohms
y '1
z0 o
Z 00 = '
= 965.0e − j 5.65 ohms
y0
o
p0 = z 0 y 0' = 1.8552 × 10 −6 e j 84.35 m -1
Example E3.7. Consider the positive sequence model of the three-phase transmission
line of example E3.6. The line is 85 miles long. Compute:
o
C = 0.000488e j 90.1
B
Z π' = = (8.489 − j 4053.59) Ω
A −1
The π-equivalent circuit is illustrated in Figure E3.7a.
o
(b) Z πn = zl = Z 0 pl = 66.837 e j 69.27 ohms = ( 23.658 + j 62.509 ) ohms
2 z' 2Z 0 o
Z π' n = = = 4079.42 e − j 90 ohms = − j 4074 .4 ohms
l pl
The nominal π-equivalent circuit is illustrated in Figure E3.7b.
8.489 8.489
(a) (b)
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
negative, and zero sequence voltages, respectively, and I S 1 , I S 2 , I S 0 and I R1 , I R 2 , I R 0 be
the sending and receiving bus positive, negative, and zero sequence electric currents,
respectively. The power injected at the sending end is SS:
~
⎡ I S∗1 ⎤
~T ~∗
S S = Vabc
~
[ ~ ~
]
I abc = VS 1 VS 2 VS 0 T −T (T * ) ⎢ I S∗2 ⎥
−1 ⎢ ~ ⎥
⎢ I~S∗0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Note that (by direct computation):
⎡ 3 0 0⎤
T −T (T )
* −1
= ⎢ 0 3 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢0 0 3⎦⎥
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Thus: S S = 3VS 1 I S∗1 + 3V S 2 I S∗2 + 3V S 0 I S∗0 (3.54a)
Equations (3.44) state that the power transmitted through a transmission line is computed
from the symmetrical components of the voltages and currents. In addition, the
contribution to the power flow from a specific symmetrical component is independent
from the other two. As example, for the power flow problem it is assumed that the line
operation is balanced (i.e., only the positive sequence component is present). In this case
the power flow equations become
~ ~ ~ ~
S S = 3V S 1 I S∗1 and S R = 3V R1 I R∗1
It is expedient to express the power equations in terms of the line terminal voltages only.
For this purpose the line terminal currents (each symmetrical component separately) are
expressed in terms of the line terminal voltages (symmetrical components) and the line
parameters. Subsequently, they are substituted into Equations (3.44) to yield the power
equations in terms of the line terminal voltages only. Subsequently, the π − equivalent
circuit of the power line will be used to demonstrate the procedure.
The power equations in terms of the terminal voltages and the parameters of the
π − equivalent circuit, Zπ and Z'π, are obtained as follows: First, the line terminal
currents are expressed in terms of the parameters Yπ, Y'π and the line terminal voltages.
A rather popular form of the power equations is based on representing the parameters Yπ,
Y'π with their cartesian coordinates and the line terminal voltages with their polar
coordinates. Consider for example a line between buses k and m as it is illustrated in
Figure 3.34. In this case
+ +
~ Y'π = g' + jb' ~
Vk Vm
_ _
Figure 3.23
Yπ = g + jb
Yπ' = g s + jb s
~
Vk = Vk e jδ k
~
Vm = Vm e jδ m
Upon substitution and separation of the real and imaginary parts of the two equations, the
following power flow equations are obtained:
Where:
α km = g cos(δ k − δ m ) + b sin(δ k − δ m )
bkm = g sin(δ k − δ m ) − b cos(δ k − δ m )
The transmission line power equations (3.55) are the most popular form for load flow
applications.
In most applications, the power flow equations are written in per unit. The per unit
system is defined in Chapter 4. Whenthe above equations are transfiormed into the per
unit system, the final equations are in the same form as above, except that the constant
term 3 is eliminated. Specifically, the per unitized power flow equations are:
Where:
For more details on the per unitization procedure, see Chapter 4. Many times in this book
we will use the per unitized equations without the subscript u.
The line design factors are typically the thermal limitation of the line conductors.
