A systematic approach for selecting suitable wave energy converters for

potential wave energy farm sites

D.V. Bertram, A.H. Tarighaleslami, M.R.W. Walmsley, M.J. Atkins, G.D.E.

Glasgow, A systematic approach for selecting suitable wave energy converters fo

potential wave energy farm sites, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,

Volume 132, 2020, 110011, ISSN 1364-0321,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.110011.

(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032120303026)

Abstract

The ocean covers approximately 70% of the earth's surface and contains

an immense source of renewable energy, in terms of ocean waves. However,

this resource is unevenly distributed throughout the world, and so, therefore,

converting waves into a useful form of energy will require the identification of

potential Wave Energy Farm (WEF) locations. This should be undertaken in

tandem with selecting an appropriate Wave Energy Converter (WEC), as the

characteristics of these devices are critical in capturing the available wave power.

Therefore, this paper describes a three-stage systematic approach that was

developed and implemented in order to select the most suitable WEC(s) for

marine areas identified as optimal for WEFs. As this sector is evolving rapidly,

the first stage identified all WECs currently in development and proposed

classifying these devices in a practical and meaningful manner. The second

stage developed a procedure for identifying generic WEF locations by integrating

the multiple dimensions of sustainable development and the technical limitations

of the sector, within a geographic information systems framework. Lastly, the

third stage incorporates the results from the previous two stages. The devices

considered for further analysis were reduced based on commercial viability,

whilst the available power was quantified and characterised at each of the

optimal WEF sites. Thereafter, appropriate techno-economic performance

indicators were identified to rank and determine the optimal device for a specific

location.

Keywords: Wave energy; Site selection; Wave energy converter (WEC); WEC

classification; Site matching; Site assessment

 A tube-shaped solid–liquid-interfaced triboelectric–electromagnetic

hybrid nanogenerator for efficient ocean wave energy harvesting

Xin Sun, Chenjing Shang, Haoxiang Ma, Changzheng Li, Liang Xue,

Qingyue Xu, Zihong Wei, Wanli Li, Yaxiaer Yalikun, Ying-Chih Lai, Yang Yang,A

tube-shaped solid–liquid-interfaced triboelectric–electromagnetic hybrid

nanogenerator for efficient ocean wave energy harvesting, Nano Energy, Volume

100, 2022, 107540, ISSN 2211-2855,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2022.107540.

(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211285522006176)

Abstract

Ocean waves, the most widely distributed energy source within the

marine environment, promise renewable energy for next-generation self-sufficient

ocean exploration and monitoring instrumentation. Triboelectric nanogenerator

(TENG) technology has shown the potential in harvesting ocean wave energy.

However, most TENG designs suffer from challenges such as relatively low

contact intimacy and energy power density, limiting their practical application.

This paper proposes a solid–liquid-interfaced, tube-shaped triboelectric–

electromagnetic hybrid nanogenerator (TTEHG) to efficiently capture wave

energy. Owing to the solid–liquid interface in conjunction with the coupled TENG

and the electromagnetic generator (EMG) design, the TTEHG features a reduced

frictional loss and broadened range of harvestable wave energy. At a frequency

of 1 Hz, the instantaneous power density and current density of the TTEHG are
0.25 mW·cm–3 and 5 mA·cm–3, respectively. Even at an ultra-low operational

frequency of 0.2 Hz, the TTEHG exhibits an excellent output performance with a

peak current of nearly 15 mA, and is able to power various functional electronic

devices, such as temperature and humidity sensors, to monitor the marine

environment. The TTEHG was deployed in Sanya Bay, China, to demonstrate its

practical application in harsh ocean environments.

Keywords: Blue energy; Triboelectric nanogenerators; Electromagnetic

generator; Wave energy harvesting

 Analysis of ocean waves in 3 sites potential areas for renewable energy

development in Indonesia

Inovasita Alifdini, Nabila Alia Pangestu Iskandar, Adhitya Wisnu Nugraha, Denny

Nugroho Sugianto, Anindya Wirasatriya, Adrian Bela Widodo, Analysis of ocean

waves in 3 sites potential areas for renewable energy development in Indonesia,

Ocean Engineering, Volume 165, 2018, Pages 34-42, ISSN 0029-8018,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2018.07.013.

(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0029801818312368)

Abstract

During the recent years, Indonesian government rapidly increase the

electrification program which is mainly using coal energy. However, some areas

are still need any supports of electricity. As an archipelagic state, Indonesia is

surrounded by seas which is potential for developing the wave energy. Three

areas were selected for examining the wave energy potential i.e., Meulaboh (in

Sumatera), South Kuta (in Bali) and Manokwari (in Papua), which is the

representative of the region in west, middle and east of Indonesia, respectively.

