Defence University

College of Engineering
Electrical Power Engineering
Modelling and Analysis of Electrical Machines:EP-6211

By: Dr. Milkias B. (Ph.D.)

Adama Science and Technology University
mil_ber2000@astu.edu.et/milkiasber@gmail.com
3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 1
 Chapter One:
Basic Principles for Analysis

• Introduction
• Magnetically coupled circuit
• Electromechanical Energy Conversion
• Machine Windings and Air gap MMF, Winding
inductances and voltage equations.

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 INTRODUCTION
• There are various and unlimited forms of energy in our real world.
- Electrical, Mechanical, Solar, Heat, Chemical,
magnetic etc …

• The objective of this topic is to develop the electromechanical energy

conversion principles with field energy as the base, and expressions for
how forces and torques are developed in terms of field variables.

• Thus, the topic is mainly concerned with the important devices that
change mechanical energy into electrical or Vice Versa.

• Currently, among other forms of energy, electrical energy holds the

highest rank, because it is economical, efficient, easily controlled and
utilized.

• The theory of electromechanical energy conversion allows us to establish

expressions for torque in terms of machine electrical variables, generally the
currents, and the displacement of the mechanical system. This theory, as well
as the derivation of equivalent circuit representations of magnetically coupled
circuits, is established.
3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 3
• Most often, Electricity is generated in large installations, transformed into appropriate
voltage, and transmitted over distances; then is transformed to lower and desired
voltages to be utilized.

• Thus, conversion of other forms of energy into electrical energy with the aid of
electromechanical devices such as Generators, Motors, Relays, Telephone receivers,
Loud speakers, etc... is a common practice.

• The structure of these devices may differ depending on their particular function; but
the principle of operation is common.

• Some are used for continuous energy conversion

eg. Motors and Generators

• Some are used to produce transitional force (limited mechanical motion)

eg. Solenoids, relays, actuators etc…

• Some involve small motion; processing only low energy signals.

eg. Sensors, Telephone receivers, loud speakers, etc…
• Understanding these principles enables us to analyze, design , improve and innovate
such systems.

3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 4

 MAGNETICALLY COUPLED CIRCUITS
• Magnetically coupled electric circuits are central to the operation of
transformers and electric machines.
• In the case of transformers, stationary circuits are magnetically coupled for
the purpose of changing the voltage and current levels.
• In the case of electric machines, circuits in relative motion are magnetically
coupled for the purpose of transferring energy between mechanical and
electrical systems.
• Since magnetically coupled circuits play such an important role in power
transmission and conversion, it is important to establish the equations that
describe their behavior and to express these equations in a form convenient
for analysis.
• These goals may be achieved by starting with two stationary electric circuits that are
magnetically coupled as shown in Figure 1.1.
• The two coils consist of turns N1 and N2, respectively, and they are wound on a
common core that is generally a ferromagnetic material with permeability large
relative to that of air. The permeability of free space, μ0, is 4π × 10−7 H/m.
• The permeability of other materials is expressed as μ = μrμ0, where μr is the relative
permeability. In the case of transformer steel, the relative permeability may be as
high as 2000–4000.
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 ...

Figure 1.1. Magnetically coupled circuits.

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 ...
• In general, the flux produced by each coil can be separated into two components.
• A leakage component is denoted with an l subscript and a magnetizing component is
denoted by an m subscript.
• Each of these components is depicted by a single streamline with the positive
direction determined by applying the right-hand rule to the direction of current flow
in the coil.
• Often, in transformer analysis, i2 is selected positive out of the top of coil 2 and a
dot placed at that terminal.
• The flux linking each coil may be expressed
(1.1)
(1.2)