Specifically, a transmission line is designed to operate at a nominal voltage and the
temperature of the conductors should not be higher than a permissible value. The
permissible value is determined by two factors: (1) the conductor should not loose its
mechanical strength properties and (2) the conductor sag should be limited by the
recommended clearances at mid spans of the line. A heat transfer analysis from the
conductor to its surroundings under worst conditions (typically, the worst conditions are
assumed to be 40 degrees Celsius and no wind) determines the maximum amount of
current through the conductor that will bring the temperature of the conductor to the
permissible value. This current value is referred to as the conductor ampacity. Since the
operation of the line is typically characterized as near nominal voltage operation, the
ampacity of the conductor can be translated into power flow through the line, i.e.
Pmax = 3V N I ampacity
It should be apparent that when the line is operating not at nominal voltage, then its
power carrying capability will be different. It should also be apparent that the assumption
for determining the power carrying capability of the line may be too pessimistic. This is
indeed the case. Most of the times the ambient temperature is much lower than 40
degrees and there is almost always a breeze. For this reason, technology is being
developed to monitor the conductor temperature in real time. In this way one knows
exactly when the power carrying limit of the line has been reached. Direct monitoring of
the line temperature results in dynamically determining the power carrying capability.
There are three different technologies for this purpose: (a) use of temperature sensors on
the conductor, (b) use of a conductor with impedded fiber optic/temperature sensor in the
conductor, and (c) monitoring of the conductor sag and indirectly deriving the conductor
temperature from the sag. These technologies provide the temperature of the conductor in
real time. There are also technologies that focus on development of new conductors that
are capable of operating in higher permissible temperatures. The idea here is to use
materials with a very small heat expansion factor. This means that as the conductor
temperature increases due to increased current, the conductor will not expand as much
thus limiting the conductor sag. Therefore these conductors can be operated to much
larger temperatures with practically very small sag. Since the lines are operated at higher
electric current, the power transefred via the line is increased. This technology is
presently under evaluation.
It is also important to note that many times the power carrying capability of a line may be
limited by the ratings of other equipment that operate in series with the line. For example
consider a transmission line that has a series capacitor. If the current carrying capability
of the capacitor is lower than the ampacity of the line conductors, then the series
capacitor limits the current carrying capability of the line.
Another factor that limits the power carrying capability is the desired abililty to maintain
the voltage magnitude at the remote end at permissible levels.
System factors also affect the ability of a power line to transfer power. These
considerations may be voltage stability issues and transient stability issues. Typically
long transmission lines are limited by system issues. The level of limitation depends on
system parameters and operating conditions. Some of these issues are discussed in
subsequent sections.
For many applications, such as power flow, transfer capability, etc., it is assumed that the
system is symmetric and it operates under balanced conditions. In this case, only the
positive sequence model of the power lines is used.
Finally, equations for the power flow through a line have been developed under
sinusoidal conditions. The power equations are useful for several applications, such as
power flow studies and stability analysis.
3.11 Problems
Problem P3.1. Consider an infinitely long conduit with a single solid copper conductor
of 2 cm diameter placed on the center of the conduit. The inner diameter of the conduit is
5 cm and the outer diameter is 5.3 cm. Assume that the conductor carries an electric
current of 1000 A which returns via the conduit. Assume the current is uniformly
distributed over the cross section of the conductor and the conduit.
(a) Compute the resistance of the system per unit length. Use copper and aluminium
conductivity from Tables.
(b) Plot the variation of the magnetic flux density B (in webers per square meter) along a
radial line perpendicular to the axis of the conduit.
(c) Calculate the inductance of the system in henries per meter.
5.3 cm
5 cm
2 cm
Figure P3.1
Problem P3.2. Compute the geometric mean radius (GMR) of the conduit of Problem
3.1. Assume constant current density inside the conduit.
a
b
a = 1 cm
b = 0.5 cm
(a) Calculate the electric charge of conductors a, b, and g, neglecting the effect of
ground.
(b) Calculate the electric charge of conductors a, b, and g, without neglecting the
effect of ground.
