3 Kinematics Define distance, displacement, speed (including average speed), velocity, and acceleration. Use graphs to represent distance, displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration. Calculate velocity from the gradient of a displacement-time graph Calculate displacement from the area under a velocity-time graph Calculate acceleration from the gradient of a velocity-time graph. Derive and use the equations of motion for constant acceleration in a straight line. Describe an experimental method for measuring g, the acceleration of free fall. ooooo0o0a0 Solve problems about projectiles and objects falling in a uniform gravitational field without air resistance. Describing motion Kinematics is the study of motion and the relationship between quantities such as displacement, velocity, and acceleration. Here is a reminder of the key ideas. Displacement s is the distance moved in a particular direction, Velocity v is the rate of change of displacement with time: As v @ Remember at : Average speed is the total distance travelled divided by the time taken: A means ‘the change __ total distance Vectors have magnitude “time taken. and direction; for example, displacement, velocity and Acceleration a is the rate of change of velocity with time: Eset a Scalars only have ‘magnitude; for example, distance and speed. at Displacement, velocity, and acceleration are all examples of vectors. Distance and speed are both scalars. Using graphs Displacement-time graphs ‘The gradient of the displacement-time graph (see Figure 3.1) is the sty (25 locity | <— eee (i) SE When calculating a velocity by finding the gradient, draw a tangent, and complete a large triangle as shown Displacement = in Figure 8.1. As can be read directly from the Time f axis of the araph. A Figure 3.1 Velocity is the gradient of a displacement-time graph‘Changes in the gradient of a displacement-time graph give information about acceleration as well as velocity (see Figure 3.2). Decreasing gradient - the velocity is decreasing, so te acceleration negative. Constant gradient - the velocity is constant, so the acceleration is zero, Increasing gradient - the velocity sinereasing. so the acceleration pastve, Displacement Time ‘A Figure 3.2 Acceleration in displacement-time graphs Worked example yo ‘The graph shown in Figure 3.3 is the displacement- time graph for an athlete running a 100m race. coal a) Describe how the velocity of the athlete changes: 8 ) during the first 28 ii) between 5s and 7s between 9s and Ils, Displacement/m & & b) Use the graph to estimate the velocity of the athlete after 8.0s. Answer a) i) The gradient of the line is increasing so the velocity of the athlete is increasing, The athlete is accelerating. ‘The gradient is constant, so the athlete is moving with constant velocity. lil) The gradient is decreasing so the athlete is decelerating. b) Draw a large tangent on the graph at f= 8.0s and complete the right-angled triangle (see dotted line in Figure 3.4), s_ 116 vee ar 2-0 -9.3ms* Displacement/m A Figure 3.4 Time/sVelocity-time graphs Velocity-time graphs are very useful. The gradient of a velocity-time graph is the acceleration, and the area under a velocity-time graph between any two points is, the displacement (see Figure 3.5) Worked example a) Determine the car's acceleration at ¢ = 4s. tis A Figure 3.6 'b) Estimate the distance travelled in the first 6s. Answer a) The acceleration at t= 4s is the gradient at ¢= 4s (see Figure 3.7). Av a b) The distance travelled is the area under the graph (see Figure 3.8) from 1=0sto t=6s. distance travelled = % x 4” 6x 35 = 105m é S15 ry 5 ° 02 4 6 ts A Figure 3.8 Figure 3.6 shows the velocity-time graph for a car starting from rest. Kinematics f The ante goon (32) ne secraton Tre ate nce the graph is the isplacement A Figure 3.5 Acceleration and displacement can be calculated from a velocity-time graph Don't forget to include the units in your answe vist For more on estimating areas see Appendix: ‘Maths skills. 10 12 14Equations of motion If an object is travelling with constant acceleration, the equations of motion ‘may be used to analyse its motion. A velocity-time graph for an object moving with constant acceleration a, starting with velocity u, and reaching a velocity v in ¢ seconds, shows how these equations arise. From Figure 3.9: acceleration = gradient Gradient so veutat (equation 1) Velocity The displacement, s, of an object can be found by working out the area under the graph (see Figure 3.10) displacement = area under the graph ut+w(v-u)e from equation 1, v—u = at so: s=ut+ lane s=ut+%at (equation 2) ‘A Figure 3.9 The acceleration is given by the gradient of the velocity-time graph z vw) i ww Time ‘A Figure 3.10 The displacement is the area under the graph The third equation can be derived from equations 1 and 2: First, ‘square’ equation 1: ‘These equations only apply 2 ‘when the acceleration or v's (u+at)’=u' + 2uat+a’t eee cera + 2a(ut + Yar) inoluding zero acceleration + 2as (equation 3) Sconsientvoraht You need to be able to recall these equations and you may be asked to derive them. The three equations of motion: v=u +at s=ut+ at v =u? +205Using the equations of motion Worked example ‘An aeroplane touches down at the end of a runway travelling at a speed ‘of 72ms" (see Figure 3.11). It decelerates uniformly at a rate of 3ms~ rem A Figure 3.11 Calculate: a) the speed of the aeroplane 8s after touchdown b) the distance travelled along the runway before coming to rest. Answer a) Using v=u +a v= 724 (-3)x8=48ms" ‘The acceleration is negative because b) Using v’ = u’ + 2as with v = 0 when the aeroplane comes to rest: the aeroplane is O72 42x63) xs