Blair 2015

Andrew Blair
Chapter 5
Evolving a post-native, multilingual model
for ELF-aware teacher education
1 Introduction
Language is the tool of tools, essential to our identities as individuals and as a
species. All living languages change continuously, and people are responsible
for that change, primarily to express identity and build relationships (Trask social
practice
2010). If we conceive of language as social practice, and see language change language
as natural and continuous (Aitchison 2001), we need to consider how to teach changes as
natural and
a language such as English, used locally and globally for lingua franca pur- continuous
poses. We also need to reflect on how to prepare language teachers for these
sociolinguistic and pedagogical realities. In much simpler terms, how can we
teach and learn a language with around one million words and two billion
speakers, even if the precise numbers of both are disputed? A ‘language’ (if
we can call it that) with a significant majority of its speakers, teachers, and
interactions defined as ‘non-native’. A ‘language’ for which previously-held
notions of ‘integrative motivation’ among learners, for instance, have lost their
relevance through the processes of globalisation. Instead, individuals may
aspire towards a ‘bicultural’ identity, which incorporates an English-speaking
globally-involved version of themselves in addition to their local L1-speaking
self (Lamb 2004: 3).
This chapter discusses what “effective pedagogy” (James and Pollard 2011)
might mean in practice if we take these realities on board. Key background issues
and questions are reviewed, regarding the nature of competence, lingua franca
interaction and pedagogical goals, followed by a brief selection of teacher per-
spectives, obtained during a broader study of language teacher identity. In par-
Copyright © 2015. De Gruyter, Inc.. All rights reserved.
ticular, the focus is on some of the implications for teacher education, as relevant
to my own role in ELT and consequently as an area of potential influence. Sug-
gestions for a redefined model for ‘ELF-aware’ teacher education and practical
applications to a specific programme are also outlined below. The training and
development of English language teachers can in many respects be seen as a seed
bed for future change in practice. Whether such change is characterised as evolu-
tion or revolution is open to debate, but the overall direction of travel is surely
becoming clearer.
Bayyurt, Y., & Akcan, S. (Eds.). (2015). Current perspectives on pedagogy for english as a lingua franca. De Gruyter, Inc..
Created from hud on 2022-08-13 16:00:47.
90 Andrew Blair
As a starting point, Tim McNamara’s introductory plenary talk at the ELF5

conference in 2012 highlighted some of the pedagogical implications of the field’s
growing understanding of the nature of lingua franca communication:
Not only is the competence of the native speaker no longer a relevant benchmark for per-
formance, (…) but the very nature of ELF communication requires us to conceptualize less
narrowly the capacities of the speaker likely to make ELF communication more or less suc-
cessful… At last we have a chance to embrace a richer model of communication underlying
teaching and assessment, a chance we must not miss.
(McNamara 2012)
It is indeed an opportunity to re-evaluate both the “purpose and process” of

English Language Teaching (Widdowson 2003), in the light of the sociolinguistic
realities that ELF research has begun to expose. This fundamental rethink of what
communicative competence means, when viewed from a lingua franca perspec-
tive, takes us back to Hymes (1972) and the notion of “ability for use”. However, it
also forces us to consider the more recent impact of ELF-related studies and theo-
rising on pedagogical models and goals (for example, Dewey 2012), and conse-
quent effects upon language teacher development, syllabus design, assessment,
materials and all the other practicalities of diverse learning contexts.
2 Multicompetence, ELF and teacher education

An ELF perspective on pedagogy necessitates a better understanding by teach-
ers and learners of inherent language variability and diversity (Jenkins et al.
2011), noted by Aitchison (2001) and others above. This logically suggests a
greater focus on process than product, involving central roles for accommoda-
tion strategies, intercultural and pragmatic competence, flexibility and tolerance
of variation. These conceptions should therefore be reflected within ELT teacher
education programmes, moving beyond the ‘native’/‘non-native’ distinction, tra-
ditional notions of speech community, proficiency and method, towards a model