Ocean wave characteristics were analyzed for each monsoon from 2012 to 2017,

based on ocean wave forecasting using Sverdrup, Munk and Bretschneider

method. The electrical power calculations were done by using Floating

Oscillating Water Column formulas. Based on our analysis, the average of

highest significant wave heights and periods in 3 sites happen in the West

Monsoon and the lowest average of significant wave heights and periods mostly
happen in the East Monsoon. Thus, among the three locations that were

examined, South Kuta Bali is the best location to develop wave energy.

Keywords: Wave energy; Marine renewable energy; Oscillating water column;

Indonesia
Feasibility study of CETO wave energy converter in Iranian coastal areas to

meet electrical demands (a case study)

Mohammad Hossein Jahangir, Saheb Ghanbari Motlagh, Feasibility study of

CETO wave energy converter in Iranian coastal areas to meet electrical

demands (a case study), Energy for Sustainable Development, Volume 70, 2022,

Pages 272-289, ISSN 0973-0826, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2022.07.017.

(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0973082622001247)

Abstract

Using wave energy to supply the electrical demand of the coastal

population is an exciting idea. In recent years, many wave energy converters

(WEC) have been invented, researched, and used in different parts of the world.

These WECs can be used alone or in a hybrid system with other renewable

resources. Also, they can be used stand-alone or grid-connected to generate

electricity. Iran has access to the sea from the north and south. Using wave

energy to provide power can be a good solution for energy production. This study

investigates the application of a point absorber WEC named CETO to supply

electricity for a 300 population on the Coasts of the Caspian Sea, Persian Gulf,

and Oman sea. Waves scatter diagram for three locations calculated based on

the data collected by the Iranian National Center of Ocean Data. According to

these diagrams, the average wave height and period on the Konarak coast in the

Oman Sea were 69 cm and 5.4 s, respectively, and Konarak had the best wave

condition between the desired location in terms of wave energy potential. Also,
the Cost of Energy (COE) and Net Present Cost (NPC) for three areas

calculated, and the lowest amount of COE and NPC occurred in Konarak. The

COE range at Konarak was between 0.523 and 0.991 $/kWh for different WEC

numbers. The best performance in terms of power generation and emissions

reduction also occurred in Konarak; and the output power of each CETO unit was

23.01 kW, and emissions and related penalties reduced by about 24 %. Also, the

effect of load change and grid extension cost on financial results sensitively

analyzed, and the results presented. The obtained financial results compared

with the results of some similar WECs and it was found that the obtained results

differed very little from the results of other research, and were within their range.

Keywords: Wave energy; Wave energy converter; Point absorber; CETO

converter; Iranian nearshore

 Is wave energy untapped potential?,

Alicia Terrero González, Peter Dunning, Ian Howard, Kristoffer McKee, Marian

Wiercigroch, Is wave energy untapped potential?, International Journal

Mechanical Sciences, Volume 205, 2021, 106544, ISSN 0020-7403,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2021.106544.

(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0020740321002794)

Abstract

The increase of energy demand in the past 50 years and the targets to

reach net-zero carbon dioxide emissions have led to an increase of electricity

production from renewable energy sources. This paper first gives a snapshot of

the word's energy mix and then reviews the most widely used renewable energy

sources in the market; comparing their reliability, efficiency and cost-

effectiveness, and highlighting their major advantages and weaknesses. The

review concludes that marine energy, and specifically wave energy, can be the

emerging energy source capable of addressing many of the problems that

current renewable energy concepts and devices present, although major

challenges remain. The paper is focused on the current global position of wave

energy technologies in the market and under development in the past two

decades, by looking at their status, reliability, energy generated, capacity

installed and geographical locations. The current marine energy status of the

main players, including France and South Korea, is compared with the rest of

Europe and the wave energy status in Europe has been reviewed with an special

interest in UK, as one of the major players, and Australia as a new emerging

area of development. The main Wave Energy Converters (WECs) together with

the world's wave energy density map are also discussed. This has led to a
conclusion, that even though there is high energy potential, the wave

technologies developed to date cannot offer a much needed breakthrough. A

new concept of WEC based on a system of synchronized rotational pendula,

having potential to work across-scales is introduced, which can motivate future

work.

Keywords: Renewables; Energy mix; Energy conversion; Wave energy

Converters; Marine energy; Vibration; Review

 Life cycle assessment of a point-absorber wave energy array

Shona Pennock, María M. Vanegas-Cantarero, Tianna Bloise-Thomaz, Henry

Jeffrey, Matthew J. Dickson, Life cycle assessment of a point-absorber wave

energy array ,Renewable Energy, Volume 190, 2022, Pages 1078-1088, ISSN

0960-1481, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2022.04.010.