• The leakage flux Φl1 is produced by current flowing in coil 1, and it links only the
turns of coil 1. Likewise, the leakage flux Φl2 is produced by current flowing in coil
2, and it links only the turns of coil 2.
• The magnetizing flux Φm1 is produced by current flowing in coil 1, and it links all
turns of coils 1 and 2.
• Similarly, the magnetizing flux Φm2 is produced by current flowing in coil 2, and it
also links all turns of coils 1 and 2. With the selected positive direction of current
flow and the manner in that the coils are wound (Fig. 1.1), magnetizing flux
produced by positive current in one coil adds to the magnetizing flux produced by
3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 7
positive current in the other coil.
 ...
• In other words, if both currents are flowing in the same direction, the magnetizing fluxes
produced by each coil are in the same direction, making the total magnetizing flux or the
total core flux the sum of the instantaneous magnitudes of the individual magnetizing
fluxes.
• If the currents are in opposite directions, the magnetizing fluxes are in opposite
directions.
• In this case, one coil is said to be magnetizing the core, the other demagnetizing.
• Clearly, all of the leakage flux may not link all the turns of the coil producing it.
• Likewise, all of the magnetizing flux of one coil may not link all of the turns of the other
coil.
• To acknowledge this practical aspect of the magnetic system, the number of turns is
considered to be an equivalent number rather than the actual number. This fact should
cause us little concern since the inductances of the electric circuit resulting from the
magnetic coupling are generally determined from tests.
• The voltage equations may be expressed in matrix form as

(1.3)

Since it is assumed that Φ1 links the equivalent turns of coil 1 and Φ2 links the
equivalent turns of coil 2, the flux linkages may be written

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 ... -The resistances r1 and r2 and the flux linkages λ1 and λ2 are related
(1.5) to coils 1 and 2, respectively.
where Φ1 and Φ2 are given by (1.1) and (1.2), respectively
(1.6)
Linear Magnetic System
If saturation is neglected, the system is linear and the fluxes may be expressed as
(1.7) • where Rl1 and Rl2 are the reluctances of the leakage paths and
Rm is the reluctance of the path of the magnetizing fluxes.
• The product of N times i (ampere-turns) is the magnetomotive
(1.8) force (MMF), which is determined by the application of
Ampere’s law.
• The reluctance of the leakage paths is difficult to express and
(1.9)
measure. A unique determination of the inductances associated
with the leakage flux is typically either calculated or
approximated from design considerations.
• The reluctance of the magnetizing path of the core shown in
(1.10)
Figure 1.1 may be computed with sufficient accuracy from the
well-known relationship
(1.11)

where l is the mean or equivalent length of the magnetic path, A the cross-section area,
and μ the permeability. Substituting (1.7)–(1.10) into (1.1) and (1.2) yields
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 ...
(1.12)
Substituting (1.12) and (1.13) into (1.5) and
(1.6) yields
(1.13)

(1.14)

(1.15)

• When the magnetic system is linear, the flux linkages are generally expressed in terms
of inductances and currents.
• We see that the coefficients of the first two terms on the right-hand side of (1.14)
depend upon the turns of coil 1 and the reluctance of the magnetic system,
independent of the existence of coil 2.
• An analogous statement may be made regarding (1.15). Hence, the self-inductances
are defined as

(1.16)
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 ...
• where Ll1 and Ll2 are the leakage inductances and Lm1
(1.17) and Lm2 the magnetizing inductances of coils 1 and 2,
respectively.
• From (1.16) and (1.17), it follows that the magnetizing
(1.18) inductances may be related as

• The mutual inductances are defined as the coefficient of the third term of (1.14) &(1.15).
(1.19)
Obviously, L12 = L21. The mutual inductances may be related
to the magnetizing inductances.
(1.20) In particular,
(1.21)

The flux linkages may now be written as

l = Li, (1.22)

Where (1.23)

3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 11

 ...
• Although the voltage equations with the inductance matrix L incorporated may be
used for purposes of analysis, it is customary to perform a change of variables that
yields the well-known equivalent T circuit of two magnetically coupled coils.
• To set the stage for this derivation, let us express the flux linkages from (1.22) as

(1.24)

(1.25)
• Now we have two choices. We can use a substitute variable for (N2/N1)i2 or for
(N1/N2)i1.
• Let us consider the first of these choices