decelerating, 864m Motion under gravity ‘At low speeds air resistance has a negligible effect on falling objects and can be ignored. The equations of motion can be used to solve problems where a=, the acceleration of free fall. The value of g is provided in Exam Papers 1, 2, and 4. Worked exampl 4 Astone is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 30.0ms" and falls back down to the ground (Figure 3.12) Calculate: a) the velocity of the stone after 4.08 b) the maximum height reached by the stone Answer a) Using v= u+at: v= 30.0+ (9.81) x 4,0=-9.24ms™ ‘The velocity is 9.24ms" downwards, bb) Using v? =u? + 2as with v = 0 when the stone reaches its highest point: o 0.0° + 2 x (-9.81) xs 5.9m, 20m A Figure 3.12 OG Take care deciding on the sign of g. An ‘object thrown into the air, for example, is always accelerating downwards, whether the object happens to bbe moving upwards or downwards.2 Ahot-air balloon (see Figure 3.13) is ascending at a constant speed of 3.0ms". A sandbag is dropped from the balloon and hits the ground after 5.08. a) Calculate the height of the balloon when the sandbag was released. b) Draw the graph of velocity against time for the sandbag, from the ‘moment the sandbag is released until it hits the ground. Ignore air resistance. Answer a) Using s = ut + Yar" from the moment the sandbag is released until it hits the ground: 3.0 x 5.0 + 4 x (-9.81] x 5.0" 108m b) See Figure 3.14. A Figure 3.14 fom A Figure 3.13 Projectiles ‘The movement of any object travelling through the air (see Figure 3.15) can be described in terms of its horizontal and vertical components. If air resistance can be ignored, the components are: ‘* constant acceleration g vertically downwards * constant velocity horizontally (as no forces act horizontally). ‘The equations of motion can be applied separately in the horizontal and vertical directions to solve problems. If the initial velocity is V, making an angle @ to the horizontal (see Figure 3.16), then: * the horizontal velocity is Veos @ Constant velocity inthe horizontal direction Constant downward acceleration gin the vetical direction ‘A Figure 3.15 Projectile motion + the initial vertical velocity is Vsin 6 vsina| o. Veo A Figure 3.16 Horizontal and vertical components of velocity Appendix: Maths skills.Figure 3.17 summarises some facts about the projectile's motion. © Atits maximum height ‘the vertical component of velocity is zero © the horizontal component of the velocity stays constant at Vcos 8. ‘© When the projectile has travelled its full range R, the vertical displacement is zero (the net distance travelled vertically is 0) Vertical component of velocity =Oms"* Applying the equations of motion to projectiles, it can be shown that: Vesin? a ome! veose fy Vertical displacement =0m 29 and ® A Figure 8.17 Projectile motion Worked example A cannon fires a cannonball with an initial velocity of 12ms" at an angle of 50° to the horizontal. A Figure 3.18 Show that: 1a) the initial horizontal component of the cannonball’s velocity is 7.7ms b) the maximum height H reached is 4.3m. Answer a) Initial horizontal velocity = 12.c0s50° =7.7ms* b) Using v’ =u’ + 2as applied vertically from the starting point A to the highest point The vertical component of the velocity at the ighest point is zero. Of = (12sin 50)? +2 x (9.81) x H yp - 28in 50) 2x98 =43m8 Raise your grade The graph shows how the velocity of a drag-racing car changes with time. The graph can be divided into three separate stages, as shown below. iisinst i (a) Describe the motion of the car during the three separate stages. The car first, then travels at constant speed. After 4 seconds it starts to ( attero.5s Acceleration = acceleration =70 ms* [2] (i after 4.55. xx acceleration = we % 50-40 acceleration = 45 ms* [2] (0) Estimate the total eae travelled by the car. Total distance = area under graph = 45 x 4+ hy x08 a= eeeo Exam-style questions 41 A cyclist travels from one town to the next at an average speed of 40kmh"". She completes the return journey at an average speed of 20kmh” What was her average speed for the whole journey? A2skmh' — B 27kmh* Cokie" D 33kmh™ a 2 The graph shows the distance travelled by a car in the first 20s of a journey. rnenates (©) A tennis player hits a tennis ball horizontally with a speed of 60ms*. The ball is initially at a height of 1.40m above the ground and 11.90m from the net. Air resistance is negligible. 190m 350 300 (Calculate the time it takes for the ball to reach the net, NA+60% Q2e 250 e THS.5_ (0) Show that the ball passes over jhe ne = 200 if the net is 1.07m high tt gy 2 O20 LO (2 OE eaxreinan on? 5 iso (@) Caiciatethetdistance the baf is tom the net 6 | i lands the oer sidg gf he court (2 100 PEE ae e 5957 BOLOSF 32 52, {e) The distance the ball moves is ditren tor 0 wales tan OY tad 1 ° 5 RRNRSSLMSEHAS Pastetall inc the o 70 2 30 hoop of the basket. Timers ‘What is the best estimate of the speed of the car after 10s? A 8ms' B12ms* C 16ms" (B)20ms' 1) 3 Astone is thrown vertically upwards with a speed ‘of 20ms" near the edge of a cliff and falls down to hit the beach below the cliff 6.0s later. What is the height H of the cliff? 564m B 864m C 176m D296m [I] 4 (a) Explain the difference between a scalar quantity and a vector quantity. a) oy Sane eens es onlyiclertamagnytess below: speed displacement acceleration velocity {1] (@) Calculate: @ the initial horizontal component of the velocity of the basketball queer ( Hilime% kts for the ball to reach the basketball iad foie 1.56 Hol the basket above the i i: aun, | gest stacey sing? 16 Lag Hh (b) peieritit velocity of the ball as it reaches the basket 8) Vz (OKs) +6980) & 1.56 Ve G8 Sms! 9