(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960148122004712)

Abstract

Wave energy has a large global resource and thus a great potential to

contribute to low-carbon energy systems. This study quantifies the environmental

impacts of a 10 MW array of 28 point-absorber wave energy converters, by

means of a process-based life cycle assessment (LCA). Midpoint and Cumulative

Energy Demand LCA results are presented over 19 impact categories,

representing impacts encompassing human health, ecosystems and resource

availability. Three scenarios are undertaken to represent the use phase of the

array, identified as a particularly uncertain input, with very little long-term

operation of wave energy arrays available to validate assumptions. The resultant

global warming potential of the array ranges from 25.1 to 46.0 gCO2e/kWh over

a 95% confidence interval, 23–43 times lower than conventional fossil fuel

electricity generation. The Energy Payback Time of the array ranges between 2.6

and 5.2 years. LCA results are found to be particularly sensitive to annual energy

production across all impact categories, and to assumptions associated with the

frequency of marine operations over a number of categories quantifying the

production of greenhouse gases. This LCA has been undertaken at an early

stage in the WEC product development and will inform innovative research

focused on further reducing the environmental impacts of electricity generation.

Keywords: Life cycle assessment; Wave energy; Environmental impact; Carbon

footprint; Operations and maintenance

 The opportunity of using wave energy converters in a Mediterranean hot

spot

Carlo Lo Re, Giorgio Manno, Mirko Basile, Giuseppe Ciraolo, Renewable

Energy, Volume 196, 2022, Pages 1095-1114, ISSN 0960-1481,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2022.07.010.

(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960148122010060)

Abstract

The opportunity of using wave energy converter arrays in a hot spot area

of the Mediterranean sea was investigated. For this purpose, numerical

simulations of wave energy converters together with a simple cost-effective

analysis were carried out. The selected study area is one of the most energetic

inside the Sicilian channel (Italy). The numerical simulations were performed

using the SNL-SWAN (“Sandia National Laboratories – Simulating WAves

Nearshore”) spectral model with an unstructured mesh. The power absorbed

from thirteen Wave Energy Converter (WEC) devices was computed. In

particular, Pelamis, Wave Dragon, Oyster 2, Wavestar, B-HBA, B-OF, Bref-HB,

Bref-SHB, F–2HB, F–3OF, F-HBA and F-OWC were investigated. Hydrodynamic

stationary simulations of a WEC array parallel to the coastline were carried out in

order to choose the best devices for a non-stationary simulation. The devices

selected for this simulation are Pelamis, Wave Dragon, Oyster 2, F–2HB, and

Bref-HB. The non-stationary simulation was forced with thirty-nine years wave

parameters reanalysis from ERA5 by ECMWF (European Centre for Medium-

range Weather Forecasts). This simulation has allowed to obtain the capacity
factor (CF) and the dissipative effects in the period from 1979 to 2018. Moreover,

a preliminary cost-to-benefit analysis was carried out for the best performance

WEC array only. Costs, revenues, LCoE (Levelized Cost of Energy), and

payback period were therefore computed by means of economic assumptions.

The high energy concentration near the coast produces hydrodynamic effects

which have as a consequence potential erosion phenomena. A shoreline change

analysis of three beaches of the studied coast was carried out. Such an analysis

was focused on shoreline retreatment during the last thirty years. On the basis of

the presented results, there is a slight economic advantage in installing a Wave

Dragon scaled array with the added value of potentially giving beneficial effects

on coastal erosion. Nevertheless, from a strictly economic point of view, other

renewable resources could give better results (e.g. wind energy). The adopted

methodology gives encouraging results that confirm the opportunity to deploy

WEC devices in the Sicilian Channel together with devices exploiting other

renewable resources.

Keywords: Renewable wave energy; WEC devices; shoreline change analysis;

Spectral wave model; WEC economic feasibility

 Wave energy assessment for the nearshore region of the northern South

China Sea based on in situ observations

Wuyang Chen, Junliang Liu, Junmin Li, Lu Sun, Bo Li, Huanlin Xing, Ping Shi,

Wave energy assessment for the nearshore region of the northern South China

Sea based on in situ observations, Energy Reports,Volume 8, Supplement 6,

2022, Pages 149-158, ISSN 2352-4847,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.03.068.