based on principles of multilingualism and “meta-cultural competence” (Shari-
fian 2009). The well-documented spread and globalisation of English over the
past few decades (for example, in Lamb 2004; above) has in reality been a growth
in bi- and multilingualism involving English; that is, a growth in lingua franca
and mixed-code communication. Language competence can also be reframed in
social terms, as being located somewhere between speakers in communicative
interaction (as opposed to solely inside one person’s mind), and this is especially
true of lingua franca communication. All this arguably creates the need to rede-
Chapter 5 Evolving a post-native, multilingual model for ELF-aware teacher education 91
fine the ‘good communicator’, the ‘good language learner’, and therefore, the
‘ideal language teacher’. The 21st century speaker/user of English, regardless of
their first language, can no longer be seen in simplistic, one-dimensional terms
based on ‘nativeness’ or idealised notions of linguistic competence: the ever-
moving pedagogical target can be imagined as ‘beyond-native’ competence, with
no ‘final state’ to the acquisition process.
Therefore, what is required is a reformulation of “effective pedagogy” (James
and Pollard 2011) for our field; one which embraces multicompetence (V. Cook
2002) and an understanding of ‘ELF-aware teaching’ relevant for what can be
seen as a ‘post-native’ era. If preparing their students to be ELF users in a wide
range of fluid communicative contexts, how should teachers themselves be pre-
pared? In addressing these issues, this chapter presents proposals for change,
drawing on a recent study of teachers of English, originating from various parts
of Europe, who have taught or received some of their professional training in the
UK. These individuals have ‘crossed borders’, in several senses, and represent
many aspects of the redefined paradigm for ELT implied above, though they also
express paradoxes and uncertainties in their own positions regarding linguistic
and pedagogical goals. They are successful L2 users, role models for their learn-
ers, and form part of the next generation of practitioners and teacher educators.
The long-term future of ‘effective ELF pedagogy’ rests with them, and it is the
responsibility of current teacher educators and researchers to inspire them and
this (r)evolution in attitudes and practice.
Multicompetence (V. Cook 2002), or the knowledge of more than one lan-
guage in the same mind, can and should be seen as the goal of second language
learning. Indeed, as Cogo and Jenkins point out, ELF users are “more effective
precisely because they speak other languages and are multicompetent” (2010:
273; original emphasis). Pennycook (2008) argues that globalised English (or
ELF) has no native speakers, only multicompetent users. Recent ELF publications
(for example, Seidlhofer 2011; Murray 2012) have highlighted pragmatic com-
petence and the productive role of code-switching and mixing in lingua franca
communication and language learning, implying a corresponding role for the
first language in the classroom (challenging the ‘monolingual principle’ of much