(1.26)
• whereupon we are using the substitute variable i2 that, when flowing through coil 1,
produces the same MMF as the actual i2 flowing through coil 2.
• This is said to be referring the current in coil 2 to coil 1, whereupon coil 1 becomes
the reference coil.
• On the other hand, if we use the second choice, then
(1.27)
3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 12
 ...
• Here, i1 is the substitute variable that produces the same MMF when flowing through
coil 2 as i1 does when flowing in coil 1.
• This change of variables is said to refer the current of coil 1 to coil 2.
• We will derive the equivalent T circuit by referring the current of coil 2 to coil 1; thus
from (1.26)
(1.28)

Power is to be unchanged by this substitution of variables. Therefore, (1.29)

• whereupon v2i2 = v2i2.

• Flux linkages, which have the units of volt-second, are related to the substitute flux
linkages in the same way as voltages.
• In particular,

(1.30)

(1.31)

(1.32)
By: Milkias B. 13
 ...

Fig. 1.2. Equivalent circuit with coil 1 selected Where (1.33)

as reference coil.

The voltage equations become

(1.34)
Where

(1.35)

• The above voltage equations suggest the T equivalent circuit shown in Figure 1.2.
• It is apparent that this method may be extended to include any number of coils
wound on the same core.

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 Figure 1.2-3. B–H curve for typical silicon
steel used in transformers

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3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 22
 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

“Energy is the ability to do work”. It can neither be created or be

destroyed. We can only change its forms, using appropriate
energy conversion processes.

Principle of electromechanical energy conversion;

Singly exited and doubly excited systems.

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 Concept map of electromechanical system modelling

Electromechanical system

Electrical system Magnetic system Mechanical system

Voltages &
Magnetic flux Position, speed &
current
acceleration

Force or
Torque
Circuit equations Force/Torque equations
by Newton's laws
by KVL & KCL EMF
3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 24
 Energy conversion principles

• Energy conversion process is based on basic principles of energy conservation. i.e.

“ Energy is neither created nor destroyed, only be changed from one form to the
other”
• Electromechanical energy conversion devices obey this principle.
• The three essential parts in electromechanical energy conversion process are: -

1) Electrical system
2) coupling media (Field)
3) Mechanical system

• In any energy conversion device, the energy balance equation could be:-

Total Desired Stored Losses

input = output
+ energy
+
(dissipated)
energy

3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 25

• Example
For a motor action, this energy balance equation seems:-

Total Mechanical
electrical Total Total
= energy + energy + energy
energy output
input stored dissipated

Wei = Wmo + ( Wmgs + Wms) + [I2R + core loss +

+ Mech.loss]

3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 26

• Where,
- Wei – total electrical energy input.
- Wmo – Mechanical energy output.
- Wmgs – stored energy in the mag. System.
- Wms - “ “ “ “ mech. System.
- I2R loss – Ohmic loss
- Core loss – hysteretic & eddy current loss.
- Mech. Loss – friction & windage loss.

3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 27

• If similar terms are grouped together, the energy balance
equation becomes,

(Wei - I2R) = (Wmo+ Wms+Mech.loss) +

+ (Wmgs+ Core loss )
Wele = Wmech + Wfld
Wele - Net electrical energy input

Wmech - Total Mech. Energy (output, stored & mech. Loss)

Wfld - Total Field energy (field energy stored & field

losses)

3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 28

 Heat due to coupling Heat due to
Heat due to i2r field losses friction and
losses windage

Electrical i Coupling Mechanical

system vr e
field system

T,ωr or
F,u
Motor action

Generator action

Fig. 1.1. General representation of electromechanical

energy conversion device.