(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S235248472200628X)

Abstract

The northern coastal region of the South China Sea (SCS) is the key area

for wave energy research and application. Planning for wave energy resources

and equipment development depends on the accurate assessment of energy

distribution and variation characteristics. Based on in situ observation data for 19

months, this paper systematically assesses the wave energy resources of three

typical coastal sites in the northern SCS. The results show that wave energy

resources have significant temporal and spatial variabilities. The eastern part of

the SCS’s northern shore has the most energy, followed by the western part and

the center part. The mean energy densities during the observation period are 2.1,

0.75, and 0.33 kW/m, respectively. The energy density is relatively high in

summer, followed by winter and autumn, and relatively low in spring. For

example, the mean energy densities on the northeast coast of the SCS in the

four seasons are 3.1, 1.8, 1.7, and 1.2 kW/m, respectively. Based on statistics for
three in situ sites, the considerable energy is mostly contributed by the sea state

with a wave height between 0.5 m and 1.5 m and a period between 5 s and 9 s.

This study emphasizes the importance of in situ observations for wave energy

measurement in nearshore locations, and the results may provide support for the

planning and utilization of wave energy in the northern SCS.

Keywords: Wave energy; In situ observation; Energy assessment; Nearshore

area; The South China Sea

Wave energy potential and variability for the south west coasts of the Black

Sea: The WEB-based wave energy atlas

Bilal Bingölbali, Halid Jafali, Adem Akpınar, Serkan Bekiroğlu, Renewable

Energy,Volume 154,2020,Pages 136-150,ISSN 0960-1481,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.03.014.

(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960148120303281)

Abstract

This study aims at the assessment of wave energy potential and its

spatial and temporal variability along the south-west coasts in the hot-spot areas

of Black Sea. For this purpose, third-generation numerical wave hindcast model

Simulating WAve Nearshore (SWAN), which is based on a set of nested SWAN

model with increasing spatial resolutions (a coarse grid, then a fine grid, and then

three sub-grids), forced with the Climate Forecast System Reanalysis (CFSR)

winds is used to produce long term wave characteristics during the 31 years in

the areas of interest. For the south-west coasts of the Black Sea the best nested

SWAN model configuration, developed in our previous studies [1,2], with tuned

coefficients for all of the deep and shallow water source terms in modelling of the

wind-generated waves is run to obtain spatial and temporal outputs of several

wind wave parameters for the assessment of wave energy potential and its

variability. By using this data set, temporal and spatial variability of wave energy

potential along the south western Black Sea is analysed in detail, considering

annual, seasonal, and monthly spatial variation maps of wave power for each of
the sub-grids. In addition, annual, seasonal, and monthly wave power potential

variability, the exceedance probability curves, the value of wave energy resource

potential, and wave power roses are established for several locations. The value

of energy density, spatial variation of the stability of energy density (the

coefficient of variation, monthly variability index, seasonal variability index, and

persistency analysis), spatial variation of total storage and exploitable storage of

wave energy resource are also analysed. Finally, it was determined that in the

regions (Karaburun SD3 sub-grid domain) where the average wave energy flux is

high, the wave energy flux has a high coefficient of variation, and thus the

regions (Filyos SD2 sub-grid domain) having lower wave energy flux have a

stable wave energy flux which is ideal for energy exploitation from waves. Annual

average wave energy in the southwestern part of the Black Sea is concentrated

at 0.2–1.5 m significant wave height range, and also the concentration is

between 2 and 5 s in Karaburun SD3, 3–7 s in Filyos SD2 and 2.5–6.5 s in Sinop

SD1 sub-grid domains in terms of the wave energy period.

Keywords: Wave energy; Potential; Variability; Hotspots; Southwestern black sea

 Wave Energy: Resources and Technologies

Bryson Robertson, 8.02 - Wave Energy: Resources and Technologies, Editor(s): Trevor M.

Letcher, Comprehensive Renewable Energy (Second Edition), Elsevier, 2022 Pages 10-24,

ISBN 9780128197349, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819727-1.00087-X.

(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978012819727100087X)

Abstract

Our communal global ocean energy resources are substantial and, perhaps even, one of

the last untapped significant renewable resources which has the ability to assist in global

decarbonization efforts. As we globally move towards a renewable energy future, ocean energy

(e.g. waves, tides, currents and offshore winds) need to be considered in the suite of energy

supply options to create a resilient, affordable and reliable future energy system. Estimates

suggest global wave resources could theoretically generate 32,000 terawatt-hours (TWh)

annually. As such, the opportunity associated with the responsible development of the wave

energy sector can not be overstated. For context, the total United States of America electrical

demand was approximately 3.8TWh in 2019. This chapter provides an overview of the latest

efforts of characterize and parameterize our global wave energy resources, a review of the

fundamental operating principles of wave energy converter (WEC) technologies, and best

practices to predict the ultimate performance and power production from the wave energy

sector.

Keywords: Power-take-off; Wave energy; Wave energy test site; Pacific Marine Energy Center;

Wave energy resource assessment; Wave energy converter; Ocean renewable energy