Inner Circle ELT practice; see also G. Cook 2010). As a field, as a profession, we
need to ask ourselves what we are doing: teaching language or teaching learn-
ers (one successful airline used to claim: “we don’t fly planes; we fly people”)?
Are we teaching English, or teaching multilingualism with English? Can we really
talk about ‘teaching ELF’, or ‘ELF-aware teaching’? ‘Effective communication’,
through lingua franca use or otherwise, is surely by definition context-depen-
dent – therefore so is ‘effective pedagogy’.
92 Andrew Blair
Dewey (2012) argues in favour of moving beyond ‘native’ norms towards ‘post-
normative’ thinking on language teaching and use. He also illustrates where the
problem for ‘ELF-aware’ pedagogy and teacher education may lie:
A good deal of what we have learnt about ELF interaction is at variance with current prin-
ciples and practice as established by the ELT profession. It is therefore paramount that we
consider what ELF means with regard to teacher knowledge about language and language
teaching methods.
(Dewey 2012: 143)
It seems there is a conceptual and attitudinal gap between what some ELF
researchers perceive as contemporary sociolinguistic realities, and the practice
of English language teaching and teacher development. Dewey refers to teach-
ers’ “fundamental ambivalence about ELF” (2012: 167). Certainly the teacher par-
ticipants in the study briefly reported below reflected this kind of position, as do
many of my own postgraduate student-teachers. Such gaps are difficult to bridge,
but it is arguably part of the purpose of the next phase of ELF-related research to
attempt to do so, in ways that make sense to language teachers and teacher edu-
cators, as well as to the learners themselves. Others have discussed the complex
elements comprising teacher preparation and development: in terms of language
proficiency and professionalism (Pasternak and Bailey 2004); teacher knowledge
(Richards 2011); locality (Holliday 1994; with his BANA/TESEP distinction); and
from a transformative ELF perspective (Sifakis 2007). Previous ELF conference
papers have also investigated these issues in relation to teacher confidence, com-
petence and identity, and the implications of the majority of English language
teachers being successful L2 users themselves (Blair 2011). Terminology counts
here, too: rather than ‘non-native’, we have “Multilingual English Teachers”
(METS; Kirkpatrick 2007), or “Speakers of Other Languages Teaching English”
(SOLTEs; Blair 2010). As noted above, some of these individuals, including those
involved in this small-scale study, can be viewed as role models for their students
(“the teacher is the target”; Kirkpatrick 2010), and as future teacher educators,
who therefore represent a key constituency for attitudinal and practical change.
They also share the ambivalence towards ELF, and non-standard pedagogical
models, that Dewey (2012) observes, usually as a consequence of their invest-
ment in standards and ‘native’ norms, through their own language learning and
teacher training experience.
3 Teachers’ views
On university-based ELT teacher education programmes in the UK, the typical
student cohort is mixed between those who regard themselves as L1 or L2 users of
English, and in terms of varied professional background. This study, as part of a
larger project investigating language teacher identity, was framed on naturalistic
research principles, positioning “people, and their interpretations, perceptions,
meanings and understandings, as the primary data sources” (Mason 2002: 56).
Selecting a relevant range of a population is appropriate, rather than aiming for
a representative sample; using ‘purposive sampling’ to identify suitable partici-
pants (Bryman 2004: 333–334). The study also took elements from the narrative
approach, in using semi-structured qualitative interviews, spoken and written
interaction with participants as means of creating data (for example, Ricento
2005; Johnson and Golombek 2011). In pursuing this methodological approach,
two distinct phases of data were planned. The first comprised face-to-face inter-
views with 12 teachers, using a semi-structured, responsive format (Rubin and
Rubin 2005) with the aim of eliciting and exploring their views in terms of their
own lived experience. The second phase involved the follow-up and development
of specific themes through an online discussion forum and emails with most of
the same group. Following initial analysis, an additional stage was added, target-
ing two particular teachers currently working and studying in the UK, through a
joint interview. The project aimed to address the following related research ques-
tions:
1 What does it mean for Speakers of Other Languages Teaching English
(SOLTEs) to say: ‘I am an English teacher’?
2 How do these multilingual, multicultural teachers develop their identities
and what influences their professional practice and beliefs?
3 What are the implications of the globalisation and lingua franca use of
English for the field of English Language Teaching and teacher education?
This chapter focuses primarily on the third of these questions. The small sample
presented here are all reasonably experienced teachers (ranging from 4 to 22 years
of teaching), Europeans from the Expanding Circle, having received some part of
their teacher education in the UK, on Postgraduate or short in-service courses,
in addition to initial training in their home countries. All are L2 users of English,
or ‘METS’/‘SOLTES’, and this is crucial in terms of their identities and their roles
within debates on ELF and broader ELT questions. Stake (1995) refers to a process
of ‘progressive illumination’ achieved through what might otherwise be viewed
as the opportunistic sampling of research participants. The aim therefore was to
select teachers likely to have something ‘illuminating’ to say on the issues, and
94 Andrew Blair
this led to a blend of those relatively settled in their professional context in the UK
and others there temporarily on courses. These selected snapshots of their views
and beliefs are often simply interesting in themselves, but also for what they have
to say about teacher education, pedagogical goals and models, and the impact of
different perspectives on language, such as ELF, upon ELT practice.
The roots of teachers’ current attitudes may be discernible from considering
the foundations of their professional development. On typical initial training as a
language teacher (in Poland), one complained:
I didn’t have any teaching training there; it was just history, Old English, literature, transla-
tion. So there was methodology, which was one hour per week, and it was really nothing…
On varieties of English, and the ever-moving target presented by a living, chang-

ing language, there is some awareness of the unrealistic nature of ‘native’-driven
learning goals. An example from a Spanish participant:
You feel that there are so many varieties, and they’re quite different from each other, so the
language English doesn’t sound the same all the time, even from native speakers, so how
would we expect non-native learners to have only one variety?
On teaching aims for learners (in Sweden), another teacher expressed the hope
for multicompetence:
I want my students to be users of the English language. I want them to feel secure with
switching, you know… so that they are not afraid of speaking and asking for some things.
Developing this theme, there are further examples of growing consciousness

among such teachers of what we like to call ELF, but what for others amounts to
a richer understanding of what it means to be a multicompetent communicator in
the 21st century. This from a German participant:
I think that first of all we have to make the learners feel comfortable and confident with
their own variety, and being aware of [ELF, local variation etc.], and try more to show them
the intelligibility of the language, and not the variety and the accent, that kind of thing…
Further evidence of some kind of transformation in personal attitudes and beliefs,