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• Even though all losses ( electrical, coupling field and mechanical losses) are
always present, they play no basic role in the energy conversion process.
• To give direct attention to the process of energy conversion, and to understand
action and reaction of coupling field on electrical and mechanical terminals , we
assume a lossless model which seems:-

i
Lossless Lossless
T,ωr T,ωr
i
e coupling Coupling
e
field F,u
field F,u
Electrical Mechanical Electrical Mechanical
terminals terminals terminals
terminals
b) Lossless Generator mode
a) Lossless motoring mode

Fig. 1.2. Lossless electromechanical conversion device

3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 30
• The energy balance equation for lossless conversion system in differential
form becomes: -

dWele = dWmech + dW feld

Where,
dWele – differential electrical input to coupling field
dWmech- differential mechanical energy output
dWfld- differential change in energy stored in the coupling field

From general representation of electromechanical energy conversion devices, the

differential electrical input in time dt is:-

dWei = i 2 rdt = Vt idt ;

Where, i 2 rdt is ohmic loss in resister r in time dt.

dWei = Vt idt
3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 31
• Thus, differential electrical energy in put to the coupling
field ,

dWelec = dWei − ohmicloss

= (Vt − ir )idt
= eidt
Thus, General energy balance equation becomes,

dWelec = dWmech + dW fld

eidt = dWmech + dW fld

3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 32

 Coupling field reaction

• In electromechanical energy conversion process, the interaction between

electrical and mechanical terminals is through the medium of energy stored
in the coupling field. It is a link b/n the two systems.
• To move or rotate with respect to the other, there has to exist an other
medium ( example, air gap) between moving and stationary members.
• The coupling field (eg., magnetic field in this case) stored in the air gap has to
produce action and reaction on the electrical and mechanical systems for the
conversion of energy from one form to the other.
• If the output is mechanical, (motor case) – the coupling field must react with
the electrical system. This reaction is the counter emf. The coupling field
extracts energy proportional to e.i from the electrical system, converts and
delivers energy proportional to T.ωr, or (F.U) to the mechanical system.

3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 33

 • Please, explain the coupling field reaction
process in generator case.

For electromechanical energy conversion process, the coupling field

reaction is essential, and induced emf and induced torque are
electromechanical coupling terms associated with the coupling field.

3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 34

 Singly excited magnetic systems

• Singly excited magnetic systems have a wide variety of applications, such as

electromagnets, relays, moving iron instruments, etc.
• Let us see the important parameters .
a) Electrical energy input
consider a toroid excited by a single coil

Vt = ir + e
d
e=
dt
d
Vt = ir +
dt
3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 35
• Multiply both sides by idt

Vt idt = ri dt + id
2

(Vt _ ir )idt = id

eidt = id Where,  is flux linked

dWelec = eidt = i.d

If all flux is linked, then dWelec = id = iNdф = Fdф

Thus for a toroid to extract energy from the source, the flux linkages of the
magnetic field must change. This change in flux causes generation of induced emf.
and current flow against counter emf causes the extraction of energy from the
electrical system
3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 36
 Closed position
1. Slow movement ψ
ψ2
The slow movement of the armature D c
from open position causes almost
negligible amount of counter emf. ψ1 Open position
A’
F A
 2 − 1
e=
T2 − T1
Wmech

Thus the exciting current remains o

substantially constant and the i1 i
operating point A reaches the new Fig.1.7
operating point C along the vertical
line AC.

3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 37

• Now, change in the stored energy of magnetic field during the time armature
moves from open position A to closed position C is: -
Wfld = (magnetic energy stored in closed position) - (magnetic
energy stored in open position)

Wfld = area OA’CDFO – area OAA’FO

Electrical energy input during this change is: -

2
Welec =  i1 d = i1 ( 2 −  1 ) = area ACDFA' A
1

But,

Welec = W fld + Wmech

3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 38

 area ACDFA’A = area OA’CDFO – area OAA’FO + wmech

Wmech = area ACDFA’A + area OAA’FO – area OA’CDFO

Wmech = area OACDFO – area OA’CDFO = area OACA’O

i.e., the mechanical work done is equal to the area enclosed between the two
magnetisation curves at open and closed positions and the vertical ψ – i locus during the
low armature movement.

2. Instantaneous movement
- Here the armature is assumed to move from open to closed position instantaneously.

- We know that, in inductive circuits flux can’t change suddenly. Therefore, during fast
movement of the armature, the flux linkage do not change and remain constant. The
operating point, therefore, travels from A to A’.