Problem P3.5: A single-phase 7.2 kV distribution line is illustrated in Figure P3.5. The
phase conductor is a solid copper conductor of 1.5 cm diameter and the neutral conductor
is solid aluminum conductor of 1 cm diameter. The phase conductor is the top conductor
in Figure P3.5 and the neutral conductor is the conductor under the phase conductor.
3'
30'
Figure P3.5
(a) Compute the capacitive currents of the line. Do not neglect the effects of earth.
(b) Compute the maximum electric charge accumulated on the surface of the phase
and neutral conductors in coulombs per meter.
(c) Compute the maximum electric field in volts per meter.
Problem P3.6: Consider the three-phase transmission line of the Figure P3.6. Each phase
conductor has the following parameters:
The transmission line is symmetrically transposed, 125 miles long and the soil resistivity
along the line is 185 ohm⋅meters.
a) Compute the series resistance matrix of the line (per unit length).
b) Compute the series inductance matrix of the line (per unit length).
c) Compute the capacitance matrix of the line (per unit length).
d) Compute the r1, L1, and C1 parameters of the line per unit length. r1, L1, and C1 are the
positive sequence resistance, inductance and capacitance respectively.
e) Compute r0, L0, and C0 parameters of the line per unit length. r0, L0, and C0 are the
zero sequence resistance, inductance and capacitance respectively.
f) Compute and draw the positive sequence π-equivalent circuit of the line.
g) Compute and draw the zero sequence π-equivalent circuit of the line.
h) Compute the positive sequence characteristic impedance and propagation constant
of the line.
i) Compute the zero sequence characteristic impedance and propagation constant of
the line.
j) If the line carries a set of three phase balanced currents of 850 Amperes rms,
compute the magnetic flux density at a point directly below the outer phase on the
right and 5 feet above ground.
12' 12'
70'
Figure P3.6
Problem P3.7: Consider the three-phase overhead distribution line illustrated in the
Figure P3.7. The line is 12.3 miles long and it is symmetrically transposed. The soil
resistivity is 225 ohm.meters. Each phase conductor is an ACSR conductor with the
following parameters:
40'
Figure P3.7
Problem 3.8: Consider a three-phase transmission line with tower design as illustrated in
Figure P3.8. The line is effectively grounded. Compute the zero sequence series
impedance of the line assuming that all the zero sequence current returns through the
earth. Assume a 175-Ω⋅m soil resistivity. The phase conductors are bundle conductors
consisting of two subconductors spaced 12 in. apart. Each subconductor is ACSR, 795
kcm, 54 strands. The subconductor has the following parameters:
(a) Compute the positive sequence series impedance in ohms per meter.
(b) Compute the zero sequence series impedance in ohms per mile.
(c) Compute the positive sequence capacitance of the line in Farads per meter.
(d) Compute the zero sequence capacitance of the line in Farads per meter.
24' 24'
80'
Figure P 3.8
Problem 3.9: Consider the three phase, symmetrically transposed, transmission line of
Figure P3.9. Each phase conductor consists of two ACAR subconductors. Each
subconductor has the following parameters :
a) Compute the positive sequence series inductance of the line in Henries per meter.
b) Compute the positive sequence capacitance of the line in Farads per meter
20' 20'
a b c
80'
Figure P 3.9
Problem 3.10: What is the propagation constant of a one inch diameter aluminum
conductor above earth at 60 Hertz?
Given : Conductivity of Aluminum σ Al = (0.35)(10 8 ) S
Soil conductivity σ soil = 0.005 S
Problem 3.11: Consider a single phase transmission line 185 miles long with the
following parameters :
R = 0.00173 ohm/meter
L = 1.212 mH/meter
C = 9.519 pF/meter
a) Compute the pi equivalent circuit of the line at the fifth harmonic (f=300 Hz)
b) Compute the nominal pi equivalent circuit of the line at the fifth harmonic (f=300 Hz)
c) Compare the two equivalent circuits and state your conclusions.
Problem 3.12: Consider the 230 kV transmission line of Figure P3.12. The line carries a
balanced three phase electric current of 1200 Amperes, i. e.