at least among those predisposed towards being receptive to different ideas, can
be seen in the following comment on standard pedagogical models:
I can see it with my students, and definitely in Poland. Something like English as an Inter-
national Language doesn’t really exist, it’s either British English or American English, and
anything around it is… worse [laughs]. But if it’s British English, it’s obviously RP, and it
can’t be anything else. So, I think that’s the stereotype that the teachers have to break, and
I would be very keen on doing so… I’d love to implement a lot more accents and I just don’t
know how to do it, and there are so few resources out there.
The development (and acceptance) of appropriate ‘ELF-aware’ teaching materials

is surely another aspect of an evolving pedagogical model requiring our atten-
tion. One (Greek) teacher suggested that an awareness of ELF perspectives may be
starting to have some professional impact, albeit within limitations:
None of my work colleagues see [ELF] as an issue to talk about. I don’t think they’re familiar
with what’s around, and I probably wouldn’t be if I wasn’t studying [an MA]. But I think
that the sort of division between how people act and how they behave and what’s started
appearing in the books, I think that’s quite a big difference here…
Once again, the importance of continuing professional development (for example,

on an MA programme, as here) in influencing attitudes is apparent from this type
of comment. Another teacher (from Poland) revealed something of her personal
ambitions and investment in such postgraduate study, with implications for
teacher educators and their responsibilities:
And I’ve got this feeling that because I’m not a native speaker, I’ve got to prove more… not
to myself I think, more, and if I achieve it, I’ll be very, very pleased. It’s very important for
me… I think it’s a huge personal thing, even more than the money or the career, and this is
what I’ve wanted to do for the last four years, so… it’s really like a dream come true, that I
can actually be here and study, it’s a huge thing for me.
As noted above, the central focus of this study was language teacher identity
among multilingual ELT practitioners, in which the impact of the globalisation of
English, and by extension ELF-related research and ideas, were relevant factors.
These ‘METs’ or ‘SOLTEs’ are central to any potential change process in the field,
having ‘crossed borders’, in several senses: from their home country to the UK;
from language learner to teacher; in some cases from teacher to trainer or other
professional roles. Less tangibly, but no less significantly, they may have crossed
that hotly contested line between ‘native’ and ‘non-native’, and become part of
the blurring process with regard to that long-accepted distinction. Some rather
interesting examples emerged from the data:
I feel a lot more confident now, yes… I think it’s the experience, and now I’m trying to think,
I will be applying for British citizenship, so I would like to have dual, if possible… and I
will be married to an English person, so… does that mean that I become a ‘native speaker’
of English? [laughs] So it’s all so very subjective. So yeah, if my surname doesn’t sound too
Polish anymore, so does that make me a native speaker?
96 Andrew Blair
Perhaps this is one way to become a member of what Pavlenko (2003) described
as the “reimagined, multicompetent community” of ‘non-native’ teachers; cer-
tainly signs here of an emerging ‘post-native’ era.
A theme that emerged strongly from the findings was the inadequacy of
much of the participants’ initial and in-service training (as illustrated by the first
example quoted above), not only concerning the kind of sociolinguistic aware-
ness implicit in a proper understanding of ELF. This sense of deficiency appeared
to be brought into sharper relief, at least for several of these teachers, by the
various processes of development, awareness-raising and professional matu-
rity that each had experienced more recently. (One commented: “because I’ve
reached the level that my students are aiming for, I think I’m actually a better role
model”.) Key elements of that development seemed to include their realisation of
the complexity of ‘language’ itself; the difficulties inherent in defining ‘effective
pedagogy’ in the specific case of English in the contemporary world and in differ-
ent contexts; and the inappropriate previous (and current) emphasis on simplis-
tic ‘native’ models – both for themselves and their students. Another theme was
the potential and actual tensions, paradoxes and uncertainties that these teach-
ers have sensed, regarding specific pedagogical models and goals, for instance
concerning phonology, or attitudes towards error correction and feedback in the
classroom. For instance, one participant claimed that “I’ve got this feeling that
because I’m not a native speaker, I’ve got to prove more”. These tensions can be
seen in terms of identity, confidence and competence (Blair 2011), but can also be
considered as a product of their own professional development or present reac-
tion to past training influences, particularly for the two teachers now settled in
the UK. There is some evidence of recent impact from ELF perspectives and the
wider debates on the roles of English and pedagogical implications of a reconcep-
tualization of ‘language’:
If somebody said I shouldn’t be teaching English because I’m not English, or British, that
would be one of my arguments… that there are more non-native speakers who speak English
as a foreign language for communicative reasons.
The consensus among these teachers is that there are limited opportunities to
implement change in their local practice (as one teacher noted above “there are
so few resources out there”), but also perhaps cause for a degree of optimism that
the scent of change is at least in the air.
4 Practical applications for ELT teacher education