- Since the final operating point is C, the operating point travels from A’ to C when the
armature is closed.

3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 39

 Closed position
Change in the magnetic stored energy is: - ψ ψ2

D
c
W fld = areaOA' FO − areaOAA' FO ψ1
A’ Open position
1 F

Welec =  id = 0
A

1

Welec = W fld + Wmech o

i1 i
0 = areaOA' FO − areaOAA' FO + Wmech
Fig.1.8
Wmech = areaOAA' O
The mechanical work done is equal to the area enclosed between the two
magnetisation curves at open and closed positions and the horizontal ψ-i locus
during the instantaneous movement.

3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 40

3. Transient movement
The armature movement will neither be too fast nor too slow but between the two
extremes. Therefore the armature when allowed to move under the influence of
magnetic forces has the following ψ-I locus.

Closed position
ψ
ψ2
D
C’
c
Ψ’2
D’ Open position

ψ1 A’
F
A

Wmech

i1 i
Fig.1.9
3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 41
Change in the magnetic stored energy is: -

W fld = areaOA' C ' D' FO − areaOAA' FO

 '2
Welec =
 id = areaAC ' D' FA' A

Welec = W fld + Wmech

AreaAC ' D' FA' A = areaOA' C ' D' FO − areaOAA' FO + Wmech

Wmech = (areaOAA' FO + areaAC ' D' FA' A − areaOA' C ' D' FO

= areaOAC ' A' O

3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 42

Example
1.For a certain relay, the magnetisation curves for open and closed positions of the
armature are linear. If the armature of the relay moves from open to closed position
at constant current (i.e. very slowly), show that the electrical energy input is shared
equally between field energy stored and the mechanical work done.

ψ Closed pos.
2 D
ψ2
Welec =  i1 d = i1 ( 2 −  1 ) B

1 Open pos.
E C
1 ψ1
Wmech = area OABCO = ( 2 −  1 )i1 A
2
W fld = area OCBDEO − area OACEO
1 1 1 O
=  2 i1 −  1i1 = ( 2 −  1 )i1 i1 i
2 2 2
1
W fld = Wmech = Welec
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2 By: Milkias B. 43
d) Determination of magnetic force
- As the relay is on the process of closing, the magnitude of attracting magnetic force
increases while the air gap length decreases.
Thus the average magnetic force for figs. 1,5 and 1.9 is: -

Mechanicalworkdone areaOAC ' A' O

f e ( av ) = =
Dis tan cetravelled . air gap length
For a small displacement dx the movement may be considered as instantaneous, and
change in the input electrical energy will be taken as zero.
Thus,
1
dWelec =  id = 0
1

dWmech = f e dx

0 = f e dx + dW fld
3/10/2021 f e dx = −dW fld at cons tan t
By: Milkias B. 44
  dW fld 
f e = −  at cons tan t
 dx 
 dW fld 
f e = − 
 dx   =cons tan t
Since Wfld is expressed in terms of ψ and x or ф and x, it leads to
parametric equations for magnetic force.

W fld ( , x) W fld (, x)

fe = − =−
x x
It has been seen that,

dWelec = i1 d = dW fld + dW ' fld

dW fld = i1 d − dW ' fld
3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 45
Also, dWmech = f e dx
dWelec = i1 d
then, dW fld = i1 d − dW ' fld
dWmech = f e dx
i1 d = f e dx + i1 d − dW ' fld
f e dx = + dW ' fld at cons tan t i
The +ve sign before dW’fld indicates that during the virtual displacement dx,
the mechanical work fedx is equal to the increase in co-energy at constant
current.

dW ' fld
fe = + At constant current.
3/10/2021 dx
By: Milkias B. 46
The parametric equation will be: -
Magnitude of electromagnetic force for
W ' fld W ' fld linear motion of the armature
fe (i, x) = ( F , x)
x x
For angular motion of the armature, Torque can be obtained: -

W fld ( ,  ) W fld (,  )

Te = − =−
 
W ' fld W ' fld
Te = (i,  ) = ( F , )
 
These equations hold good even when the magnetic path is saturated. If the
magnetic saturation is neglected, The relation between ψ and I or ф and F is
considered linear, then
Wfld = W’fld
3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 47
• Example 1
• For a given simple magnetic relay, the variation of flux linkage ψ in terms of current
I and displacement x from the open position is given by the relation ψ = ix1/2 .
Obtain an expression for the magnetic force.