Compute the magnitude of the magnetic field density in Teslas at point A of the Figure.
Neglect the presence of earth.
20'
b
20'
c
50'
6'
Figure P3.12
Problem 3.13: Consider a power system comprising an electric load, a three phase
transmission line and a generating unit. The positive sequence impedance of the line is 1
+ j8 ohms. The shunt admittance is negligible. The total electric load (three phases) is
108 MW + j35 MVARS. The voltage at the electric load is 165 kV line to line.
Problem 3.14: A three phase overhead transmission line has a horizontal arrangement of
the phases. The distance between two adjacent phases in D. The geometric mean radius
of each phase conductor is 0.04 feet. The line is symmetrically transposed.
Compute the positive sequence inductance of the line per unit length (in Henries per
meter) for the following D values: D = 10 feet, 20 feet and 50 feet.
Problem 3.15: Consider a three-phase transmission line of the Figure P3.15. The line is
symmetrically transposed. Each phase conductor consists of ACSR subconductors. Each
subconductor has the following parameters:
1 2 '‘
Figure P3.15
Problem 3.16: A 200 mile long transmission line has the following zero sequence
parameters:
R=0
L = 0.3125 µH/m
C = 0.125 nF/m
1 2 '‘
Figure P3.16
Problem 3.17: A telephone line wire runs parallel to a three phase line as is indicated in
the Figure P3.22. The power transmission line carries a balanced set of three phase
currents. The magnitude of the phase A current is 560 Amperes. Compute the induced
voltage on the telephone line wire in Volts per mile.
18'
b
18'
c
8' 20'
50'
Figure P3.17
0.425"
0.25"
0.475"
Al
XLP
Cu
Figure P3.18
a) Compute the positive sequence resistance of the line in ohms per meter
b) Compute the positive sequence capacitance in Farads per meter.
c) Compute the positive sequence inductance in Henries per meter.
30' 30'
100'
Figure P3.19
Problem 3.20: A telephone line parallels a three phase power line for a distance of one
mile (1609 meters). The geometric arrangement is illustrated in the Figure P3.20. The
three phase power line carries a balanced electric current of 35 Amperes (rms), positive
sequence, and of frequency 420 Hz, i.e. the seventh harmonic of 60 Hz.
(a) Write the time functions expressing the instantaneous current in each of the three
phases of the power line, ia(t), ib(t), and ic(t).
(b) Compute the voltage induced on the telephone line.
12'
b
12'
c
8' 16'
1'
40'
Figure P3.20
Problem 3.21: Consider the three-phase transmission line of Figure P3.21. The line is
symmetrically transposed. Each phase conductor consists of two ACSR subconductors.
Each subconductor has the following parameters:
a) Compute the positive sequence series resistance of the line in ohms per meter.
b) Compute the positive sequence series inductance of the line in Henries per meter.
c) Compute the positive sequence capacitance of the line in Farads per meter.
d) Compute the characteristic impedance and propagation constant of the line for f =
60 Hz.
e) Compute and draw the π-equivalent circuit of the line if the line is 87 miles long. (
f = 60 Hz )
20' 20'
18'‘
Figure P3.21
Problem 3.22: Consider a three-phase, 60 Hz, transmission line of the Figure P3.22. The
phase conductors are ACSR with the following parameters:
The ground wire is neglected. The soil resistivity is 235 ohm.meters. Compute the
positive sequence sequence series inductance in Henries per meter and the positive
sequence capacitance in µF per meter.
20'
20'
50'
Figure P3.22
Problem P3.23: Consider the 230 kV transmission line of Figure P3.23. The phase
conductors are ACSR, 1272 (PHAESANT), with the following parameters: resistance at
60 Hz=0.0751 ohms per mile, Geometric Mean Radius= 0.04672 feet, and Diameter=
1.382 inches. The soil resistivity is 185 ohm.meters. For simplicity ignore the shield wire.
The line is 89 miles long.
20'
b
20'
c
50'
6'
Figure P3.23