Small-scale qualitative studies of the kind partially reported above inevitably
have their limitations, and are open to interpretation – but that is essentially
what an interpretivist approach to research entails (for example, see Lincoln
and Guba 1985). The key is credibility (as opposed to more positivistic reliability)
and transferability (rather than notional generalisability). The implications of
this investigation for my own ELT teacher education practice are clear, however:
there is a pressing need to move beyond description and discussion of lingua
franca English use, towards what I refer to as a ‘post-native’, multilingual model,
where ‘beyond-native’ competence is the learning goal, and ‘effective pedagogy’
is focused in this direction.
This shift in focus embraces a more overtly sociolinguistic approach to
Second Language Acquisition (SLA) study on teacher education programmes, for
example, to take account of these new realities, as noted by Dewey (2012) above.
A greater emphasis on pragmatics and intercultural competence would also be
useful in this respect. Learning a new language, or returning to a previously-stud-
ied one, should be an important part of training to be a teacher of English; this
particularly applies to (near-) monolingual ‘natives’ – it is a ‘multilingual princi-
ple’ we need. As Ellis (2009: 196) proposes, “teachers can benefit from reflecting
on their own experience of learning a new language”, as part of an SLA course.
Making what can be seen as a crucial point, in terms of this argument, regarding
multilingualism and language teacher education, one (German) participant in the
study stated that “teacher trainees in the UK do teaching practice, but they don’t
do learning practice”. Arguably it is this kind of ‘learning practice’ that can lead
to a greater general awareness of what language is, of what learning actually feels
like (it is easy to forget), and of how ‘ELF-aware’ pedagogy might be more appro-
priate than slavish adherence to an idealised ‘native’ goal. Kohn (2011) concurs,
arguing that teachers who understand better how languages are acquired tend
to understand better the pedagogical implications of ELF communication. The
issue of ‘nativeness’ becomes less relevant than other factors of confidence, com-
petence and identity among language learners and teachers: a point forcefully
made by some of the participants in this study. On the role of the contemporary
English language teacher, one of them put it very succinctly: “Global teachers, we
could say we are”. These are precisely the people whom ELF research and ideas
must engage.
In terms of further applications for designing teacher education programmes,
we can include specific ELF/World Englishes-type content or courses, and/or
embed ELF perspectives further within the general subject areas – to ensure that
‘ELF-aware’ teacher education is not presented merely as an optional add-on, but
98 Andrew Blair
as central to the “purpose and process” of ELT (Widdowson 2003). On the MA pro-
gramme I direct, based in the UK, student-teachers come from a very wide range
of backgrounds and are being prepared for diverse ELT contexts. Therefore, no
single pedagogic model applies – we probably have entered some form of “post-
method era” (Kumaravadivelu 1994, 2006), although the reality of this remains
problematic for many teachers. What I am arguing for here, a ‘post-native’ model
of language pedagogy that recognises and applies an understanding of lingua
franca use and contemporary sociolinguistic realities for English alongside other
languages, is perhaps even harder to convey, and more problematic to imple-
ment. There is a clear need for teachers to develop their awareness of underlying
principles of language and learning, as ever, but arguably these principles them-
selves are under review, in the process of reconceptualisation – an ever-moving
target. This awareness includes not only a recognition of ELF thinking, but also
a mutual respect for both L1 and L2 users of English as valid, credible, compe-
tent teachers with complementary perspectives (as ‘METs’, Kirkpatrick 2007; or
‘SOLTEs’, Blair 2010).
Using the above MA in ELT as a point of reference, examples of how such
a teacher education programme can integrate these ‘post-native’ sociolinguistic
and ELF positions include:
– More prominence given to sociolinguistic and sociocultural perspectives on
the Second Language Acquisition module, including lingua franca use as a
viable goal for learners.
– More focus on pragmatics as an element of the Language Analysis module, in
addition to more traditional models of linguistic description.
– Language learning: a mandatory short course linked to the SLA module with
an assessed reflective learning diary (the contention is that this helps shift
attitudes towards language, use and pedagogy in a meaningful and practical
way; see Ellis 2009).
– ELF/Global Englishes element to the Principles and Practice in ELT module,
making clear links to pedagogical goals for the teaching of language skills,
grammar, lexis and phonology; exploring what ELF means for teacher knowl-
edge and competence (see Dewey 2012).