• Solution

From magnetic stored energy considerations;

W fld ( , x)
fe = −
x

 1 2
W fld ( , x) =  id =  1
d = 1 .
0 x 2 x 2 2

  1 2  2  1  −3 2
fe = −  1 .  = −  − x
x  x 2 2  2  2

2 1
fe = . 3
4 x 2
3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 48
 From the co-energy considerations;

W ' fld
fe = (i, x)
x
1
i 2 2
i 1
W '
fld = di =  ix di = x . 2

0
2
  12 i 2  i 2 1 −12
fe = x  = . .x
x  2 2 2
i2 1
fe = . 1
4 x 2

3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 49

• Example 2
• For the electromagnet shown, obtain an expression for the magnetic
force fe in terms of reluctance and magnetic field density.

• In terms of Reluctance;

g−x
Rlg =
0 A
1 2 dRlg 1 2 d  g−x 1 2 1
fe = − g = − g   =  g
2 dx 2 dx   0 A  2 0 A

• In terms of magnetic field density;

g
Bg =
A
2 2 2
B
1 g . A
1 Bg . A
fe = =
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2 0 A 2 By:Milkias
0 B. 50
 Doubly excited magnetic system
- A doubly excited magnetic system is one which has two independent sources of
excitation.
Example:- synchronous machines, dc shunt machines, tachometers, et.

3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 51

As we have seen, the differential electrical energy input for a singly excited magnetic system is: -
dWelec= idψ

The differential electrical energy input from two energy sources is: -
dWelec= isdψs+irdψr

where, ψs - stator total flux linkage

ψr – rotor total flux linkage
Assuming the magnetic saturation is neglected; ψs and ψr can
be expressed in terms of self and mutual inductances.

ψs = Lsis + Msrir
ψr = Lrir +Mrsis

Where, Ls – self inductance of stator winding

Lr - “ “ rotor “
Msr = Mrs – mutual inductance

3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 52

 Initially, is and ir are zero; and
space angle between stator and rotor is θr.
When stator and rotor powers are switched ON, and assuming the rotor is not
allowed to move, the differential energy balance equation will be:-

dWelec = o+ dWfld ;

dWfld = dWelec =isdψs + irdψr

= isd(Lsis+ Msrir) + ird(Lrir + Mrsis)

2 2
Ns Nr
Ls = ; Lr =
Rs Rr

Ns Nr
M sr = M rs =
3/10/2021
RBy:srMilkias B. 53
Since the rotor is not allowed to move, the reluctance and inductances are constant.
Thus,

dW fld = i s Ls di s + i s M sr dir + ir Lr dir + ir M rs di s

= i s Ls di s + ir Lr dir + M sr d (i s ir )
is ir i s ir

W fld = Ls  i s di s + Lr  ir dir + M sr  d (i s ir )
0 0 0

1 2 1 2
= i s Ls + ir Lr + M sr i s ir
2 2

3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 54

• To obtain Torque, the rotor has to move a virtual displacement dθr. With the rotor
movement, reluctances and inductances must vary. Thus,

dWelec = dWmech + dW field

1 2 1 2
dWmech = Te d r = i s dLs + ir dLr + i s ir dM sr
2 2

1 2 dLs 1 2 dLr dM sr
Te = i s + ir + is ir
2 d r 2 d r d r

W fld
Te = (i s , ir ,  r ) With currents constant
 r
W ' fld
Te = (i s , ir ,  r ) For linear magnetic circuit
 r

3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 55

 Exercise.

Explain the difference between electromagnetic and reluctance

torques which may be developed in doubly excited salient pole
synchronous machine when the stator and rotor of the
machine are fed from independent sources simultaneously.

3/10/2021 By: Milkias B. 56