– Continued emphasis placed throughout on critical evaluation of theory and
literature to develop the necessary analytical skills and awareness.
– Explicit recognition of the diversity of educational contexts and approaches
for the student-teacher group, alongside developing an awareness of how
ELF can feature appropriately for legitimate L2 users.
– Regular challenging of key constructs and assumptions (for example, lan-
guage as a system or social practice, teacher knowledge, ‘nativeness’, ‘speech
community’, the ‘final state’ in language acquisition; ‘effective pedagogy’).
– ‘ELF-aware’ dissertation projects to be encouraged and critically supported

where appropriate.
– Students’ future roles and influence on ELT practice and policy should be
more strongly emphasised throughout the programme – the ‘seed bed of
future change in practice’, discussed above.
5 Conclusions, questions and issues

Change:
takes time
substantial Any kind of change, whether social, political, linguistic or professional, takes
enduring
time. Long-held attitudes and beliefs are at stake, and while some might prefer
the impact of a revolutionary approach, perhaps evolution can be more substan-
tial and more enduring. The position presented in this chapter is also based on a
set of emergent beliefs. For example, the belief that the ideal teachers of English
are well-trained, multilingual, ELF-aware, pragmatically and interculturally com-
petent – regardless of their first language. That new or renewed contact through
learning another language raises awareness of many of the issues discussed
above, and is central to the proposed ‘post-native’, multilingual model for teacher
education. There is a need to bring Inner Circle ELT and teacher development
more firmly into the mainstream of language education (in the UK and elsewhere;
as noted by Dewey 2012), rather than inhabiting its own ‘EFL industry’ territory,
where different rules seem to apply. There are potential and practical challenges
to teachers if their knowledge base is seen to be shifting (for example with regard
to traditional linguistic expertise), to be replaced by alternative criteria as yet not
so clearly defined. These challenges have to be addressed, not dismissed: ELF
users and their teachers can be both barriers to and agents of change, and we
need to earn their support.
The implications of the small-scale study discussed above, and many other
recent contributions to ELF-related research, suggest that ELT needs to move
away from debates on ‘nativeness’, ‘ownership’ and idealised pedagogical
norms, towards notions of ‘beyond-native’ language competence, a ‘multilin-

gual principle’ for teaching and learning, and more appropriate teacher edu-
cation programmes. Echoing the belief stated at the beginning of this chapter,
pedagogical targets for all living languages also change continuously, as do
people’s local communicative needs and identity claims, in a globalised world
where multicompetent teachers can act as role models for their students. It is
important, if we believe that change is necessary – in attitudes, practice, policy
or other aspects of our field – that we first attend to those areas where we have
real influence, however limited that may be. In my case, this is postgraduate
100 Andrew Blair
ELT teacher education; for others, it might be language testing and assessment,
materials or syllabus design, research and analysis. There are many borders to
cross. One of the principles of “effective pedagogy” is that it “depends on the
learning of all those who support the learning of others” (James and Pollard,
2011: 273). The lesson from my own learning, from investigating teacher identity
and beliefs, and from a continually-developing awareness of the complexities of
language use and appropriate pedagogy, is that it is our responsibility to make
our contribution to this evolution in attitudes and practice in the most effective
and inspiring way we can.
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Andrew Blair

As a starting point, Tim McNamara’s introductory plenary talk at the ELF5

It is indeed an opportunity to re-evaluate both the “purpose and process” of

2 Multicompetence, ELF and teacher education

ditional notions of speech community, proficiency and method, towards a model

first language in the classroom (challenging the ‘monolingual principle’ of much

On varieties of English, and the ever-moving target presented by a living, chang-

Developing this theme, there are further examples of growing consciousness

Further evidence of some kind of transformation in personal attitudes and beliefs,

The development (and acceptance) of appropriate ‘ELF-aware’ teaching materials

Once again, the importance of continuing professional development (for example,

4 Practical applications for ELT teacher education

edge and competence (see Dewey 2012).

– ‘ELF-aware’ dissertation projects to be encouraged and critically supported

5 Conclusions, questions and issues

norms, towards notions of ‘beyond-native’ language competence, a ‘multilin-

in Sociolinguistics. New York: Holt & Reinhardt.

perspective. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 17(3). 355–375.

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